EARTH SCIENCE TEST
For some questions, there may be more than one correct answer. However, each question has only one
best answer. Choose the single best answer from the five choices for each question.
1. Scientists say that some low mountains today were once more than four times higher. What kind of
evidence do scientists use to support such a statement?
a. Analysis of ancient written records or drawings of the mountains.
b. The amount of volcanic activity in and around the mountains.
c. The number and strength of earthquakes in and around the mountains.
d. Examination of the rock structures and kinds of rocks forming the mountains.
e. Geologic data that predict that very tall mountains have always existed on Earth.
2. Volcanic activity most dramatically affects Earth’s climate in the short term by:
a. erupting hot lava into cold ocean water.
b. spewing dust, ash and gases into the atmosphere.
c. warming the ground with sub-surface magma.
d. constant leaking of gas from volcanic events.
e. None of the above affects Earth’s climate.
3. If the temperature of Earth’s interior was the same as at the surface, then the movement of the
continents would:
a. stop.
b. slow down.
c. stay the same.
d. speed up.
e. There is no way to predict how motion of the continents would be affected.
4. Scientists say that Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Since its formation, the total mass of
Earth has most probably:
a. decreased by about 50% due to atmospheric gases escaping to outer space.
b. decreased by about 50% due to organisms converting matter into energy.
c. changed very little.
d. increased by about 50% due to asteroids and comets hitting it.
e. increased by about 50% due to volcanic eruptions and mountain building.
5. Based on examination of fossils, scientists think that some form of life has existed on Earth for about:
a. 250 billion years.
b. 3.5 billion years.
c. 48 million years.
d. 620,000 years.
e. 9,000 years.
6. If you measured the temperature at the center of Earth today and measured it again in a billion years,
the temperature would be:
a. close to absolute zero.
b. somewhat lower than today.
c. the same temperature as today.
d. somewhat higher than today.
e. as hot as the center of the Sun.
1
©2007 The President and Fellows of Harvard College. Project MOSART, NSF 0412382. Test Form 831.
7. If there were no humans on Earth, which of the following would most likely happen?
a. It would be less windy.
b. There would be stronger ocean currents.
c. There would be more storms.
d. There would be less volcanic activity.
e. Conditions would be much the same as now.
8. One type of fish fossil is found only in a rock layer near the bottom of a canyon formed in undisturbed
rock. A different kind of fish fossil is found only in a rock layer 4,000 feet higher, near the top of the
canyon. Which statement would a scientist most likely offer to explain this situation?
a. The fish in the lower layer lived in deeper water than the other fish.
b. The fish in the upper layer lived more recently than the other fish.
c. The rock in the lower layer is denser than the rock in the upper layer.
d. The rock in the upper layer must have formed in fresh water.
e. None of the above; there is not enough information provided.
9. Scientists say that there is abundant free oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere because:
a. Earth has an atmosphere.
b. Earth has oceans.
c. Earth has life.
d. Earth has ice caps.
e. No one knows why Earth has oxygen.
10. A piece of rock contains some carbon atoms. Which of the following would a scientist agree might have
contained these exact same carbon atoms 100 million years ago?
a. A dinosaur.
b. Carbon dioxide gas in the air.
c. A tree.
d. Any of the above is possible.
e. None of the above; the carbon atoms can only have been part of the rock.
11. Scientists say that if you went from Earth’s surface to its core, the temperature would:
a. drop due to a lack of heating by the Sun.
b. drop because Earth’s core is made of cold rock.
c. change very little.
d. rise due to solar heating.
e. rise due to radioactive decay.
12. A ‘stable’ element will be least likely to:
a. be attracted by a magnet.
b. undergo radioactive decay.
c. conduct electricity.
d. dissolve in water.
e. none of the above.
2
©2007 The President and Fellows of Harvard College. Project MOSART, NSF 0412382. Test Form 831.
13. A scientist examines a series of undeformed rock layers (see figure below).
The most straightforward choice for the oldest fossil is:
a. F1
b. F2
c. F3
d. they are all the same age.
e. An estimate cannot be made from the diagram.
14. Which of the following is the most similar to mantle convection?
a. Smoke rising above a fire on a calm day.
b. Ocean water being stirred up by surface winds.
c. Lava collecting into pools at the base of a volcano.
d. Mud sinking to the bottom of a lake.
e. Sand moving as dunes across the desert.
