RAPID ASSESSMENT OF
THE IMPACT OF
SYRIAN REFUGEE
INFLUX ON THE
ENVIRONMENT
IN JORDAN
COMMISSIONED BY:
United Nations Development Programme, Jordan Country Office and
United Nations Environment Programme, Regional Office for West Asia
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF
THE IMPACT OF
SYRIAN REFUGEE
INFLUX ON THE
ENVIRONMENT
IN JORDAN
COMMISSIONED BY:
United Nations Development Programme, Jordan Country Office and
United Nations Environment Programme, Regional Office for West Asia
ADAPTED FROM THE ORIGINAL REPORT PREPARED BY:
Odeh Al-Jayyousi, Independent Consultant
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
The Deposit Number at the National Library
2015/5/2051
‫يتحمل املؤلف كامل املسؤولية القانونية عن محتوى مصنفه وال يعب‬
‫هذا املصنف عن رأي دائرة املكتبة الوطنية أو أي جهة حكومية أخرى‬
Copyright © 2015
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be produced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior permission for United Nations Environment
Programme and United Nations Development Programme.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily
represent those of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) or United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), the report is the work of an independent team of
authors sponsored by UNEP & UNDP.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
INTRODUCTION
2
METHODOLOGY - DPSIR
11
3
FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL
13
9
COMPONENTS
4
PROPOSED RESPONSES AND LINKAGES WITH NRP
30
REFERENCES
34
ANNEXES
35
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
5
ABBREVIATIONS
BOD
CAMRE
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Council of Arab Ministers Responsible for the Environment
CSR
Corporate Social Responisbility
DOS
Department of Statistics
EE
Energy Efficiency
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment
ESCWA
Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
EU
European Union
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization
GCC
Gulf Cooperation Council
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GHG
Greenhouse Gases
ICARDA
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
JRP
Jordan Response Plan
KSA
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
MDG
Millennium Development Goals
MENA
Middle East and North Africa
MOE
Ministry of Environment
MW
Megawatt
MoWI
Ministry of Water and Irrigation
NCARE
National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension
NEEAP
National Energy Efficiency Action Plan
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
NRP
National Response Plan
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PA
Protected Area
R&D
Research and Development
RSS
Royal Scientific Society
SD
Sustainable Development
SME
Small and Medium Enterprises
UAE
United Arab Emirates
UN
United Nations
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNHCR
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
6
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This study presents a first-stage rapid assessment of the potential (and where figures are available, actual) impact on
the environment in Jordan of the influx of Syrian refugees fleeing the ongoing crisis in Syria since 2011. The study
addresses five priorities:
(i) water quantity and quality
(ii) soil degradation and rangelands
(iii)biodiversity and ecosystem services
(iv)air pollution
(v) hazardous waste and medical waste.
This study is intended to inform a future comprehensive environmental assessment and definition of offset
programmes to minimize the cost of ecosystem degradation brought about by impact of additional population
numbers on Jordan’s already challenged natural resource base.
The rapid assessment has been developed through the review and synthesis of existing literature, including national
state of the environment reports and national environmental strategies and action plans. It has followed the DriverPressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework methodology, which was developed to describe the relationships
and interactions between society and the environment. The DPSIR approach is based on causality in which human
activities cause a change in the environment, which in turn stimulates a management response, typically a policy.
The key findings of the study may be summarized as follows:
•
The adverse impacts of the crisis are felt across nearly all sectors of the Jordanian economy. With over
650,000 thousand refugees officially registered with UNHCR (representing more than 10% of the population),
and additional numbers believed to be present but not registered, Jordan requires a an in-depth environmental
assessment to define adequate programmes and projects for ecosystem restoration, environmental monitoring
and evaluation, and impact assessment.
•
The natural capital in Jordan is under substantial pressure due to influx of Syrian refugees. This impact is
reflected in lower water and air quality indicators and pressure on forests. Water over-abstraction and increased
wastewater generation has resulted in accelerated mining of renewable groundwater resources and pressures
on treatment plants.
•
The study has found that there are some data gaps in terms of air quality, and medical and hazardous waste.
Also, impacts on human health due to degrading water and air qualities need to be assessed, but there is in
adequate data to conduct such an assessment at the present time.
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
•
Land degradation takes a heavy toll on ecosystem stability and on farmers’ income (especially among the
poor). Unsustainable land use and management, recurrent droughts, and climate change are the main causes
of land degradation in the country. Productivity of rangeland, which is a key source of livelihood for most of
Jordan’s rural poor, has dropped by 50% over the last decade and half, due to overgrazing and more recently the
inflow of refugees.
•
The influx of refugees and related increasing competition on natural resources adds more pressure on
protected areas in the northern and eastern parts of the country. It has created more pressure on ecosystem
goods and services such as 1) grazing within and in surrounding of the protected areas, 2) wood cutting for
heating and charcoal production purposes, 3) excessive collection of medicinal plants, and 4) excessive farming
activities that eventually lead to extra pressure on agricultural land.
•
Safe disposal of solid, medical, and hazardous waste remains a concern since most municipalities discharge
solid waste in open dump sites with no lining, leachate management, or biogas collection. Management of
hazardous and medical waste are also inadequate or treated in outdated incinerators located in populated areas,
and the other half is mixed with municipal waste in open dump sites. This situation is exacerbated by an increase
in about 30% in medical waste, solid waste, and hazardous waste that was generated after the influx of Syrian
refugees according to MoEnv (2014).
•
In conclusion a number of proposed responses are put forward for further investigation and development of
response strategies under the Jordan Response Plan.
8
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to present a first-stage rapid
assessment of potential impact on the environment of
Jordan caused by the influx of Syrian refugees. The study
addresses five priorities:
(i) water quantity and quality
(ii) soil degradation and rangelands
(iii)biodiversity and ecosystem services
(iv)air pollution and energy
(v) hazardous waste and medical waste.
It is intended to inform a future comprehensive study on
environmental assessment to define offset programmes
and the cost of ecosystem degradation brought about by
the additional population numbers that rely on Jordan’s
already challenged natural resource base.
The conflict in Syria, and the related wave of refugees
fleeing into Jordan (among other neighboring countries),
has resulted in deep and substantial consequences on
the Jordanian economy, society, and environment. A
1
number of reports and studies have been undertaken
that address the socio-economic and humanitarian
needs of the affected areas, however, the environment
(natural capital) and the ecosystem services it provides
have not been adequately addressed to date.
The conflict has resulted in the displacement of
approximately 1.4 million Syrians to Jordan, (officially
registered and non-registered) with populations being
housed in both refugee camps established by the
relevant UN agencies and in host communities in the
northern governorates of Jordan (Figure 1 illustrates
the concentrations of refugees in different areas). This
has seen an increased competition for access to public
utilities, schooling, health services, infrastructure, and
employment, as well as pressure on natural resources,
and the already limited carrying capacity of Jordan’s
natural environment.
In 2013, the Government of Jordan conducted a
comprehensive Needs Assessment Review that
culminated in the publication of a detailed National
Resilience Plan (2014-2016). The study outlined the key
priority plans and programmes to address the needs of
Syrian refugees. Under this process which has identified
the five priorities listed above.
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
9
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study has conducted a review and synthesis of
existing literature including but not necessarily limited
to: national state of the environment reports, the
national environment summary produced as part of
the development of the UN Development Assistance
Framework, national environmental strategies and
action plans, national environmental acts, major
sectored plans and programmes, and reports related to
the development of the NRP as well as the NRP itself.
It has also analyzed relevant information in relation to
the priorities determined in the NRP (through the Sector
Task Team on Environment, co-chaired by the Ministry
of Environment and UNDP) to focus on the key areas
of environmental concern and potential impacts of the
increased population numbers and related activities.
Figure 1: Map of Jordan illustrating the presence of Syrian refugeeshumidity across the country
10
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
METHODOLOGY
2
The methodology selected for this study is the DriverPressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework.
This methodology assesses impacts of activities on
the environment through identifying and describing
Drivers, Pressures, State and Impacts as well as
Response (as illustrated in Figure 2). Used in the current
context, it provides a review of major environmental
issues, their trends, and outlooks, in relation to the
additional pressures of the refugee influx, i.e. using an
overarching driver of increased population numbers
and their activities.
Figure 2: Causal relationships and linkages in the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework
(Gabrielsen and Bosch, 2003)
DRIVERS
Human activities
(economic-technical
& socio-cultural)
PRESSURES
Emissions, solid
waste, resources
extraction and
land use
STATE OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
Environmental
conditions of air,
soil and water
RESPONSES
Societal measures
(e.g. mitigation,
prevention and
adaptation)
IMPACTS
Effects on human,
economy and
ecosystems
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
11
2. METHODOLOGY
The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR)
framework was developed to describe the causal
relationships and interactions between society and the
environment (Gabrielsen and Bosch, 2003) as outlined
in Figures 2 and 3. The framework arranges appropriate
environmental indicators into categories that can help
communicate and illustrate what is understood about the
relationships between indicators within the conceptual
model. Issues of particular interest to environmental
management are the description of relationships
between policy actions and indicators being addressed
throughout the model. Drivers (D) are forces that exert
pressures (P) on the system and affect the states (S) or
measurable conditions. This leads to impacts (I) on the
social-environmental system that may have societal
responses (R) which feedback to address drivers,
pressures, states and impacts. The DPSIR approach is
based on causality in which human activities cause a
change in the environment, which in turn stimulates a
management response, typically a policy.
The frameworks allows to: (a) evaluate the state and
trends of the environment, and identify key priority
issues affecting the environment and human well-being;
(b) assess effectiveness of societal responses to these
issues; and (c) generate additional measures, which are
required for addressing the priority issues.
Figure 3: DPSIR – an analytical framework which is focused on telling an integrated story based on assessment
of Drivers-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses on environment and human well-being.
Social-Ecological System
Supporting
system
DRIVERS
e.g. Economy
Demography
Society Technology
(exogenous)
STATE
Ecosystem
service
beneficiaries
(ESB)
Ecosystem
service
providers
(ESP)
PRESSURES
Baseline/Futures
Service
Providing
Units
(SPUs)
Baseline/
Futures
e.g. Climate change
Land use change
Air pollution
(endogenous)
IMPACT
Adaptation
on service
provision
Valuation of
services and
alternatives
RESPONSES
Mitigation
12
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
Policy, strategic
decisions and
management
Trade offs
FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT
ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL
COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN
REFUGEE CONTEXT
3.1 BASELINE STATE OF THE
ENVIRONMENT BEFORE ARRIVAL
OF REFUGEES (PRE-2011 STATE)
Jordan is a small, upper middle-income country with
a GDP per capita of US$ 5,749 (PPP). It has a relatively
young, largely urban population; roughly 37% of its 6.25
million people are children (age 0-14), another 30% are
young adults (age 15-29), and over 80% of all Jordanians
live in the cities. Since 1948, Jordan has experienced
several migration waves which have underscored the
country’s sensitivity to economic and political events
in the region. Jordan has limited resources, and has a
fragile environment, both of which affect its economic
opportunities.
Jordan’s environmental challenges include high rates
of population, rapid and poorly planned urbanization,
and heavy dependence on imported energy resources.
These challenges in turn create socio-economic and
environmental pressures on Jordan’s development
planning and its natural capital.1 Climate change is
indicated to affect Jordan through higher temperatures,
shorter wet seasons, and more erratic rainfall. Meeting
1.
2.
3
increased demand, protecting and developing new
water resources, hydropower loss and ecosystem
damage could represent a cost of between 1 to 7% of
GDP under current scenarios.2
The State of Environment Report for Jordan of 2009
(Jordan Ministry of Environment, 2009) in addition to
findings of the latest baseline assessment studies for
newly developed sustainable development-related
studies and strategies (such as IUCN & MoEnv’s 2014
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 20152020; IUCN & MoEnv’s 2014 National Strategy to Combat
Desertification and Action Plan 2015-2020) have been
used in identifying the baseline. There are certain risks,
threats, and challenges that face the environment in
Jordan as illustrated in the State of Environment Report
2009.