15. Which of the following is most important to global climate?
a. The ozone hole.
b. Automobile exhaust.
c. Earth’s internal heat.
d. Solar energy.
e. Plate tectonics.
GO TO QUESTION 16 >>
3
©2007 The President and Fellows of Harvard College. Project MOSART, NSF 0412382. Test Form 831.
16. Oxygen atoms are found in the air. Where else could you find oxygen atoms?
a. As part of a piece of wood.
b. As part of a rock.
c. In molten lava.
d. Any of the above is possible.
e. None of the above; oxygen atoms can only be in the air.
17. Heat radiated by the Sun warms Earth’s surface, which primarily heats:
a. the atmosphere.
b. the core.
c. the mantle.
d. the ozone layer.
e. all of the above equally.
18. Convection of Earth’s mantle will cause Earth’s:
a. spin to reverse.
b. interior to cool down.
c. surface to be covered with lava.
d. oceans to boil away.
e. axis to change its tilt.
19. Which of the following statements would a scientist say was true?
a. Some mountains have formed due to many volcanic eruptions over a long time.
b. Earth’s climate went through changes before there were humans.
c. Processes like landslides and avalanches are related.
d. More than one of the above.
e. None of the above.
20. Water is contained in glaciers as ice. In order for liquid water to be formed from the glaciers:
a. energy is required.
b. a chemical reaction has to take place.
c. there must be constant daylight.
d. humans must intervene.
e. carbon must be present.
4
©2007 The President and Fellows of Harvard College. Project MOSART, NSF 0412382. Test Form 831.
EARTH SCIENCE TEST
For some questions, there may be more than one correct answer. However, each question has only one
best answer. Choose the single best answer from the five choices for each question.
1. Scientists say that if you went from Earth’s surface to its core, the temperature would:
a. drop due to a lack of heating by the Sun.
b. drop because Earth’s core is made of cold rock.
c. change very little.
d. rise due to solar heating.
e. rise due to radioactive decay.
2. Oxygen atoms are found in the air. Where else could you find oxygen atoms?
a. As part of a piece of wood.
b. As part of a rock.
c. In molten lava.
d. Any of the above is possible.
e. None of the above; oxygen atoms can only be in the air.
3. Scientists say that there is abundant free oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere because:
a. Earth has an atmosphere.
b. Earth has oceans.
c. Earth has life.
d. Earth has ice caps.
e. No one knows why Earth has oxygen.
4. Which of the following is most important to global climate?
a. The ozone hole.
b. Automobile exhaust.
c. Earth’s internal heat.
d. Solar energy.
e. Plate tectonics.
5. One type of fish fossil is found only in a rock layer near the bottom of a canyon formed in undisturbed
rock. A different kind of fish fossil is found only in a rock layer 4,000 feet higher, near the top of the
canyon. Which statement would a scientist most likely offer to explain this situation?
a. The fish in the lower layer lived in deeper water than the other fish.
b. The fish in the upper layer lived more recently than the other fish.
c. The rock in the lower layer is denser than the rock in the upper layer.
d. The rock in the upper layer must have formed in fresh water.
e. None of the above; there is not enough information provided.
6. A ‘stable’ element will be least likely to:
a. be attracted by a magnet.
b. undergo radioactive decay.
c. conduct electricity.
d. dissolve in water.
e. none of the above.
1
©2007 The President and Fellows of Harvard College. Project MOSART, NSF 0412382. Test Form 832.
7. Water is contained in glaciers as ice. In order for liquid water to be formed from the glaciers:
a. energy is required.
b. a chemical reaction has to take place.
c. there must be constant daylight.
d. humans must intervene.
e. carbon must be present.
8. Convection of Earth’s mantle will cause Earth’s:
a. spin to reverse.
b. interior to cool down.
c. surface to be covered with lava.
d. oceans to boil away.
e. axis to change its tilt.
9. Which of the following statements would a scientist say was true?
a. Some mountains have formed due to many volcanic eruptions over a long time.
b. Earth’s climate went through changes before there were humans.
c. Processes like landslides and avalanches are related.
d. More than one of the above.
e. None of the above.
10. If the temperature of Earth’s interior was the same as at the surface, then the movement of the
continents would:
a. stop.
b. slow down.
c. stay the same.
d. speed up.
e. There is no way to predict how motion of the continents would be affected.
11. If you measured the temperature at the center of Earth today and measured it again in a billion years,
the temperature would be:
a. close to absolute zero.
b. somewhat lower than today.
c. the same temperature as today.
d. somewhat higher than today.
e. as hot as the center of the Sun.
12. Scientists say that Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Since its formation, the total mass of
Earth has most probably:
a. decreased by about 50% due to atmospheric gases escaping to outer space.
b. decreased by about 50% due to organisms converting matter into energy.
c. changed very little.
d. increased by about 50% due to asteroids and comets hitting it.
e. increased by about 50% due to volcanic eruptions and mountain building.
2
©2007 The President and Fellows of Harvard College. Project MOSART, NSF 0412382. Test Form 832.
13. A scientist examines a series of undeformed rock layers (see figure below).
The most straightforward choice for the oldest fossil is:
a. F1
b. F2
c. F3
d. they are all the same age.
e. An estimate cannot be made from the diagram.
14. If there were no humans on Earth, which of the following would most likely happen?
a. It would be less windy.
b. There would be stronger ocean currents.
c. There would be more storms.
d. There would be less volcanic activity.
e. Conditions would be much the same as now.
15. Scientists say that some low mountains today were once more than four times higher. What kind of
evidence do scientists use to support such a statement?
a. Analysis of ancient written records or drawings of the mountains.
b. The amount of volcanic activity in and around the mountains.
c. The number and strength of earthquakes in and around the mountains.
d. Examination of the rock structures and kinds of rocks forming the mountains.
e. Geologic data that predict that very tall mountains have always existed on Earth.
GO TO QUESTION 16 >>
3
©2007 The President and Fellows of Harvard College. Project MOSART, NSF 0412382. Test Form 832.
16. Volcanic activity most dramatically affects Earth’s climate in the short term by:
a. erupting hot lava into cold ocean water.
b. spewing dust, ash and gases into the atmosphere.
c. warming the ground with sub-surface magma.
d. constant leaking of gas from volcanic events.
e. None of the above affects Earth’s climate.
17. Based on examination of fossils, scientists think that some form of life has existed on Earth for about:
a. 250 billion years.
b. 3.5 billion years.
c. 48 million years.
d. 620,000 years.
e. 9,000 years.
18. Which of the following is the most similar to mantle convection?
a. Smoke rising above a fire on a calm day.
b. Ocean water being stirred up by surface winds.
c. Lava collecting into pools at the base of a volcano.
d. Mud sinking to the bottom of a lake.
e. Sand moving as dunes across the desert.
19. Heat radiated by the Sun warms Earth’s surface, which primarily heats:
a. the atmosphere.
b. the core.
c. the mantle.
d. the ozone layer.
e. all of the above equally.
20. A piece of rock contains some carbon atoms. Which of the following would a scientist agree might have
contained these exact same carbon atoms 100 million years ago?
a. A dinosaur.
b. Carbon dioxide gas in the air.
c. A tree.
d. Any of the above is possible.
e. None of the above; the carbon atoms can only have been part of the rock.
4
©2007 The President and Fellows of Harvard College. Project MOSART, NSF 0412382. Test Form 832.
Grades 9–12 Earth Science Tests
The tests in this section contain items related to 9 of the grades 9––12 standards in
earth science from the NRC's National Science Education Standards (NSES); below
are the standards as stated in the NSES.
NOTE: These tests do not contain any items probing the astronomy component
of the grades 9––12 earth science standards; see tests 631/632 under
Astronomy/Space Science.
9–12 Earth Science Standard 1:
"Earth systems have internal and external sources of energy, both of which create
heat. The sun is the major external source of energy. Two primary sources of
internal energy are the decay of radioactive isotopes and the gravitational energy
from the earth's original formation."
9–12 Earth Science Standard 2:
"The outward transfer of earth's internal heat drives convection circulation in the
mantle that propels the plates comprising earth's surface across the face of the
globe."
9–12 Earth Science Standard 3:
"Heating of earth's surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within
the atmosphere and oceans, producing winds and ocean currents."