The natural capital in Jordan was under substantial
pressures prior to influx of Syrian refugees. Overarching
pressure on limited water resources, land, and
ecosystems are affecting the resilience and sustainability
of environmental systems and processes. Specifically,
available water resources are 133 m3/capita/year,
including wastewater reuse. Over-abstraction has
resulted in mining of renewable groundwater resources
and extraction getting currently 50% above safe yields
Wardam. B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 2011.
Information note received from UN Habitat September 2011
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
(2005), it has also resulted in increased salinity, declining
water table levels, and increasing pumping costs.
Given Jordan’s high level of urbanization, the limited
availability of urban information disaggregated to city
level presents a major challenge to the development of
evidence based city plans that integrate environmental
considerations, but are seen as a critical component of
devleopment planning for sustainability.3
The World Bank Sustainable Development Sector Report
(2009) reveals that in spite of the current limits of air quality
monitoring, evidence indicates that in selected hotspots
of industrial activity and vehicular traffic, air quality is
poor. Transport, power generation, and industry, account
for the bulk of air emissions, particularly TSP, SO2 and
NOx. This is attributed to a 7 to 10% annual growth in the
vehicular fleet (where older, more polluting combustion
technologies still dominate), along with continued
pressure on air quality from important industries such as
mining and cement production.
The following sections provide further information on
the state of the current situation in the selected priority
sectors.
The following factors are considered when addressing
the selected priority sectors to assess the impacts
and elaborate proposed responses as follows (this is
illustrated in Figure 4):
A. Drivers (population growth and influx of refugees):
B. Pressures (pressure on water, energy and land/food):
C. State (degraded conditions of air, land, and water):
D. Impact (effect on human health, and ecosystems):
E.
Response (prevention, adaptation, mitigation, and
policy response):
Figure 4: DPSIR methodology where population growth of Syrian refugees is the Driver.
Driver: Population
Growth
3.
14
Pressure on limited
water resources
Pressure of increased
energy demand
Pressure of increased
food demand
State: Reduced water
quantity and quality
State: Reduced
quantity of air
State: Increased use
of marginal land
Impact: Health problems
of water pollution
Impact: Health problems
from air pollution
Impact: Desertification
and destruction of
habitats
Response: Projects to
increase water supply
Response: Removal of
lead from fuel
Response: Sustainable
management of
agricultural and
rangelands
ibid
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
Population growth, high influx of refugees (see Annex
A1), and urbanization are key important socioeconomic
drivers causing current increased environmental
degradation in Jordan. The scale, intensity, and rate
of refugee influx are all critical factors in determining
the impact of refugees as a driver of environmental
degradation. Mafraq experienced the highest percentage
of refugees, which amounts to 60.5%; followed by Irbid,
Ajloun, Amman, and Zarqa with 10.8%, 6.6%, 5.3%, and
5.0% respectively (Table 1). However, population figures
are changing on a periodically due to the daily migration
to Jordan. Based on the latest data from DOS (2014), the
total number of unregistered Syrian people in Jordan
is 750,000 people, while the registered number with
UNHCR is 650,000. The grand total number of Syrian in
Jordan is 1.4 million persons (DOS 2014).
Table 1: Total population and percentage of Syrian refugees in Jordan by Governorate in 2012.
Population of Syrian Refugees
Total Registered
Refugees
Host
Communities/
Registered
Ajloun
9752
9752
146900
6.64%
Amman
133373
133373
2473400
5.39%
Aqaba
2040
2040
139200
1.47%
Balqa
14145
14145
428000
3.30%
Irbid
123099
121657
1137100
10.83%
Jerash
10420
10420
191700
5.44%
Karak
8505
8505
249100
3.41%
Maan
5454
5454
121400
4.49%
Madaba
7343
7343
159700
4.60%
Mafraq
181683
59146
300300
60.50%
Tafileh
2114
2114
89400
2.36%
Zarqa
47849
43983
951800
5.03%
Dispersed in Jordan
3796
3796
-
-
549575
421730
6388000
8.60%
Governorate
TOTAL
Total Population
Camp/Registered of Governorate
(2012)
1442
122537
3886
127845
Percent of
Refugees/
Governorate
Source: MWI (2014)
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
3.2 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF WATER
QUANTITY AND QUALITY
Jordan is a highly arid country with arid conditions
extending over almost the entire country. Area analysis
of aridity maps show that 95% of the country’s land is
arid and very-arid4 while the remaining proportion of
country’s area is semi-arid.
Based on Third National Communication Report to
UNFCCC (TNC) (2014), Jordan is considered one of the
poorest nations worldwide in its water resources. In fact,
Jordan has a climate ranging from Mediterranean to Arid
with approximately 80% of the country receiving less
than 100 mm of precipitation per year. 12.5% between
100 and 200 mm/yr, 3.8% between 200 and 300 mm/yr,
1.8% between 300 and 500 mm/yr, and only 1.3% receives
more than 500 mm/yr. The eastern desert areas receive
as little as 50 mm/yr. Furthermore, potential evaporation
rates range from around 2000 mm per year in the high
lands to over 5000 mm/yr in the desert region. Overall,
renewable freshwater resources range from 780 to 850
MCM/yr. On the other hand, the current demand for
water was approximated at 1383 MCM in 2010 (Figure 5).
Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer constituting
around 64% of the overall uses compared to only 36% for
municipal, industrial, and tourism purposes.
Figure 5: Water demand, supply and deficit in Jordan (Source: MWI 2014).
4.
16
The aridity index classification scheme uses the term very arid, which is the same to Hyper-arid term.
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
Surface water, as documented in the 2009 State of
Environment Report, appears to be overall of acceptable
quality, presented, at the time of data collection yet important
problems of salinity and bacteriological contamination
of a localized nature, with potential of impact on human
health and agriculture, are of strategic significance. In
particular, levels of E-coli and TDS concentrations at the
Zarqa junction of the King Abdullah Canal (KAC), located
upstream of important irrigation schemes in the Jordan
valley have been well above the respective quality norms
in recent years. Improved quality of effluent from the new
As-Samra treatment plant might help mitigate this problem.
Considering the overall decline of fresh surface water
resources observed in recent years, and particularly due to
the drying up of Yarmouk river base flow, it is possible that
Jordan will experience a more general worsening of the
average quality of surface water (See Annex A2).
In terms of groundwater, the evidence suggests a
simultaneous trend of declining water tables and
increasing salinity in most aquifers, resulting in higher
extraction costs (in terms of pumping as well as
accelerated well replacement), and the need to use more
irrigation water for leaching. Higher production costs and
declining yields affect farmers’ income, 40% of the cost of
environmental degradation linked to poor water quality
(not including industrial wastewater impacts). The cost,
however, is likely to escalate in the future, as water tables
keep declining, and as increased demand for potable
water in urban areas raises the opportunity costs of the
additional water required to decrease salinity. Nitrate
pollution of aquifers appears to be of concern mainly in
the Amman-Zarqa basin.
Access to sanitation is relatively high (with some exceptions
in rural areas), and the quantity of municipal wastewater
collected and treated has been steadily increasing.
However, the quality of the wastewater effluent is a reason
for concern: about half of the total effluent does not seem
to meet national quality norms for pollutants such as BOD
(55% of non-compliance) and E-coli (46%). The situation
has recently improved with the establishment of the new
As-Samra treatment plant, which has the potential to
increase compliance rates to 80%; further progress may
be expected if the targets of the National Agenda are met,
although the cost is likely to be high.
In terms of industrial wastewater, only an estimated 28%
of the total effluent is treated (almost 50% excluding
wastewater from potash mining, which is likely to have
limited environmental impacts). About 40% of industrial
wastewater is estimated (net of mining effluents) to
be discharged to the public sewer network, but the
quality of the effluent is of concern due to high rates of
discharges without licensing, the rather lenient standards
for heavy metals and organic toxins, in addition to the
considerable rates of non-compliance with applicable
regulations (over 30 % for ammonia and suspended
solids).
As for the 60% of wastewater not disposed of in sewers,
monitoring of the effluent quality is very limited and does
not adequately cover certain toxic substances. Disposal
of wastewater through tankers is a widespread practice,
virtually unmonitored in terms of effluent quality, and likely
to pose health hazards where wastewater is disposed of in
un-lined landfills (such as Al-Ekeider), resulting in possible
infiltration into groundwater. Current policies seem to focus
on centralized treatment plants as the strategy of choice
to address the problem. However, there may be important
opportunities for reducing the overall public and private
cost of treatment by encouraging plant-level interventions
(both production process and end-of-pipe treatment).
Pressure of increased water demand:
Jordan's natural population is expected to continue to
rise as well as the refugee influx, and hence, the gap
between water supply and demand will significantly
increase. Water is a constraint to socio-economic
development due to water scarcity, fluctuations, and
uncertainty. Jordan is classified as the third country
worldwide at “extreme risk” based on the Water Scarcity
Index. This is manifested in the low per capita share of
water which amounts to 140-145 m3 compared to 1000
m3 as an international standard. By the year 2025, if
current trends continue, the per capita water supply will
fall from the current 140-145 m3 per year to only 90 m3
per year, putting Jordan under serious water shortage.
On a per capita basis, Jordan has one of the lowest levels
of water resources in the world. In fact, most experts
consider countries with a per capita water production
below 1000 m3 per year to be water-poor countries.
Groundwater is available in renewable and non-renewable
forms in 12 distinct groundwater basins, and abstraction
exceeds safe yield in most of the basins. The average annual
abstraction from all basins exceeds the renewable average
of recharge and currently stands at 159% of that average.
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
The over pumping ratio ranges between 146% in minor
aquifers to 235% in major ones (MWI, 2014). Among the 12,
there are 11 renewable groundwater reservoirs in Jordan.
Their sustainable yields vary from one reservoir to another,
and their combined sustainable yield is 275MCM/year.
The over-abstraction has resulted in significant decline in
both quantity and quality of the groundwater resources.
For instance, Amman-Zarqan, the main basin with a safe
yield of 87.5 MCM, exceeded its recharge limit before the
Syrian conflict in 2011, where, the abstraction rate reached
up to 184%. Out of 340 MCM water used for municipal
uses, 70 MCM is used by northern governorates (Yarmouk
Water Company) to serve 1.65 million inhabitants (255
thousand subscribers) with 80% coverage of Operational
and Maintenance cost (El-Naser, 2013). Pressure on water
resources in Jordan and in governorates where Syrian
refugees live is evident in the degree of decline in water
table and increase in groundwater abstraction. Moreover,
evident contamination is observed in shallow groundwater
systems due to the application of pesticides and fertilizers.
Annex A2 shows results of microbial analysis of drinking
water samples by source and governorate in 2011 and
2012, including the number of drinking water samples
analyzed for microbial content and number of nonconforming samples from 1998-2012 for the whole
country’s combined samples. The data obtained is not
enough to show a clear trend of increase or decrease in
percentage of non-conforming samples.
A Water Strategy (2008-2022) has been formulated by
MWI, and several policies have been issued including the
Groundwater Policy, Wastewater Policy, Water Irrigation
Policy, and Water Demand Management Policy. The
established polices emphasize the need for improved
water resource management with particular emphasis
being placed on the sustainability of present and future
uses. The policies indicate that special care shall be given
to protection against pollution, quality degradation and
depletion of resources (MWI, 2014).
Two wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) serve the
northern governorates; i.e, Al-Mafraq WWTP and AlAkeider WWTP with capacity of 1800m3/day and 4000
m3/day respectively. Both WWTPs operate at full capacity.