9–12 Earth Science Standard 4:
"Global climate is determined by energy transfer from the sun at and near the
earth's surface. This energy transfer is influenced by dynamic processes such as
cloud cover and the earth's rotation, and static conditions such as the position of
mountain ranges and oceans."
9–12 Earth Science Standard 5:
"The earth is a system containing essentially a fixed amount of each stable
chemical atom or element. Each element can exist in several different chemical
reservoirs. Each element on earth moves among reservoirs in the solid earth,
oceans, atmosphere, and organisms as part of geochemical cycles."
9–12 Earth Science Standard 6:
"Movement of matter between reservoirs is driven by the earth's internal and
external sources of energy. These movements are often accompanied by a change
in the physical and chemical properties of the matter. Carbon, for example,
occurs in carbonate rocks such as limestone, in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide
gas, in water as dissolved carbon dioxide, and in all organisms as complex
molecules that control the chemistry of life."
1
9–12 Earth Science Standard 7:
"Geologic time can be estimated by observing rock sequences and using fossils to
correlate the sequences at various locations. Current methods include using the
known decay rates of radioactive isotopes present in rocks to measure the time
since the rock was formed."
9–12 Earth Science Standard 8:
"Interactions among the solid earth, the oceans, the atmosphere, and organisms
have resulted in the ongoing evolution of the earth system. We can observe some
changes such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions on a human time scale, but
many processes such as mountain building and plate movements take place over
hundreds of millions of years."
9–12 Earth Science Standard 9:
"Evidence for one-celled forms of life--the bacteria--extends back more than 3.5
billion years. The evolution of life caused dramatic changes in the composition of
the earth's atmosphere, which did not originally contain oxygen."
The items are identical on both test forms, but arranged in different sequences so
that the forms can be used as a pretest/post-test pair (either form may be used as
the pretest). Either form can be used by itself as a diagnostic test.
The 9––12 tests are intended for use primarily with high school earth science
students. The tests can also be administered to any persons who possess at least a
9th grade reading level fluency in English.
NOTE: Administering the tests to anyone with less than the indicated minimum
reading level may result in invalid test results due to the test performing more as
a reading comprehension test rather than as a science test.
2
Item #
Form
831
1
2
Item #
Form
832
15
16
Text of item
Std. 1
Scientists say that some low
mountains today were once
more than four times higher.
What kind of evidence do
scientists use to support such a
statement?
a. Analysis of ancient written
records or drawings of the
mountains.
b. The amount of volcanic
activity in and around the
mountains.
c. The number and strength of
earthquakes in and around
the mountains.
d. Examination of the rock
structures and kinds of
rocks forming the
mountains.
e. Geologic data that predict
that very tall mountains
have always existed on
Earth.
Volcanic activity most
dramatically affects Earth’s
climate in the short term by:
a. erupting hot lava into cold
ocean water.
b. spewing dust, ash and
gases into the atmosphere.
c. warming the ground with
sub-surface magma.
d. constant leaking of gas from
volcanic events.
e. None of the above affects
Earth’s climate.
8
4
Correct
response
& percent2
responding
correctly
D: 54%
(n=342)
B: 57%
(n=881)
Commentary3
While the majority of
students responded
correctly, most
students who were
incorrect preferred
equally choices B
(17%) and C (16%).
Many students do think
of all mountains as
either being volcanoes
or involving volcanic
activity, with which
earthquakes are also
associated.
Although the majority
of students did answer
correctly, the response
pattern for the
incorrect choices
suggests randomness
as the percent of
students choosing any
one of these ranged
between 8% (D) to
13% (E). Students
who answered this
question correctly
tended to make higher
overall scores on our
1
These test items are valid psychometrically and represent standards commonly included in high school
earth science curricula.
2
Students were selected randomly in classes to be a nationally representative sample of all high school
earth science students in U.S. public and private schools. The sample number (n) is included for each item
because the number of students per item varied considerably.
3
The commentary reflects item response patterns. Common misconceptions in earth science are discussed
in a separate section.
3
Item #
Form
831
3
4
5
Item #
Form
832
10
12
17
Text of item
Std. 1
If the temperature of Earth’s
interior was the same as at the
surface, then the movement of
the continents would:
a. stop.
b. slow down.
c. stay the same.
d. speed up.
e. There is no way to predict
how motion of the
continents would be
affected.
Scientists say that Earth was
formed about 4.6 billion years
ago. Since its formation, the
total mass of Earth has most
probably:
a. decreased by about 50%
due to atmospheric gases
escaping to outer space.
b. decreased by about 50%
due to organisms
converting matter into
energy.
c. changed very little.
d. increased by about 50%
due to asteroids and
comets hitting it.
e. increased by about 50%
due to volcanic eruptions
and mountain building.
Based on examination of
fossils, scientists think that
some form of life has existed
on Earth for about:
a. 250 billion years.
b. 3.5 billion years.
c. 48 million years.
d. 620,000 years.
e. 9,000 years.
4
Correct
response
& percent2
responding
correctly
2
A: 17%
(n=156)
5
C: 41%
(n=155)
9
B: 51%
(n=295)
Commentary3
national field trial tests.
This was a difficult
item. The most
frequent response to
this question was E
(40%). D was next
most commonly
chosen, selected by
slightly more students
(20%) than the correct
answer. The choice of
E suggests that some
students do not
understand the
ultimate driver for plate
tectonics.
Although the correct
answer was the one
most often chosen,
23% of students chose
E. Interestingly, the
total proportion of
students who indicated
that Earth's mass had
increased (D, 8%; E,
23%) was reasonably
equivalent to those
who responded that
Earth's mass had
decreased (A, 10%; B,
18%). Overall, a
majority of students
indicated that Earth's
mass has changed
significantly over time,
which suggests that
many students do not
think of Earth as an
essentially closed
system.
One half of students
answered correctly.
The most frequently
chosen incorrect
choices were A (23%)
and C (19%). Only 5%
of students chose D
and just 2% chose E.
Note that the question
is framed as what
Item #
Form
831
6
7
8
Item #
Form
832
11
14
5
Text of item
Std. 1
If you measured the
temperature at the center of
Earth today and measured it
again in a billion years, the
temperature would be:
a. close to absolute zero.
b. somewhat lower than today.
c. the same temperature as
today.
d. somewhat higher than
today.
e. as hot as the center of the
Sun.
If there were no humans on
Earth, which of the following
would most likely happen?
a. It would be less windy.
b. There would be stronger
ocean currents.
c. There would be more
storms.
d. There would be less
volcanic activity.
e. Conditions would be much
the same as now.
One type of fish fossil is found
only in a rock layer near the
bottom of a canyon formed in
undisturbed rock. A different
kind of fish fossil is found only
in a rock layer 4,000 feet
higher, near the top of the
canyon. Which statement
would a scientist most likely
offer to explain this situation?
a. The fish in the lower layer
lived in deeper water than
the other fish.
b. The fish in the upper layer
lived more recently than the
other fish.
c. The rock in the lower layer
is denser than the rock in
the upper layer.
d. The rock in the upper layer
must have formed in fresh
water.
5
1
3
7
Correct
response
& percent2
responding
correctly
B: 24%
(n=538)
E: 64%
(n=156)
B: 43%
(n=537)
Commentary3
scientists think, not the
student's personal
view.
The response pattern
for this question
suggests guessing
between the correct
choice and C (27%).
Students did largely
rule out the two
temperature extremes
(absolute zero and the
Sun’s interior).
Most students do
seem to understand
how humans might
affect the weather
(only 9% chose A and
7% chose C); ocean
currents (B, 9%); or
volcanic activity (D,
12%).
Almost one half of
students chose the
correct answer, while
20% chose A and 16%
chose E. C and D were
the least popular
choices. Those who
chose A may have
interpreted the
diagram in a visually
'literal' sense, a type of
misconception also
common in interpreting
graphs of motion.
Item #
Form
831
9
10
11
12
Item #
Form
832
3
20
1
6
Text of item
Std. 1
e. None of the above; there is
not enough information
provided.
Scientists say that there is
abundant free oxygen in
Earth’s atmosphere because:
a. Earth has an atmosphere.
b. Earth has oceans.
c. Earth has life.
d. Earth has ice caps.
e. No one knows why Earth
has oxygen.