Impacts on water quantity and quality:
Environmental effects of population growth in Jordan
including the influx of Syrian refugees in camps and in
host communities induce pressures on groundwater
abstraction, and water uses. Figure 6 illustrates the
decrease in water table due to groundwater abstraction
in one of the observation wells in Zatari Camp area
during the period 2000-2012. Table 2 illustrates the
estimated cost due to groundwater abstraction.
Figure 6: Decrease in water table due to groundwater abstraction in a well in Zatari Camp area during the
period 2000-2012.
18
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
Table 2: The estimated cost due to groundwater abstraction is substantial as indicated below (El-Naser, 2013).
Unit
cost
Per refugee
per year
Total Long term
Indirect Costs (4+5+6)
4. Environmental cost
due to overpumping of
GW: Deterioration of GW
quality (High salinity, and
high cost for desalination.
Lowering on the GW
tables (High energy cost
for pumping)
5. Crisis management
cost (1.2% of DSC)
6. Loss opportunity cost
For 480,000
refugees per year
For 1,200,000
refugees per year
208.6
JD
100,110,863
JD
250,277,157
JD
0.7
JD/m3
30.7
JD
14,716,800
JD
36,792,000
JD
0.012
%
2.7
JD
1,298,063
JD
3,245,157
JD
4
JD/m3
175.2
JD
84,096,000
JD
210,240,000
JD
The MoEnv implemented the “Nationl Project for
Monitoring Water Quality in Jordan” in close cooperation
in 1986. Water quality monitoring data was obtained
from RSS through one of the programmes run by the
project. The data used belonged to the nearest water
sampling locations to Zatari camp. These locations ares:
1) Jaber Well near Jaber International Boundary Check
Point with Syria in Irbid (the counterpart to Naseeb
International Boundary Check Point in Dara’a, Syria,
which is extracting water from Yarmouk Groundwater
Basin), and 2) Ein Turab Spring near Kufr Soom Village,
Irbid (extracting water from Yarmouk Groundwater
Basin). The data from these two locations shows clearly
that levels of pollution with E. Coli and Total Cell Count
are elevating with time since 2011 in both locations as
shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively.
Figure 7: E.Coli & TCC concentrations for Jaber Well
near Jaber International Boundary Check Point with
Syria (from 2009-2014) (RSS/MoEnv, 2014).
Figure 8: E. Coli & TCC concentrations in Ein Turab
Spring near Kufr Soom Village, Irbid (from 2009-2014)
(RSS/MoEnv, 2014).
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
In summary, the background situation concerning
water quality and quantity in Jordan is already
extremely challenging due to the natural aridity, recent
drought episodes, and impact of climate change.
Increased abstractions due to increased population
numbers, combined with increased wastewater to
be treated and adequately disposed create an added
pressure. This pressure has the potential to impact on
economic development activities, human health, and
overall sustainable development.
3.3 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF SOIL
DEGRADATION AND RANGELANDS
The natural ecosystems in Jordan are subject to many
pressures (e.g. land-use change, resource demands,
and population changes); their extent and pattern of
distribution is changing, and landscapes are becoming
more fragmented. Climate change constitutes an
additional pressure that could change or endanger
ecosystems and the many goods and services they provide.
Soil properties and processes — including organic matter
decomposition, leaching, and soil water regimes — will
be influenced by temperature increase. Soil erosion and
degradation are likely to aggravate the detrimental effects
of a rise in air temperature on crop yields. Climate change
may increase erosion in some regions, through heavy
rainfall and increased wind speed.
Based on the results of the different climatic models and
the trend analysis (Third National Communication (TNC)
Report to UNFCCC, 2014), climate change scenarios in
2050 and 2100 were suggested for the different basins
in Jordan. The most probable scenario would be an
increased air temperature of 1.5°C and a 15% decrease in
precipitation by the year 2050. This climate change trend
is likely to exacerbate the degradation of land in the arid,
semi-arid and sub-humid areas in the country.
Among the many other factors affecting land degradation
in Jordan, it is believed that land tenure system is one of
the major caused elements especially in the Badia region.
A recent socioeconomic study conducted by ICARDA in
the Badia region5 concluded that the traditional land
tenure system has collapsed and, in reality, rangeland is
available to those who can exploit it.
5.
20
Land degradation takes a heavy toll on ecosystem stability
and on farmers’ income, especially among the poor.
According to the newly National Strategy to Combat
Desertification with UNCCD 10-Year Strategy (IUCN and
MoEnv 2014), unsustainable land use and management,
recurrent droughts and climate change are the main causes
of land degradation in the country. Non-sustainable land
use practices include improper ploughing, inappropriate
rotations, inadequate or inexistent management of
plant residues, overgrazing of natural vegetation, forest
cutting, inappropriate land use, random urbanization, land
fragmentation, and over-pumping of groundwater. High
population growth and ineffective arrangements of land
tenure are among the root causes, which exert excessive
pressure on the natural resources to meet increased food
and income demand. Productivity of rangeland, which is a
key source of livelihood for most of Jordan’s rural poor, has
dropped about 50% over the last decade and half, due to
overgrazing and more recently the inflow of refugees (and
their livestock).
With regards to agricultural land use changes, in recent
years, the trends have been: (i) a reduction of total
agricultural use partly due to decreased capacity of poor
land users; (ii) an increase in the permanent crop area at
the expense of some annual crops which have become
unprofitable; (iii) crop cultivation and grazing in areas
of higher risk (steeper slopes and/or lower rainfall and in
particular in the marginal and steppe areas) according to
the newly 2015-2020 Aligned National Strategy to Combat
Desertification with UNCCD 10-Year Strategy, (IUCN and
MoEnv 2014). See Annex A3 for additional agricultural
statistics.
Rain-fed farming, which is distributed over the northern,
middle, and southern Highlands, forms the base for
agricultural production in Jordan. However, average crop
yields are low and productivity is seriously limited by overall
scarcity of water, extreme variability of rainfall, and limited
soil water conservation activities. Consequently, resourcelimited land users have been increasingly exposed to
decreasing income and declining livelihood security.
Livestock is an important component in the farming
system in Jordan as it is a major source of cash income
as well as consumption. There is a vicious circle whereby
rangeland carrying capacity is decreasing, and farmers
are unable to supplement feeding with expensive
fodder, hence they are obliged to downgrade traditional
management and extend the grazing season to unsuitable
Akroush S. and Shideed K. 2008. Community-Based Optimization of the Management of Scarce Water Resources in Agriculture in West Asia and North
Africa. Report no. 6. Baseline Information and Livelihood Characterization of Badia Benchmark Water Harvesting in Jordan. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria..
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months. This exacerbates pressure on rangelands and
further lowers productivity of both pastures and animals.
Overgrazing is also leading to a decrease in the resilience
of the rangeland against droughts.
Pressure of increased food demand:
The Jordanian agricultural sector faces a number
of problems and challenges. The effect of of these
problems and challenges increases in successive drought
years, and as a result of low and fluctuating rainfall,
environmental challenges, and other risks. In addition,
the effect becomes more apparent due to the declining
role of the agricultural sector in the national economy,
and the challenges it faces in light of freeing the trade of
agricultural commodities. This necessitates re-evaluating
agricultural development efforts and approaches to
avoid the occurrence of negative developments, and
conveys an urgent need to set a new and effective
strategy to develop the agricultural sector.6
The Agricultural Document prepared by NCARE (2009)7
provided a work plan for the period 2009-2014 aimed at
emphasizing the national role of all relevant institutions
in implementing the agricultural development plans
for the coming stage. The limited water resource and
potential are considered the main constraints for
increasing production. Only 1.06% of the total land area
is irrigated. This includes about 36 thousand hectare in
the Jordan Valley, and the rest in the highlands and in the
arid zone (DOS, 2010). The main source for irrigation in
highlands is the ground water. In northern Jordan Valley
(JV), the area under cultivation is served by surface water
supplies transported via the King Abdullah Canal (KAC)
from Yarmouk River while the irrigation water to the
middle and southern parts of Jordan Valley are mainly
served by water coming from King Talal Dam KTD on
Zarqa River after mixing with that coming from KAC.
The total area under irrigation in Jordan Valley and the
southern Ghors is estimated to be about 33 thousand
hectares. The major crops are vegetables and trees including
citrus and bananas. Important irrigated agriculture is also
taking place on the basalt plateau soils of northern Jordan,
in Mafraq governorate. In these areas, the utilization of
groundwater resources was expanded rapidly into the steppe
zone, often for the production of fruit crops. The agricultural
area in Jordan varies from one year to another depending on
the rainfall amounts and available water resources.
6.
7.
The Jordanian labour force is about 1,235,000 in 2010 and
decreased for the agricultural sector from 32,900 to 25,000
in the same year. This indicates that the contribution of
the agricultural sector to employing manpower declined
from 3.1% in 2006 to only 2% in 2010. The importance
of the agricultural sector stems from the fact that it is
not only the major source of food items especially dairy
products, fruits and vegetables, but also one of the sources
of hard currencies originated from exports. About 25% of
the total poor in Jordan live in the rural areas depending
mostly on agriculture (livestock keepers, smallholder farm
households, and landless former agriculturalists), and in
spite of poor motivation of the rural youth, agriculture is
an important employer of the rural communities.
Besides, the majority of the land surface in Jordan is classified
as rangelands. The Badia (or desert) was predominantly
covered with high value biomass of natural vegetation
(annual, perennials, and shrubs). However, over the past 60
years, the rangelands of the Badia witnessed progressive
deterioration in the quality and quantity of the natural
vegetation cover, which, in many areas, has been completely
detoriarated. Moreover the watersheds in the Badia constitute
only 2% of its area. In spite of the existence of legislation for
land, water, and rangeland use, the pressure on the natural
resources continues, mainly due to high population growth
rate and urbanization. in fact, stretches of prime agriculture
lands were converted to urban dwelling, roads, and industrial
building due to the lack of proper land use planning and
weak implementation of polices, strategies, and regulations.
Land fragmentation is also taking place as a result of two
factors: (i) Inheritance laws which resulted in distribution
of lands to several relatives who either cultivate the land
jointly under a common title, or distribute it into smaller
pieces; and (ii) the high value of agricultural lands makes
the owners of small areas sell their lots to the growing
industries or for urban housing.
In summary, the agricultural sector in Jordan has been
challenged by a number of issues; climate change, land
degradation, natural aridity, and land fragmentation,
but the reliance of the rural poor on land for subsistence
agriculture and food security remains. The Syrian refugees
are adding to this societal component that is dependent
upon land resources and agricultural production for their
very existence. As such, there is a potential for agricultural
activity on more and more marginal land, with related
increase in land degradation, loss of productivity, and
potential loss of ecosystem services.
2009 Agricultural Document of the National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension
2009 Agricultural Document of the National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
3.4 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF
BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM
SERVICESS
A key environmental vulnerability in Jordan is associated
with land degradation and the state of terrestrial semiarid ecosystems and habitats. Land use in Jordan is
a complex pattern and is a mixture of rural and urban
activities that reflect both climate and socioeconomic
characteristics. Most of studies and figures have shown
that agricultural areas form a small proportion of the
country. According to the Department of Statistics (2003),
land use shows that 93% of the country is dominated by
non-cultivated areas, classified as rangelands. Cultivated
areas form 2.7% of the total area of Jordan.
Desertification threatens the arid and semi-arid areas, and
the irrigated regions of the highlands and the Jordan valley
that have also been affected by soil salinization and land
degradation due to low precipitation and excessive grazing.8
Land use patterns in Jordan at present are: 90.4% pastures,
5.6% agricultural land, 1.9% public facilities, 0.8% natural
forests, 0.7% registered forests, and 0.6 wetlands. Improper
plowing of pastures in low precipitation areas to produce
cereals has led to soil erosion due to loss of plants that cover
the ground.
The natural biodiversity of Jordan is threatened by this
habitat destruction and fragmentation, unsustainable
agricultural practices such as extensive farming and
agricultural waste, diversion of water from use of biodiversity
resources towards anthropogenic (human-influenced)
uses, uncontrolled urbanization, and industrial pollution.9
Shortages in water resources result in stresses over drought
periods. These stresses may result in severe damage to
the ecosystem due to the lack or deficiency of supporting
environmental factors including moisture and organic
matter. For example, several areas suffer partial to complete
desertification. Hence, considerable loss in the ecosystem
is inevitable. Moreover, the deterioration in surface water
quality due to the discharges of organic and inorganic
compounds results in degradation of the ecosystem within
streams and over the adjacent areas.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
22
The decline in Jordan’s wildlife, which affects mainly
large populations, is also threatening several species
of birds, reptiles, freshwater fish, marine invertebrate
and vertebrate.10 Flora is also diverse with 2,300 species
from 152 families identified in the country, 100 of these
indigenous to Jordan. 76 species are endangered, with
18 of these on the worlds’ list of endangered species.
Plant diversity is facing a dramatic decline due to habitat
loss and degradation, leading to the isolation of many
species, which in turn results in the loss of their genetic
diversity and a high risk of extinction. Between 200 to
250 plant species are nationally rare and 100 to 150
species are threatened.11
Despite reforestation efforts, natural and man-made
forests jointly cover less than 1% of the total land area.
Forests face severe impacts as a result of poverty (i.e.,
cutting of trees to provide heating for poor local residents
due to high oil prices), and massive investments in
tourism, and other sectors in scenic forest areas. Other
threats are encroaching crop cultivation, overgrazing,
water scarcity and, salinity.12
The productivity of rangeland, a crucial source of
livelihood for most of the rural poor, has dropped
by about 50% in the last 15 years, primarily due to
overgrazing and encroaching urbanization. An estimated
17,705 tons of forage valued at about USD 4.9 million
is lost annually due to overgrazing. Should this trend
continue unabated, desertification is imminent.13
Pressures on desertification and loss of
habitat:
It is complex to assess the impact of refugees in regard
to interaction with ecosystems and their associated
biodiversity. Nonetheless, evidence could be established
on a number of associations between the influx of
refugees and the impacts on natural resources. For
example, many refugees who come from nomadic or rural
backgrounds got involved with livestock husbandry and
agricultural activities, mainly through employment by
Jordanian residents who utilized the refugee work force
to support their agriculture related activities, as well as
the operation of nature-based tourism enterprises.
Wardam.B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 2011
Wardam.B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 2011
ibid
ibid
IUCN: “Important Plant Areas of the South and East Mediterranean Region: Priority Sites for Conservation”, 2011, IUCN Center for Med. Cooperation
Wardam.B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 2011
Wardam B/UNEP ROWA. “National Environment Summary”, 2011
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
It could also be noted that the labor introduced by the
refugees created more pressures on ecosystem goods and
services such 1) grazing within and in the surrounding of
protected areas, 2) wood cutting for heating and charcoal
production purposes, 3) excessive collection of medicinal
plants from wilderness areas, and 4) excessive farming
activities that eventually lead to extra pressure on agricultural
land. Table 6 and Figure 13 show the increase of violation
incidents on natural resources in key protected areas. The
environmental gains of reforestation are significant, including
for biodiversity conservation and prevention of natural
hazards. Serious attention is therefore required to realize the
plantation prospects for 13% of Jordan’s land area.
Table 3: Accumulative number of violation incidents
over past 5 years for Yarmouk Reserve, Dibeen
Reserve, Azraq Reserve, Shawmari Reserve, and Mujib
Reserve (RSCN, 2014).15
Violation
incidents
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Illegal grazing
0
0
0
19
27
Wood cutting
8
13
21
10
26
Illegal hunting
9
16
12
17
18
The increasing competition for natural resources adds
more pressure on protected areas in the northern and
eastern parts of the country. From another point of view,
the influx of refugees has increased competition within
host communities on a large set of income sources and
jobs. Furthermore, the economic impacts of refugees’
crisis force hosting communities to exercise more direct
and indirect pressures on natural resources. One clear
example is the increasing trend of illegal tree cutting
to compensate for increased fuel prices, overgrazing
of livestock in response to inability to secure high cost
fodder, and illegal wildlife hunting.
In summary, there are increasing pressures on
ecosystem goods and services in addition to increasing
the demand on consumption associated with the direct
socioeconomic needs of the refugees. The economic
valuation of the direct and indirect impacts of the
refugees on the ecosystems of host regions of Jordan
requires an in-depth scientific research which would
lead to a clear policy document needed to support
decision making within regards to the sustainability of
ecosystems, their goods and services, as well as their
biodiversity, under crisis conditions such as the Syrian
refugee case.
Figure 9: Accumulative number of violation incidents over past 5 years for Yarmouk Reserve.
15. Source: Data base of the Royal Society for the Conservation of nature (RSCN), 2014.
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
3.5 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF AIR
POLLUTION
The development of industrial and services sectors in
Jordan, accompanied with the increase of Jordanian
population, and the increase in ambient air pollution
which in turn causes degradation of the air quality in
many areas and also leads to adverse impacts on public
health.
Emissions from motor vehicles account for 50–90% of
air pollution in urban centers16,17. There were just over
1057,000 vehicles registered in 2010 in the country
(Traffic Department, 2014) as shown in Annex A4. More
than 31% of the vehicles in Jordan are diesel-powered.
Vans and trucks represent 33% and 42.7% of the total
diesel-powered vehicles, respectively. Most public
transportation vehicles work inside cities, especially
Amman and Zarqa. Particles emanating from motor
vehicles contain sulfate, carbonaceous particles, and
other chemicals.18
Other sources of air pollution in Jordan include: power
generation which uses heavy oil and natural gas;
cement production which uses oil shale; cooking; home
furnaces fueled by diesel, natural gas or kerosene; in
addition to wood stoves. The unexpected jump in oil
prices experienced during the winter of (2007/2008) has
forced people with low income in the countryside and
mountainous areas to switch to wood stoves because
they use either olive husk or wood, which are available at
low, or no cost in their immediate surroundings.
In spite of the fast growth of urban areas and industrial
activities in Jordan, air pollution has not received due
attention. Until 2010, air quality was not routinely
monitored anywhere except at Al-Hashemeyyah
(located in the Zarqa governorate to the northeast
of Zarqa city) which experiences high levels of sulfur
oxides and particulates. There have been a few studies
that tackled air pollution in Jordan, but they have
been limited to three stations only: Downtown and
Shmeisani in Amman, as well as Al-Hashemeyyah.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Those studies have pointed out that local air quality is
poor, where concentrations of criteria pollutants (NOx,
SOx, CO, PM10, TSP, lead and hydrogen sulfide) exceed
the National Air Quality Standards19,20. In this regard,
MoEnv has launched an air quality monitoring program
in cooperation with the Air Studies Division at the
Energy, Water and Environment Cluster RSS to assess
the ambient air quality of five areas vulnerable to air
pollution: Al-Baq’a/Al-Balqa Governorate; Al-Mowaqqar/
Amman Governorate; Al-Giza/Amman Governorate; AlRussiefeh/Zarqa Governorate, and Al-Khaldeyyeh/AlMafraq Governorate (See Annex A4).
Pressure of increased energy demand:
Jordan has limited energy resources and the country
depends heavily on imported crude oil for its energy use.
The national energy sector main concern is the provision
of adequate energy for development with the least
possible cost and best quality. A few statistics help to
highlight the urgency of the situation.
In 2008, heating accounted for 61% of household level
energy use and this figure continues to rise.21 The energy
consumption grew at an average of 14%/year and the
energy bill averaged at 13% of gross national product
(GNP) and consumed most of the foreign exchange
earned by exports of all Jordanian commodities in the
last 3 decades.
Jordan’s imported energy bill rose 21.3% in 2012,
reaching JD4.75 billion, compared to JD4.0 billion in the
year before (Figure 10). The surge was attributed to an
increase in imports of crude oil and diesel, especially
for generating electricity. Official figures also show that
Jordan’s consumption of primary energy and electricity
remains one of the highest in the world and is expected
to increase by 5.5% and 7.4%, respectively, between 2014
and 2020. Other things being equal, the government
expects primary energy consumption to reach 16 million
tons of oil equivalent (toe) in 2020, compared to 7.4
million toe in 2011 (see Annex A5).
The high cost of importing energy puts a heavy burden
on the public budget already constrained by running
Cooper, C.D. and Alley, F.C., Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 (1996) 27.
Gillies, J., Abu-Allaban, M., Gertler, A., Lowenthal, D., Jennison, B. and Goodrich, A. JJEES, 1(1) (2008) 1.
Kassel, R., “Dump Dirty Diesel: The Health and Air Quality Benefits of Cleaner Diesel Engines”. Diesel Retrofit Workshop, Oct. 21 (2003).
Asi, R., Anani, F. and Asswaeir, J. “Studying Air Quality in Al-Hashemeyyah Area/Zarqa”. A report prepared by the Royal Scientific Society (RSS) for the
General Institution for the Protection of the Environment, Amman, Jordan, (2001).
20. Hamdi, M.R., Bdour, A. and Tarawneh, Z. Environmental Engineering Science, 25(9) (2008) 1333.
21. DoS/WFP ‘Poverty Study’ based on 2008/2009 HIES data.
24
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
Figure 10: Cost of Consumed Energy in Jordan.
costs and subsidies. The sector suffers from extreme
fluctuations of oil prices and the ability to secure constant
and sustainable energy supply for the country. Jordan
is one of the world’s most energy insecure countries,
importing about 97% of its energy needs. While Jordan
has achieved many development goals, sustaining these
results will increasingly depend on the transition to a
sustainable energy future. Traditionally, the country has
relied for 80% of its electricity generation on natural gas
imported from Egypt. But due to a series of disruptions
to this flow since 2011, the number has declined to 70%.
In response, Jordan shifted to high costing crude oil
imports, comprising 42%22 of energy imports in 2012
and adding approximately US$2 billion/year23 to Jordan’s
import bill.
Energy imports have risen to make up approximately
20% of Jordan’s GDP, with overall energy costs likely have
reached 30% of imports in 201324. In addition to longstanding structural challenges in the energy sector in
22.
23.
24.
25.
terms of supply, demand, and management, Jordan also
faces exacerbating factors resulting from the increase of
Syrian refugees, who comprise nearly 13% of Jordan’s
6.38 million population.25 Although Syrian refugees and
forced migrants fall within the lower-income bracket and
average energy consumptions remain less impactful on
the broad energy challenges in Jordan relative to core
energy users in the country, total residential energy
consumption has risen significantly.
The policy of the Government of Jordan (GoJ) in the
field of energy was shaped through the adoption of
the Updated Master Strategy of Energy Sector in Jordan
for the period 2007-2020. The main goal of the Energy
Strategy is to secure reliable energy supply through
increasing the share of local energy resources such as
oil shale, natural gas in the energy mix, expanding the
development of renewable energy projects, promoting
energy conservation and awareness and generating
electricity from nuclear energy (see Annex A5).