A piece of rock contains some
carbon atoms. Which of the
following would a scientist
agree might have contained
these exact same carbon
atoms 100 million years ago?
a. A dinosaur.
b. Carbon dioxide gas in the
air.
c. A tree.
d. Any of the above is
possible.
e. None of the above; the
carbon atoms can only have
been part of the rock.
Scientists say that if you went
from Earth’s surface to its core,
the temperature would:
a. drop due to a lack of
heating by the Sun.
b. drop because Earth’s core
is made of cold rock.
c. change very little.
d. rise due to solar heating.
e. rise due to radioactive
decay.
A ‘stable’ element will be least
likely to:
a. be attracted by a magnet.
b. undergo radioactive decay.
6
Correct
response
& percent2
responding
correctly
9
C: 46%
(n=446)
6
D: 46%
(n=996)
1
E: 60%
(n=298)
5
B: 27%
(n=151)
Commentary3
Almost one half of
students chose the
correct answer, while
27% of students chose
A and 11% each chose
B or E. The choice of A
might mean that some
students think all
atmospheres contain
oxygen or it might
indicate tautological
reasoning, i.e., that
there is a gas in the
atmosphere because
there is an
atmosphere.
With nearly one half of
students choosing the
correct answer, the
choice of incorrect
responses was quite
equivalent, ranging
from 16% (E) to 12%
(A). The choice of E
indicates that some
students do not
recognize that matter
cycles through the
environment.
None of the incorrect
responses attracted
more than 7% of
students except for D,
which 25% chose.
The students with any
incorrect response on
this item tended to
score lower on our
national field test than
the students who
answered correctly.
Only about one fourth
of students answered
correctly. The
responses to this item
Item #
Form
831
Item #
Form
832
Text of item
Std. 1
Correct
response
& percent2
responding
correctly
c. conduct electricity.
d. dissolve in water.
e. none of the above.
13
14
15
13
A scientist examines a series of
undeformed rock layers (see
figure in item on test). The
most straightforward choice for
the oldest fossil is:
a. F1
b. F2
c. F3
d. they are all the same age.
e. An estimate cannot be
made from the diagram.
7
C: 68%
(n=151)
18
Which of the following is the
most similar to mantle
convection?
a. Smoke rising above a fire
on a calm day.
b. Ocean water being stirred
up by surface winds.
c. Lava collecting into pools at
the base of a volcano.
d. Mud sinking to the bottom
of a lake.
e. Sand moving as dunes
across the desert.
2
A: 24%
(n=535)
4
D: 28%
(n=537)
4
Which of the following is most
important to global climate?
a. The ozone hole.
b. Automobile exhaust.
c. Earth’s internal heat.
d. Solar energy.
e. Plate tectonics.
7
Commentary3
suggest a guessing
pattern with 36% of
students choosing E;
16%, C; 13%, D; and
9%, A. The response
to E, however,
suggests that students
might think that a
stable element is
simply something
'ordinary' given that the
other choices are
mostly properties that
only select groups of
elements possess.
Two thirds of students
answered this item
correctly. No incorrect
response attracted
more than 10% of
students. On average,
total scores of students
who were incorrect on
this item were lower on
our national field tests
than students who
answered correctly.
With just one fourth of
students answering
correctly, the
percentages of
students choosing any
option were fairly
equivalent, with 27%
choosing C; 21%, B;
17%, D; and 12%, E.
The relatively strong
preference for C might
be linked to students
associating magma
with Earth's interior.
Just over one fourth of
students answered
correctly. The most
frequent response was
A, chosen by 41% of
students. 16% chose
C, while fewer than
10% chose B or E. The
choice of A matches to
Item #
Form
831
16
17
18
Item #
Form
832
2
19
8
Text of item
Std. 1
Oxygen atoms are found in the
air. Where else could you find
oxygen atoms?
a. As part of a piece of wood.
b. As part of a rock.
c. In molten lava.
d. Any of the above is
possible.
e. None of the above; oxygen
atoms can only be in the air.
Heat radiated by the Sun
warms Earth’s surface, which
primarily heats:
a. the atmosphere.
b. the core.
c. the mantle.
d. the ozone layer.
e. all of the above equally.