Department of Statistics, quoted http://english.nuqudy.com/Levant/Jordan%E2%80%99s_Energy_Cri-4547
See http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/13/imf-jordan-idUSL1N0I208M20131013
Jordan Needs Assessments_ November 2013
See Central Bank of Jordan Monthly Statistical Bulletin, www.cbj.gov.jo
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
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3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
It should be noted that an equally important priority
has been achieving local energy production, mainly by
scaling up renewable energy, and improving energy
efficiency solutions in Jordan. The 2013 Arab Future
Energy Index (AFEX) shows that Jordan has made
progress in this regard, ranking second in the Arab
region for renewable energy trends and third for energy
efficiency. The 2012 Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy Law is also a key enabler, providing incentives for
sustainable energy solutions, as Jordan seeks to increase
renewable energy from 1% of overall energy in 2010 to
10% in 2020, and to improve energy efficiency by 20%
by 2020.26
Table 4: Irbid Station /yearly average concentration
of major pollutants that cause respiratory diseases
(MoEnv, 2013)27
Year
PM2.5
CO
Mg/m3 ppm
NO
NO2
NOx
ppm
ppm
ppm
2009-2010
36
0.15
0.002
0.007
0.008
2010-2011
27
0.727
0.001
0.008
0.009
2011-2012
21
1.325
0.002
0.007
0.008
2012-2013
40
2.382
0.004
0.007
0.011
Pressure on air quality:
In the context of air quality, there is an increase in the
pollutants emitted to the ambient air as a result of the
development of industrial and services sector in Jordan,
the increase of Jordanian population, the fluxes of
refugees, and the increase energy demand and number
of vehicles, which in turn causes degradation of the air
quality in many areas and can also impact public health
adversely. Therefore; it is so important to monitor the
ambient air quality of the residential areas that are close
to the air pollution sources.
Sulfur dioxide (SO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen
oxides (NO, NO₂) have been recently monitored in five
areas (Table 4) vulnerable to air pollution nearby emitting
factors, as these pollutants result from fuel burning in both
stationary and mobile sources, taking into consideration
the relatively high sulfur content in the Jordanian heavy
fuel oil and diesel. These emissions are highly associated
with human daily activities, and they increase in direct
proportional trend with population size.
Having large number of refugees concentrated in
the northern governorates will certainly increase the
human activities, and subsequently affect the amounts
of emissions released into the air. The results of this
monitoring study show increase in the concentrations
of the said pollutants. For example: observations of
Irbid governorate, that hosts 25% of the refugees, show
variations and an increase in the concentrations over
the past 5 years. According to the monitoring study this
increase is due to unprecedented increase in population,
especially with presence of more than 150,000 refugees
in Irbid (MoEnv, 2013).
Air quality issues are challenged by lack of capacities
and technologies for maintaining the monitoring
programme of air quality. It is worth noting that refugee
camps, including Zaatari camp and its surrounding,
do not have a facility for measuring air quality. Due to
the increase in population and human activities, all
emitting factors, such as waste water treatment plants,
and factories, have been maximizing their productive
capacities, and this results in increased emissions, which
in turn causes an increase in the incidence of respiratory
allergies the kingdom, especially among children. It is
shown in Figure 11 that all monitored pollutants (except
NO2) started showing an increasing trend in 2012/2013.
However, such short period of measurements is not
enough to judge the observance of a certain trend, and
more measurements should be collected in the future.
Another monitoring programme run by RSS for MoEnv is
monitoring air quality at five stations in the country; one
of them is Al-Khalideyyah/Al-Mafraq which is 12 km to
the south of Al-Zaatary Syrian Refugee Camp. As shown
from air quality measurements at Al-Khalideyyah for SO2,
NO2, PM2.5, and PM10, it is clear that the concentrations
of all pollutants started raising up after 2011/2012. This
observation is valid for the five stations with regards to
SO2 (See Annex A4). However, this observation for such a
short period of measurements needs more investigation
and statistical testing, nevertheless, the judgment will
be more reliable in light of the availability of more data
from an extended monitoring period in the future, to
ascertain the exact impacts.
26. Jordan Energy Efficiency Roadmap, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (2010), Amman.
27. Source: Ministry of Environment and the Royal Scientific Society, Assessment of Air Quality Study, 2013.
26
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
Figure 11: Yearly average concentration of major pollutants that cause respiratory diseases/Irbid Station
(MoEnv, 2013).
3.6 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF
HAZARDOUS WASTE AND
MEDICAL WASTE
Solid waste management (SWM) has been improving
in Jordan, with current collection rates estimated at
90% and 70% in urban and rural areas, respectively.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) generation has increased
from 1.5 million tons/year in 2000 to about 2 million
tons/year in 2010 with an average increase of 500,000
tons annually, and with an average generation rate of
0.95 kg/cap/day in urban areas and 0.85 kg/cap/day in
rural areas. The total daily amount of MSW disposed at
the Jordanian landfills was found to be 5500 tons/day
in average in 2010. This increase is mainly attributed
to normal increase of population and changes in their
living standards and consumption patterns. The solid
waste stream is mainly composed of organics with 52%
of weight. Annex A6 shows key indicators of Jordan’s
waste and management based on a country report on
the solid waste management in Jordan (2010).
Municipal solid waste (MSW) generations was in
2009/2010 about 1,964,284 tons. Generation of
agricultural waste, hazardous waste, and medical waste
was 1.56 million tons/year, 15,000 tons /year, and 3,285
tons/year, respectively. The amount of solid industrial
hazardous waste was 15,000 tons in 2007, while this
amount is projected to reach 59,000 tons in 2027.
Different estimates on hazardous waste were presented
in the National Agenda. The estimated amount in 2001
was 23,000 tones, while in 2007 it was 27,480 tones, and
it is expected to increase 5% every year to reach 84,421
tons by 2027. The difference is due to the fact that the
national agenda estimation includes both solid and
liquid hazardous wastes, while environmental status
report estimates are for solid hazardous waste only.
For medical waste, the survey carried out by Abu Qdais
et al. (2007) estimated that the daily amount of the
medical waste generated by all Jordanian hospitals is
about 6 tons/day. Adding the medical waste generated
from medical centers, clinics, and labs, the estimated
daily amount of medical waste generated in Jordan in
2007 was about 9 tones.
With the notable exception of Amman (which accounts
for about half of total solid waste generation), safe
disposal remains a concern, since most of the other
municipalities discharge solid waste in open dump
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
27
3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
sites with no lining, leachate management, or biogas
collection. Management of hazardous and medical
waste is also inadequate, since most of the former
(totaling 15,000 tons in 2010 and expected to increase
to 68,000 tons/year by 2017) is disposed of with no
treatment; whereas half of the latter (which is amounted
at 3,285 tons in 2010) is treated in outdated incinerators
located in populated areas, and the other half is mixed
with municipal waste in open dump sites. Nevertheless,
an increase in about 30% in medical waste, solid waste,
and hazardous waste was generated after the influx of
Syrian refugees according to MoEnv (2014).
All municipalities are operating without full cost
recovery of operations. In Amman, the cost recovery
reached 63% in 2007, while other municipalities
are operating with less than 50% cost recovery. The
difference is usually subsidized from municipal budgets.
For detailed information on municipal solid waste (MSW)
composition and service indicators in three main cities
(Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa), refer to Annex A6.
Pressure through increased production of
waste:
The MoEnv governs waste in through a several
legislations, among of which is the environment
protection law 52/2006, the directive 24 of 2005 on
management, transportation and handling of harmful
and hazardous substances, solid waste bylaws,
medical waste management instructions, hazardous
wastes management instructions, liquid acid batteries
requirement, and used oil regulations.
The MoEnv works on the solid waste management and
recycling through the reduction of waste generation
at source, develop areas of recycling and reuse a
comprehensive integrated system, improve the disposal
of solid waste in an environmentally sound manner,
establish the treatment center of hazardous and
medical wastes in Swaqa Hazardous landfill, increase
the percentage of medical wastes treated, establish and
enforce a documentation and information system for
hazardous, medical and solid waste, complete the set of
legislations to manage hazardous and medical wastes,
develop and execute a national program to manage
electronic wastes and implement the international
conventions related to hazardous and medical wastes.
28
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
The Syrian refugees have put extra pressure on the
management of all kinds of wastes, including solid waste
but notably the volume of medical wastes have been
increased due to the expansion of healthcare services
that is inevitably accompanied by the increase of the
population and refugees. Table 5 shows quantity of solid
wastes of municipalities (ton) 2000-2012. It is obvious
that there was a noticeable jump of solid wastes quantity
from 2,024,832 tons in 2011to 2,242,967 tons in 2012 to
2,529,997 in 2013. This could be traced easily in Figure 12
Table 5: Quantity of solid wastes of municipalities
sector (ton) (DOS 2014).
Year
Quantity of solid wastes of all
municipalities (ton)
2000
1,387,000
2002
2,226,500
2005
2,358,868
2006
2,309,575
2007
2,207,298
2008
2,111,251
2009
1,921,857
2010
2,069,111
2011
2,024,832
2012
2,242,967
2013
2,529,997
Given the difficult health care situation in Syria these
days, refugees come, in most cases, with a need for
health services, and consequently, hospitals and health
care centers have been producing larger amounts of
medical waste than normal cases (pre-crisis). Table 5
shows the amounts of medical waste that came into
Swaqa hazardous landfill (run by MoEnv) over the past
8 years, it can be observed from Figure 13 that medical
waste has been increasing intensely since the crisis in
Syria started.
3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT
Figure 12: Quantity of solid wastes for all municipalities (ton) 2000-2013. (DOS, 2014).
Table 6: Amount of medical waste that came into
Swaqa landfill over the past 8 years, (MoEnv, 2014).28
Year
Amounts of Medical Waste in kg
2006
198,078
2007
261,957
2008
216,665
2009
235,306
2010
355,526
2011
401,986
2012
508,772
2013
502,491
The treatment of hazardous waste is challenged by
the lack of human capacities, equipment, data bases,
and proper monitoring programmes. Also waste
management is challenged by the availability of proper
transport means and treatment technologies. With
the increasing waste arising across all waste types, it is
essential to develop a revised and updated approach to
minimise negative environmental impacts.
Figure 13: Amounts of medical waste in kg for all municipalities from 2006-2013 (MoEnv 2014).
28. Source: Data base of the Ministry of Environment, Hazardous waste data base, 2014.
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
29
4
PROPOSED RESPONSES
AND LINKAGES WITH NRP
This section highlights the critical linkages between the
environment and the key components of the NRP. The
JRP Resilience component will entail a large number of
projects year 2015-onwards valued in total at about $2
billion to be implemented over a period of 12-18 months.
In an already resource-scarce and environmentally
fragile area like Jordan, this can exacerbate such stresses
in the medium term unless mitigation measures are put
in place within the design of projects. This can also help
prevent and address risks to community well-being and
grievance (MoPIC, 2013)29.
Under current legislation, all projects in Jordan are to
conduct an EIA where their size or activities present
grave potential risks to the environment, and for which
mitigation measures and opportunities for sustainable
solutions can be engaged. There are a number of
JRP projects likely to fall within this category under
various sub-chapters/sectors related to issues like
shelter, infrastructure, livelihoods, transport, municipal
development, land use, water, etc.30. In addition, it is
imperative to mainstream biodiversity conservation in all
development sectors by developing an economic value
for the ecosystem services (water, food, and energy).
This can be supported by green financing and CSR
initiatives from the private sector. A general approach to
environmental screening for all JRP projects is therefore
strongly advocated, including the establishment of a
dedicated unit for this purpose under the JRP Secretariat.
The set of responses proposed by this study are
projects and investments to address some of the key
environmental challenges related to the Syrian refugee
influx against the background of priority environmental
issues facing Jordan. It includes policies and strategies
to monitor, mitigate, and control air pollution, habitat
loss, and risks from medical and hazardous waste. The
Government is seeking solutions for water and energy
shortages through mega projects (Red Sea Canal, Disi
Water Conveyer, nuclear power generation, oil shale
exploration, and renewable energy) but such technical
solutions may not provide adequate sustainability
without taking the human factor into consideration.