Convection of Earth’s mantle
will cause Earth’s:
a. spin to reverse.
b. interior to cool down.
c. surface to be covered with
lava.
d. oceans to boil away.
e. axis to change its tilt.
8
Correct
response
& percent2
responding
correctly
6
D: 58%
(n=343)
3
A: 63%
(n=298)
2
B: 36%
(n=1334)
Commentary3
a common
misconception
concerning the nature
of the ozone hole.
More than one half of
students answered
correctly. About 16%
of students chose
either A or E, with 7%
opting for C and 4% for
B. Selection of A might
be related to students
associating plants with
oxygen, while E might
reflect a lack of
understanding of
cycling of materials
within the environment.
The most popular
incorrect response was
E, chosen by 16%.
Fewer than 10% of
students chose B, C or
D. Those students who
understand this
concept should have a
foundation for
understanding
atmospheric
phenomena.
Although the correct
response was chosen
by more students than
any other option, 23%
chose C; 19% chose
E; and 11% each
chose A and D. The
preference for C might
be linked to some
students visualizing
magma from the
interior flowing out
onto the surface, an
overly literal
interpretation of
convection, which is
often modeled by
water boiling in a pot.
Item #
Form
831
Item #
Form
832
19
9
20
7
Text of item
Std. 1
Which of the following
statements would a scientist
say was true?
a. Some mountains have
formed due to many
volcanic eruptions over a
long time.
b. Earth’s climate went
through changes before
there were humans.
c. Processes like landslides
and avalanches are related.
d. More than one of the above.
e. None of the above.
Water is contained in glaciers
as ice. In order for liquid water
to be formed from the glaciers:
a. energy is required.
b. a chemical reaction has to
take place.
c. there must be constant
daylight.
d. humans must intervene.
e. carbon must be present.
Correct
response
& percent2
responding
correctly
8
D: 67%
(n=341)
6
A: 61%
(n=297)
Commentary3
Two thirds of students
answered correctly,
while 14% of students
chose A, with fewer
than 10% of students
choosing any of the
other three incorrect
options. The selection
of A matches to a
common
misconception that all
mountains are
volcanoes or involve
volcanic processes.
A clear majority of
students answered
correctly, while 17% of
students chose B;
11%, C; 8%, E; and
3% chose D. The
selection of B matches
to a common
misconception that a
change of state is a
chemical change.
Major Misconceptions in Grades 9–12 Earth Science
Listed below are some student earth science misconceptions. The list is not
intended to be exhaustive, but rather a summary of some of the more common
prior ideas we identified from our analysis of the student response patterns to
the items on the tests.
•• Energy is not conserved.
•• A change of state is a chemical change.
•• A substance that undergoes combustion ceases to exist, having been
converted into heat and energy (students may classify heat as a unique
entity). (Note: Students with this belief do not recognize that when 100
pounds of gasoline are consumed, 100 pounds of gases are formed.)
•• Heat causes water to break up into hydrogen and oxygen, i.e., water is
destroyed when it evaporates.
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•• The atmosphere is mostly oxygen.
•• Oxygen in the atmosphere comes from comets or the breakdown of water
through evaporation, i.e., plants are not recognized as the source of free
oxygen in the air.
•• All mountains are either active, dormant or extinct volcanoes.
•• Fossils provide evidence of past conditions to which individuals made
adaptations and then passed on to their offspring.
•• The hole in the ozone layer is the main cause of global warming. (Note that
the ozone "hole" is often thought of by students as an actual hole or gap in the
atmosphere, not as a region of relatively low ozone concentration.)
The following resources are useful for additional background information about
students' science misconceptions:
Driver, R., Pupil as Scientist?, Philadelphia: Open University Press (1983).
Driver, R., et al., Making Sense of Secondary Science, Philadelphia: Open University
Press (1994).
Hapkiewicz, A. "Naive Ideas in Earth Science" in the Michigan Science Teachers
Association (MSTA) Journal, 44(2), pp. 26––30 (1999).
Philips, W.C. "Earth Science Misconceptions" in The Science Teacher, 58(2), pp.
21––23 (1991).
Wandersee, J.H., et al., ““Research on Alternative Conceptions in Science,”” in
Gabel, D., (ed.) Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and Learning, New
York: Macmillan, pp. 177––210 (1994).
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