Environmental initiatives would benefit from
encouragement of co-management of natural resources
with the concerned communities, and take into
consideration the impact of environmental initiatives on
the quality of human life.31
One of the critical issues identified through this study
are the data and information gaps. This is an important
point of action for the continued development and
implementation of the NRP. The economic valuation
of the direct and indirect impacts of the refugees on
29.
30.
31.
National Resilience Plan, 2014. Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Jordan.
Jordan’s Environment Protection Law (EPL) no. 52/2006 and its Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) regulation no. 37/2006,
Wardam B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 2011
30
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
4. PROPOSED RESPONSES AND LINKAGES WITH NRP
the ecosystems of host regions of Jordan requires an
in-depth scientific research which would lead to a
clear policy document needed to support decisionmaking in regards to the sustainability of ecosystems,
their goods and services, as well as their biodiversity,
under crisis conditions such as the Syrian refugee case.
Environmental degradation inflicts a cost to society,
in terms of mortality and morbidity from air and water
pollution, foregone income of activities linked to natural
resource use (such as agriculture, tourism), and cost
of “aversive behavior” (e.g., water filtration, purchase
of bottled water to reduce exposure to water-borne
diseases). The Cost of Environmental Degradation
(COED) in Jordan is evaluated taking into account both
immediate and longer-lived impacts of degradation
that have taken place in a reference year (2006). Using
a range of well-established and internationally accepted
methodologies, the total COED is estimated to be in
the range of JOD143-332 million, with an average of
JOD237 million, or 2.35% of GDP in 2006. If the impact
of emissions on global environment is added, the total
cost to Jordan and the global community as a whole
would be JOD393 million. Besides, absence of proper
monitoring regimes for both air quality and hazardous
waste challenges keeping records of changes in the
ambient air and flow of waste, also the MoEnv lacks for
convenient data base system for maintaining records
of all air parameters, kinds and amounts of waste.
Thus, more investment should be put to enhance the
monitoring and documenting capacities for air quality
control and waste management.
In terms of specific interventions, there are a number of
already planned projects proposed by the relevant line
ministries in the Government of Jordan:
•
•
Response to address water-related issues: The
MoWI has an invesement plan to address water
leakage, rehabilitation of infrastructure including
WWTPs, water mega projects like the Red-Dead
Canal, control of illegal water pumping, management
of water demand including water pricing, and public
awareness.
Response to address air quality-related issues: The
MoEnv had contributed to the development of the
response plan to the Syrian refugees. The priority
investments are to establish air quality monitoring
stations near the Syrian refugeee camps, developing
waste management facilities in Al-Akaider and other
sites near the refugee camps in Azraq. Besides,
there are plans at the Greater Amman Municipality
to develop public transit system in Amman, and
between Amman and Zarqa. (refer to Annex A6)
•
Response to address land and agriculture related
issues: The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) is
promoting efficient use of water to enhance water
productivity and sound cropping patterns. Different
water managment schemes are supported like
Water Users’ Associations in the Jordan Valley and
the engagement of the private sector. The MoA had
policies to support the protection of range lands
and forestes through regulation and awareness.
In terms of additional proposals for interventions, one
specific focus is on energy. It is imperative to harness
the use of renewable energy and appropriate green
technologies in the refugee camps to address the
energy security in Jordan. The overarching energy
insecurity challenge in Jordan has led the government
to shift to a broader energy supply mix reflected in the
National Energy Strategy. This includes a diversification
of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) possibly from Qatar or the
new Leviathan Basin in the Eastern Mediterranean, a new
LNG port planned in Aqaba; new oil and gas pipelines
from Iraq; and search for new shale potentials.
With regards to increased energy demands from Syrian
refugees and forced migrants in cities and towns, there is
a need to (i) accelerate energy efficiency and renewable
energy measures in buildings and residences across
Jordan to offset increased power demands from the
Syrian crisis (short-term), and (ii) establish new renewable
energy power supply capacities to bolster pressures
on the power grid (medium-term). The Government
foresees additional power demand in cities and towns as
a result of the Syrian crisis to be approximately 225MW,
with estimated capital investment to meet this additional
demand estimated at US$337.5 million.32
Separate to this are the needs for bringing power to
the Zaatari Camp including new power needs of 46MW
costing US$14 million in capital costs and US$5.6 million/
month in operational costs. With regards to expanding
access to water in the Zaatari Camp, the Government
also estimates a demand in power of 500kilowatt
needed to power two planned wells for the camp, which
sits over the country’s largest aquifer. Within this process,
renewable energy options could be explored based on
32. Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Impact of Hosting Syrian Refugees, October 2013, Amman.
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
31
4. PROPOSED RESPONSES AND LINKAGES WITH NRP
initial successes by the donor community in supporting
solar lighting in Zaatari Camp and solar energy in Azraq
Camp.
Given the estimated levels of incremental power
needed for response to the Syrian crisis of 225MW for
cities/towns, responses can align to and benefit from
the new strategic investments planned within Jordan’s
overall drive for sustainable energy solutions. Instead of
developing new import-dependent power capacities,
the suggestion is to meet extra loads through energy
efficiency and renewable energy solutions.
One significant deployable and low-cost priority in line
with the 2013 NEEAP is to install 38 thousand solar water
heaters in buildings and residences (cost of US$35.34
million), freeing up 73MW and reducing electricity costs
by US$20 million.33 A second significant deployable and
low-cost priority would be to replace 3 million inefficient
lights in residences and buildings with new compact
fluorescent lamps (CFLs) (cost of US$14.8 million), freeing
up 144MW of power in the years 2014 and 2015, while
also creating US$50 million in energy subsidy savings.
In addition, the proposed interventions will include
large-scale community awareness campaigns to raise
awareness, educate, and increase the acceptance of
the solar systems into the community, as well as energy
efficiency and saving. Capacity building programmes
for the ministry and municipal government staff on
technical issues related to installation and maintenance
of PV solar systems shall be included.
These interventions are vey much related to
infrastructural responses, and represent a key
opportunity to mainstream environmental sustainability
across such projects.
In terms of specific environmental interventions
under the headings addressed in the above study, the
environment sector has not been considered in the NRP
of 2013, thus, no interventions have been implemented
or initiated in response to the Syrian crisis in this sector.
Nonetheless, the following interventions are proposed
to mitigate the adverse impacts of Syrian crisis on
environmental components:
Both solar water heaters and CFLs have a good basis
for production and with deployment readily available
locally in Jordan, these two very cost-effective priorities
from the NEEAP could be rapidly implemented in 20142015 to free up 58% of new Syrian crisis-related energy
demand in the year 2014 and up to the full need in the
year after 2015. Further scaling up of these capacities
planned in 2015-2016 could fully cover all new energy
demands expected from the Syrian crisis, and would
also bring long-term benefits for Jordan’s sustainable
energy vision, outlasting the risks from the Syrian crisis.
Rapid energy efficiency and renewable energy gains
could also be coupled with a third priority – the
deployment, installation, and operations of Photo Voltaic
(PV) solar panel systems in different locations for 12,000
households in the host communities, in addition to the
awareness campaigns and advocacy to introduce these
units and their benefits to different communities across
the country.
The actions proposed under this sector would introduce
solar energy solutions to address the expanded demand
stemming from the Syrian refugee influx. The proposed
interventions will be prepared in full coordination with
the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR).
33. Jordan National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP), MED-ENEC Project, Cairo (2013).
32
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
4. PROPOSED RESPONSES AND LINKAGES WITH NRP
Table 1: Proposed response to address impact of Syrian refugees on the environment.
Domain
Priorities
Environment
Mainstreaming
Interventions
•
•
•
•
Water and
Wastewater
•
Soil Degradation,
Biodiversity and
Ecosystem
Services34
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Air Quality and
Energy
•
•
•
•
Hazardous Waste •
and Medical Waste
Establish an EIA unit in the JRP Secretariat to lead environmental review and support the
overall implementation of JRP Resilience projects.
Commence with a rapid environmental assessment during the launch of JRP of key
sectors/sub-chapters. It should contain environmental risks, taking into account the
gendered impact of environmental change and natural resource management. This is
an urgent need for 2015 to understand the actual impacts of the crisis on environmental
resources.
Undertake rapid EIAs for identified high level risk projects with mitigation options project
implementation. The cost of ecosystem degradation and the value of ecosystem services
are to be mainstreamed in the policy and decision-making.
Provide support for identification of appropriate clean technology solutions in JRP
response projects across infrastructure, municipal development, livelihoods, water, and
other sectors/sub-chapters.
Enhance the control systems, standards, and the performance efficiency of the water
supply system and wastewater treatment and reuse.
Operationalize the investment plan in MoWI and MoEnv.
Develop small-scale water supply and treatment units.
Enhance the control systems, standards, and the performance efficiency of the wastewater
treatment plants, factories and other emitting facilities.
Rehabilitate the affected ecosystems and habitats. More research is needed to deeply
analyze impacts of Syrian crisis on the affected ecosystem services.
Develop income generation opportunities for local communities targeting the most
vulnerable members of the community, including women in the surroundings of impacted
protected areas.
Enhance enforcement of wildlife protection-related legal framework.
Rehabilitate the affected rangelands and PAs.
Building on existing initiatives, develop an air quality monitoring network and database
on emissions and air quality.
Strengthen the organizational capacities (DoS and RSS) and knowledge management of
measuring air quality, especially in areas nearby refugees’ communities and camps, this
includes strengthening the human capacities, equipment, and field monitoring.
Provide support for identification of appropriate clean technology solutions like solar
energy.
Implement a plan to install appropriate small-scale green technologies including solar
water heaters, recycling, and bio-energy.
Enhance the operation and organizational capacities of collection, transport, and disposal
of medical and hazardous waste. This includes building the human capacities, provision of
needed equipment, and transportation of medical and hazardous waste from Swaqa to be
disposed outside the country.
34. These two sectors, while assessed separately in the study are combined due to overlaps.
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
33
4. PROPOSED RESPONSES AND LINKAGES WITH NRP
REFERENCES
•
Department of Statistics (DOS). 2012. Population sub-website. http://www.dos.gov.jo/dos_home_a/main/index.htm
•
Department of Statistics (DOS). 2012. http://www.dos.gov.jo/dos_home_a/main/index.htm
•
Department of Statistics (DOS).Jordan Poverty Report. 2011. Based on analysis of 2008 Household survey results
•
DOS (2010). Agricultural Statistics, 2010, Department of Statistics, Jordan.
•
FAO, 2012. Assessment of the risks from climate change and water scarcity on food productivity in Jordan.
•
Harrison, S(2010) (a). Impacts of Future Climate Change on Vegetation. The Royal Society for the Conservation
of Nature.
•
IEA Statistics © OECD/IEA, http://www.iea.org/stats/index.asp), International Energy Agency electronic files on
CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion.
•
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2014. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/
contents.html.
•
IPCC, 2013. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M.
Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp.
•
Jordan’s Ministry of Environment (2009), Jordan’s Fourth National report to the Convention of Biological Diversity.
•
MoEnv, 2009. Jordan's Second National Communication to the UNFCCC. Ministry of Environment, Amman,
Jordan.
•
MoEnv, 2012. Climate Change Adaptation in the Zarqa River Basin: Assessment of Direct and Indirect Impacts of
Climate Change Scenarios, (Water Resources Study, Vol. l). Ministry of Environment, Funded by UNDP, Amman, Jordan.
•
MoEnv, 2012. Executive Summary for Decision Makers on “Prioritization of Adaptation Interventions and
Adaptation Programmee for the Zarqa River Basin”. Funded by UNDP, Ministry of Environment, Amman, Jordan.
•
MoEnv, 2013. The National Climate Change Policy of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan 2013-2020. Sector
Strategic Guidance Framework. Supported by Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP). Ministry of Environment, Jordan.
•
The population higher council, 2011. The status of Jordanian population
•
The World Bank (2009). Jordan Poverty Update - Volume I: Main Report. Report No. 47951-JO
•
UNDP, 2012. Assessment of Direct and Indirect Impacts of Climate Change Scenarios (Water Resources Study Vol 1).
•
State of Environment Report for Jordan, Jordan Ministry of Environment, 2009.
34
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
ANNEXES
A1 POPULATION DATA IN JORDAN
Table A1.1: Population Census per Governorate from 2010 to 2013 (DOS, 2014).
Governorate and Province ‫املحافظة واإلقليم‬
Year ‫السنة‬
2013
2012
2011
2010
Middle Province ‫إقليم الوسط‬
4,102,200
4,012,900
3,925,600
3,840,200
Amman
‫العاصمة‬
2528500
2473400
2419600
2367000
Balqa
‫البلقاء‬
437500
428000
418600
409500
Zarqa
‫الزرقاء‬
972900
951800
931100
910800
‫مادبا‬
163300
159700
156300
152900
Northen Province ‫إقليم الشامل‬
1,815,300
1,776,000
1,737,200
1,699,400
‫اربد‬
1162300
1137100
1112300
1088100
Mafraq
‫املفرق‬
306900
300300
293700
287300
Jarash
‫جرش‬
‫عجلون‬
195900
191700
187500
183400
150200
146900
143700
140600
Southern Province ‫قليم الجنوب‬
612,500
599,100
586,200
573,400
Karak
‫الكرك‬
254700
249100
243700
238400
Tafila
‫الطفيلة‬
91400
89400
87500
85600
Ma’an
‫معان‬
124100
121400
118800
116200
Aqaba
‫العقبة‬
‫املجموع‬
142300
139200
136200
133200
6,530,000
8,763,100
6,249,000
6,113,000
Madaba
Irbid
Ajloun
TOTAL
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
35
ANNEXES
A2 WATER KEY INDICATORS
Table A2.1: Results of Microbial Analysis of Drinking Water Samples by Source and Governorate, 2011.
Type
‫السنة‬
Private Tanks
Governorate
%
‫النسبة املئوية‬
Non-Conforming Total Number
Samples
of Samples
‫السنة‬
Private Resources
%
‫العينات غري املطابقة‬
‫العدد الكيل للعينات‬
‫النسبة املئوية‬
Non-Conforming Total Number
Samples
of Samples
‫العينات غري املطابقة‬
‫العدد الكيل للعينات‬
Amman
4.4
37
847
7.5
18
239
Balqa
0.6
15
2666
0.0
0
228
Zarqa
4.4
20
451
0.0
0
429
Madaba
0.0
0
123
0.0
0
361
Irbid
1.6
26
1617
1.2
1
81
Mafraq
1.5
12
781
0.0
0
63
Jarash
4.1
31
747
0.0
0
72
Ajloun
0.0
0
353
0.0
0
0
Karak
1.2
6
498
0.0
0
87
Tafila
0.0
0
578
0.0
0
91
Ma’an
0.0
0
193
0.0
0
67
Aqaba
0.0
0
391
0.0
0
0
TOTAL
17.8
147
9235
8.8
19
1718
Source: M.O.H. Environment Health
Note: Slight differences in the totals of some tables are due to weighting
procedures and rounding of figures
36
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
‫‪ANNEXES‬‬
‫نتائج الفحوص الجرثومية لعينات مياه الرشب حسب املحافظة واملصدر ‪2012‬‬
‫النوع‬
‫مصادر عامة‬
‫املحافظة‬
‫‪Public Resources‬‬
‫‪Non-Conforming Total Number‬‬
‫‪Samples‬‬
‫‪of Samples‬‬
‫‪%‬‬
‫شبكات عامة‬
‫‪Public Networks‬‬
‫‪Non-Conforming Total Number‬‬
‫‪Samples‬‬
‫‪of Samples‬‬
‫‪%‬‬
‫النسبة املئوية‬
‫العدد الكيل للعينات‬
‫العينات غري املطابقة‬
‫العدد الكيل للعينات‬
‫العينات غري املطابقة‬
‫‪5334‬‬
‫‪85‬‬
‫‪1.6‬‬
‫العاصمة‬
‫‪824‬‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪0.8‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪0.2‬‬
‫البلقاء‬
‫‪1450‬‬
‫‪17‬‬
‫‪1.2‬‬
‫‪559‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫الزرقاء‬
‫‪423‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪0.2‬‬
‫‪1692‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫مادبا‬
‫‪21‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫‪347‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫اربد‬
‫‪324‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫‪3020‬‬
‫‪17‬‬
‫‪0.6‬‬
‫املفرق‬
‫‪457‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫‪1477‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪0.2‬‬
‫جرش‬
‫‪982‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪0.3‬‬
‫‪646‬‬
‫‪15‬‬
‫‪2.3‬‬
‫عجلون‬
‫‪361‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫‪686‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫الكرك‬
‫‪475‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫‪638‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫الطفيلة‬
‫‪104‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫‪278‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫معان‬
‫‪216‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫‪326‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫العقبة‬
‫‪230‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫‪385‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬
‫املجموع‬
‫‪5867‬‬
‫‪28‬‬
‫‪2.5‬‬
‫‪15388‬‬
‫‪121‬‬
‫‪4.8‬‬
‫املصدر‪ :‬وزارة الصحة – صحة البيئة‬
‫مالحظة‪ :‬يوجد هناك اختالف طفيف يف مجاميع بعض الجداول وذلك بسبب عملية التثقيل‬
‫(الرتجيح) والتقريب‬
‫‪37‬‬
‫‪RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX‬‬
‫‪ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN‬‬
‫النسبة املئوية‬
ANNEXES
Table A2.2: Results of Microbial Analysis of Drinking Water Samples by Source and Governorate, 2012.
Type
‫السنة‬
Private Tanks
Governorate
%
‫النسبة املئوية‬
Non-Conforming Total Number
Samples
of Samples
‫السنة‬
Private Resources
%
‫العينات غري املطابقة‬
‫العدد الكيل للعينات‬
‫النسبة املئوية‬
Non-Conforming Total Number
Samples
of Samples
‫العينات غري املطابقة‬
‫العدد الكيل للعينات‬
Amman
7.8
68
869
1.6
1
62
Zarqa
3.9
16
413
0.3
1
381
Madaba
1.5
3
199
0.6
2
325
2.9
36
2858
Irbid
14.6
55
1864
4.5
Mafraq
30.0
39
1033
4.5
Jarash
0.4
35
701
-
-
81
Ajloun
0.5
2
443
-
-
-
Karak
1.0
6
560
-
-
92
Tafila
-
-
595
-
-
100
Ma’an
-
-
164
-
-
72
Aqaba
-
-
513
-
-
-
TOTAL
2.3
247
10512
0.8
13
1610
Source: M.O.H. Environment Health
Note: Slight differences in the totals of some tables are due to weighting
procedures and rounding of figures
38
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
229
2
80
65
‫‪ANNEXES‬‬
‫نتائج الفحوص الجرثومية لعينات مياه الرشب حسب املحافظة واملصدر ‪2012‬‬
‫النوع‬
‫مصادر عامة‬
‫املحافظة‬
‫‪Public Resources‬‬
‫‪Non-Conforming Total Number‬‬
‫‪Samples‬‬
‫‪of Samples‬‬
‫‪%‬‬
‫شبكات عامة‬
‫‪Public Networks‬‬
‫‪Non-Conforming Total Number‬‬
‫‪Samples‬‬
‫‪of Samples‬‬
‫‪%‬‬
‫النسبة املئوية‬
‫العدد الكيل للعينات‬
‫العينات غري املطابقة‬
‫العدد الكيل للعينات‬
‫العينات غري املطابقة‬
‫‪6092‬‬
‫‪62‬‬
‫‪1.5‬‬
‫العاصمة‬
‫‪792‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪0.8‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫الزرقاء‬
‫‪422‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪1413‬‬
‫‪0.2‬‬
‫مادبا‬
‫‪49‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪598‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪1312‬‬
‫‪18‬‬
‫‪3.3‬‬
‫‪2156‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪0.2‬‬
‫اربد‬
‫‪366‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪2844‬‬
‫‪14‬‬
‫‪2.6‬‬
‫املفرق‬
‫‪374‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪1387‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫جرش‬
‫‪970‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪0.4‬‬
‫‪593‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪1.3‬‬
‫عجلون‬
‫‪210‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪664‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫الكرك‬
‫‪414‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪625‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫الطفيلة‬
‫‪127‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪336‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫معان‬
‫‪214‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪324‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫العقبة‬
‫‪206‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪279‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫املجموع‬
‫‪5456‬‬
‫‪28‬‬
‫‪0.5‬‬
‫‪17311‬‬
‫‪91‬‬
‫‪0.5‬‬
‫املصدر‪ :‬وزارة الصحة – صحة البيئة‬
‫مالحظة‪ :‬يوجد هناك اختالف طفيف يف مجاميع بعض الجداول وذلك بسبب عملية التثقيل‬
‫(الرتجيح) والتقريب‬
‫‪39‬‬
‫‪RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX‬‬
‫‪ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN‬‬
‫النسبة املئوية‬
ANNEXES
Table A2.3: Number of Drinking Water Samples Microbially Analyzed and Number of Non-Conforming Samples
(1998-2012).
2012 – 1999 ‫عدد عينات مياه الرشب املحللة جرثوميا وغري املطابقة‬
Pourcentage of NonConforming Drinking
Water Samples %
No. of Non-Conforming
Samples
Total No. of Analyzed
Samples
Year
2.1
1054
50312
1999
1.7
786
46820
2000
1.3
589
44016
2001
1.3
466
35537
2002
1.1
350
33246
2003
0.9
304
33710
2004
0.8
243
32109
2005
1.1
339
31695
2006
1.1
383
34827
2007
1.2
414
35093
2008
1.2
426
34725
2009
1.1
361
33825
2010
0.9
316
33996
2011
1.1
379
34967
2012
‫النسب املئوية لعينات مياه الرشب‬
‫غري املطابقة‬
‫عدد العينات غري املطابقة‬
Source: M.O.H. Environmental Health
Note: Slight differences in the totals of some tables are due to weighting
procedures and rounding of figures
40
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
‫عدد العينات املحللة الكلية‬
‫السنة‬
‫ وزارة الصحة – صحة البيئة‬:‫املصدر‬
‫ يوجد هناك اختالف طفيف يف مجاميع بعض الجداول وذلك بسبب عملية‬:‫مالحظة‬
‫التثقيل (الرتجيح) والتقريب‬
ANNEXES
A3 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTS
Table A3.1: Irrigated, Non-Irrigated and Total Cultivated Area, 2000-2011 (000 Dunum).
.)‫ (ألف دونم‬2000-2011 ‫املساحة املروية والبعلية واملساحة الكلية‬
Non-Irrigated Area
Irrigated Area
Total Area
Year
1584.9
769.1
2354.1
2000
1829.9
734.5
2564.4
2001
1856.6
749.3
2605.9
2002
1673.2
713.2
2386.4
2003
1947.5
761.2
2708.8
2004
1673.4
800.5
2473.9
2005
1687.8
834.5
2522.3
2006
1061.0
810.9
1871.9
2007
1385.5
928.4
2313.9
2008
1293.7
948.2
2241.9
2009
1568.8
1024.7
2593.5
2010
1443.2
694.5
2137.7
2011
‫املساحة البعلية‬
Source: Department of Statistics
‫املساحة املروية‬
‫املساحة الكلية‬
‫السنة‬
‫ دائرة االحصاءات العامة‬:‫املصدر‬
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
41
ANNEXES
Table A2.2: Number of Forest Fire Accidents, Number of Damaged Trees and Area Damaged for the Years
2002-2013.
2013.-2002 ‫عدد حرائق الغابات وعدد األشجار واملساحة املترضرة للسنوات‬
Year
No. of Forest Fires
No. of Damaged Trees
Area Damaged (Dunum)
2002
40
6643
653.1
2003
47
6672
617.0
2004
45
4098
849.5
2005
53
3352
1434.0
2006
51
4248
994.0
2007
59
6016
1553.3
2008
60
2825
1046.0
2009
33
1675
216.0
2010
48
2020
1094.8
2011
65
1945
11529.0
2012
57
4323
1296.0
2013
64
5615
2711.0
‫السنة‬
‫عدد حرائق الغابات‬
‫عدد األشجار املترضرة‬
)‫املساحة املترضرة (دونم‬
‫مديرية الحراج‬/‫ وزارة الزراعة‬:‫املصدر‬
Source: Ministry of Agriculture - Directorate of Forestry
Table A3.3: Quantity of Imported Agricultural Pesticides by Kind, 2000-2011 (Meteric Ton).
.)‫ (طن مرتي‬2011 – 2000 ‫كمية املبيدات الزراعية املستوردة حسب النوع‬
‫النوع‬
Type
Total
Vital Insecticides Acricides Fungicides Herbicides Fungicides1
‫حيوي‬
‫حرشي‬
?
‫فطري‬
‫أعشاب‬
‫معقامت‬
‫ & زيوت‬Molluscicides Health
‫صحة عامة قوارض وقواقع‬
Oil
Rodenticides
983.7
0.4
198.3
30.8
390.0
58.1
179.7
94.2
8.0
983.7
0.0
132.0
26.4
321.9
46.0
106.8
72.5
740.6
0.0
198.0
64.7
411.3
65.4
19.6
967.0
0.0
191.0
71.0
315.0
35.0
1079.2
0.0
184.0
87.5
476.0
1320.9
0.0
278.6
102.8
963.4
0.0
204.9
1413.3
0.0
1251.9
‫املجموع‬
Public Veterinary Year
‫بيطري‬
‫السنة‬
21.6
2.5
2000
10.2
24.7
0.0
2001
179.7
6.6
117.0
0.0
2002
284.0
35.0
13.0
23.0
0.0
2003
87.0
50.0
143.0
14.6
37.1
0.0
2004
641.5
93.8
99.6
54.0
19.4
31.2
0.0
2005
91.6
486.4
54.7
41.5
28.5
16.3
39.5
0.0
2006
270.9
102.9
627.1
127.6
62.4
145.7
51.2
25.5
0.0
2007
1.3
270.0
116.9
628.7
105.0
61.0
38.0
3.7
27.4
0.0
2018
1383.3
0.0
263.4
121.5
427.1
296.5
80.2
139.6
7.5
47.5
0.0
2009
1445.4
0.0
259.8
11.7
620.4
149.8
146.5
58.9
5.8
92.5
0.0
2010
1956.4
5.0
849.5
181.0
582.8
116.0
92.3
50.8
10.8
68.2
0.0
2011
Source: Ministry of Agriculture
(1) Fumigant of Soil, Seed and Store
42
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
‫ وزارة الزراعة‬: ‫املصدر‬
‫) معقامت الرتبة والبذور والخازن‬1(
ANNEXES
A4 AIR QUALITY KEY INDICATORS
Table A4.1: Number of Registered Vehicles and Percentage of Change, 2000-2012.
2012 – 2000 ‫عدد املركبات املسجلة ونسبة التغري‬
% Change
No. of Vehicles (000)
Year
15.9
373
2000
12.6
420
2001
29.4
543
2002
4.4
567
2003
8.5
615
2004
10.6
680
2005
11.1
755
2006
11.4
842
2007
7.6
906
2008
9.9
995
2009
8.0
1075
2010
6.7
1147
2011
5.8
1213
2012
‫نسبة التغري‬
Source: Trafic Department
)‫عدد املركبات (باأللف‬
‫السنة‬
: ‫ دائرة السري‬:‫املصدر‬
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
43
ANNEXES
Figure A4.1: Number of Registered Vehicles and Percentage of Change, 2000-2012
Figure A4.2: Average annual concentrations for SO2 in 5 monitoring locations (2008-2013) in ppm (RSS and
MoEnv, 2014).
Average annual
concentrations for
SO2 in 5 monitoring
locations (2008-2013)
ppm
44
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
ANNEXES
Figure A4.3: Average annual concentrations for NO2 in 5 monitoring locations (2008-2013) in ppm (RSS and
MoEnv, 2014).
Average annual
concentrations for
NO2 in 5 monitoring
locations (2008-2013)
ppm
Figure A4.4: Average annual concentrations for PM 2.5 & PM 10 in 5 monitoring locations (2008-2013) in microgram/m3 (RSS and MoEnv, 2014).
Average annual
concentrations for
PM2.5 & PM10
(microgram/m3)
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
45
ANNEXES
A5 ENERGY KEY INDICATORS
Table A5.1: Electricity Consumption (GWh) in Jordan during 2007 - 2012.
Total
‫املجموع‬
%
10538
Others1
Streets Lighting
Water Pumping
‫أخرى‬
‫انارة شوارع‬
‫ضخ مياه‬
Qty
%
Qty
%
0.0
0
2.6
269
15.1
1592
11509
0.0
0
2.5
284
14.9
1713
11956
0.0
0
2.6
310
14.8
1773
12843
0.0
0
2.4
315
14.5
1867
13535
0.0
0
2.5
334
14.3
1939
14274
0.0
0
2.1
305
13.7
1955
‫الكمية‬
Source: Electrical International Company
(1) Include Governemental Consumption and Hospital, Charities,
Hotels, Broadkasting and TV
Figure A5.1: Electrical Energy Used by Sector, 2007-2012 (GWH).
46
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
‫الكمية‬
Qty
‫الكمية‬
‫‪ANNEXES‬‬
‫الطاقة الكهربائية املستخدمة حسب القطاع ‪( 2012 2007‬ج‪.‬و‪.‬س)‪.‬‬
‫‪Year‬‬
‫‪Household‬‬
‫‪Industrial‬‬
‫‪Commercial‬‬
‫منزيل‬
‫السنة‬
‫تجاري‬
‫‪%‬‬
‫‪Qty‬‬
‫‪2007‬‬
‫‪4001‬‬
‫‪38.0‬‬
‫‪2917‬‬
‫‪27.7‬‬
‫‪2008‬‬
‫‪4459‬‬
‫‪38.7‬‬
‫‪3128‬‬
‫‪27.2‬‬
‫‪1925‬‬
‫‪2009‬‬
‫‪4888‬‬
‫‪40.9‬‬
‫‪3006‬‬
‫‪25.1‬‬
‫‪1979‬‬
‫‪16.6‬‬
‫‪2010‬‬
‫‪5220‬‬
‫‪40.6‬‬
‫‪3258‬‬
‫‪25.4‬‬
‫‪2184‬‬
‫‪17.0‬‬
‫‪2011‬‬
‫‪5548‬‬
‫‪41.0‬‬
‫‪3445‬‬
‫‪25.5‬‬
‫‪2269‬‬
‫‪16.8‬‬
‫‪2012‬‬
‫‪6126‬‬
‫‪42.9‬‬
‫‪3461‬‬
‫‪24.2‬‬
‫‪2427‬‬
‫‪17.0‬‬
‫السنة‬
‫‪Qty‬‬
‫الكمية‬
‫الكمية‬
‫‪%‬‬
‫‪Qty‬‬
‫‪1759‬‬
‫‪16.7‬‬
‫‪16.7‬‬
‫الكمية‬
‫‪%‬‬
‫املصدر‪ :‬رشكة الكهرباء الوطنية‬
‫(‪ )1‬تحتوي عىل األستهالك الحكومي والقوات املسلحة واستهالك املستشفيات‪ ،‬املؤسسات‬
‫الخريية والتلفزيون والرصد والفنادق‬
‫‪Table A5.2: Local Production of Oil & Gas and Total Consumption of Primary Energy, 2008-2012 (000 Ton oil‬‬
‫‪equivalent).‬‬
‫االنتاج املحيل للنفط والغاز واالستهالك الكيل للطاقة األولية ‪( 2012 – 2008‬ألف طن مكاىفء نفط)‪.‬‬
‫‪Production‬‬
‫األنتاج‬
‫‪Year‬‬
‫السنة‬
‫‪Oil‬‬
‫نسبة األنتاج املحيل اىل‬
‫األستهالك الكيل‪%‬‬
‫نفط‬
‫‪Gas‬‬
‫غاز‬
‫‪Total‬‬
‫املجموع‬
‫االستهالك الكيل‬
‫‪2008‬‬
‫‪1.7‬‬
‫‪154.1‬‬
‫‪155.8‬‬
‫‪7335‬‬
‫‪3.2‬‬
‫‪2009‬‬
‫‪1.5‬‬
‫‪161.9‬‬
‫‪163.4‬‬
‫‪7739‬‬
‫‪2.1‬‬
‫‪2010‬‬
‫‪1.2‬‬
‫‪136.4‬‬
‫‪137.6‬‬
‫‪7357‬‬
‫‪1.9‬‬
‫‪2011‬‬
‫‪0.9‬‬
‫‪134.1‬‬
‫‪135.0‬‬
‫‪7457‬‬
‫‪1.8‬‬
‫‪2012‬‬
‫‪1.0‬‬
‫‪121.0‬‬
‫‪122.0‬‬
‫‪7979‬‬
‫‪2.4‬‬
‫املصدر‪ :‬وزارة الطاقة‬
‫‪47‬‬
‫‪Total‬‬
‫‪Consumption‬‬
‫)‪(%‬‬
‫‪Percentage‬‬
‫‪of Domestic‬‬
‫‪Production to Total‬‬
‫)‪Consumption (%‬‬
‫‪RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX‬‬
‫‪ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN‬‬
‫‪Source: Ministry of Energy‬‬
ANNEXES
Figure A5.2: Energy and Electricity Demand Forecast in Jordan.
48
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
ANNEXES
THE ENERGY MIX IN JORDAN (2008-2020)
Figure A5.3: Jordan’s Energy Strategy for the Year 2020.
2010
2% 2%
Imported
Electricity
Renewable
31%
N. Gas
65%
2015
Imported
Electricity
Oil Shale
2%
Renewable
7%
11%
51%
Oil Products
29%
N. Gas
2020
Oil Products
Nuclear
Renewable
Imported
Electricity
2%
10%
6%
14%
Oil Shale
40%
Oil Products
29%
N. Gas
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
49
ANNEXES
A6 SOLID WASTE
Table A6.1: MSW composition in three main cities (Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa) in Jordan in 2010.
(SWEEP net’s country report on the solid waste management in Jordan, July 2010)
Solid waste component
Average percent by weight
Amman
Irbid
Zarqa
54.4
77.5
73
14
14.9
9
Plastics
13.2
2.5
10
Metals
2.4
1.3
2
Glass
2.8
2.6
2
Miscellaneous
13.2
1.2
4
Moisture content (%)
65
62
57
Density (kg/m3
259
241
223
Food waste
Paper and cardboard
Table A6.1: Solid waste service indicators in three major cities of Jordan Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa).
(SWEEP net’s country report on the solid waste management in Jordan, July 2010)
Indicator
City
Unit
Amman
Irbid
Zarqa
No.
20
12
9
Population served
person
1,800,000
371,000
483,000
Population served per worker
person
630
742
867
Population served per vehicle
person
11,320
14,840
15,580
Average number of containers per km
of collection vehicle
No.
3.93
371,000
4.5
Average daily number of containers
served per collection vehicle
No.
37.7
42.2
31.8
Average cost of collection and
transport
US$/ton
29
20.1
22.7
Average daily SW collected by worker
kg/day
557
650
518
8.6
12.5
6
Number of service regions
Ratio of workers to inspectors
50
RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX
ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN
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