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ASSESSMENT OF THE LIVELIHOODS, LIVING CONDITIONS
AND WELFARE OF SOMALI PASTORALISTS:
A Representative Survey Conducted to Provide a Baseline for
Programmes in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), Togdheer, South
Mudug, Sanaag, Gedo and Galgaduud
DRAFT
Roy Carr-Hill
For
HORN RELIEF
30th September 2011
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1
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1.1
1.2
I.3
1.4
Background
Stakeholders
Rationale for this Assessment
Objectives of this Assessment
Chapter 2.
2.1
2.2
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
Literature Review
Introduction
2.1.1 Purpose
2.1.2 Definition of pastoralist
2.1.3 Background and context
Sectoral Analyis
2.2.1 Environment, Water and Sanitation
2.2.2 Education
2.2.3 Health
2.2.4 Livelihoods
Chapter 3.
3.1
Introduction
Methodology
Choice of Sites and Sub Sites, Sampling and Sample Size
3.1.1 Choice of Sites and Sub-Sites
3.1.2 Choice of Sampling Points within Sites
3.1.3 Sample Size
Instruments
3.2.1 Rationale
3.2.2 Coverage of Themes in Household Questionnaire by Sector
3.2.3 Coverage of themes in Other Instruments
3.2.4 Language of Instruments
Data Collection Experience
3.3.1 Achieved Sample Sizes of Household Questionnaires
3.3.2 Numbers of Qualitative Instruments
Data Processing And Analysis
3.4.1 Data Entry
3.4.2 Data Cleaning
3.4.3 Bases for Percentages
3.4.4 Approaches to Analysing Variability
3.4.5 Comparisons with the 2006 MICS Survey
Chapter 4: Households Composition and Energy Use
4.1
i
4.3
Fuel and Materials Used in Housing
4.3.1 Fuel Use
4.3.2 Rooms and Materials of Floors, Roofs and Walls
Chapter 5: Education And Learning
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5.1
5.2
5.4
Pastoralist Experience of Education
5.1.1 Adults
5.1.2 Children
5.1.3 Learning Environment in Household
5.1.4 Sources of Information about Different Topics
Supply of Formal Education Services
Summary of Findings and Discussioin
5.4.1 Educational Experiences of Adults and Children
5.4.2 Acceptability and Appropriateness of Formal Schools: Comparison of Views
from Different Groups
5.4.3 Recommended Provision by Different Groups
5.4.4 Learning Environment in Households and Sources of Information
5.4.5 Comparison with MICS 2006
Chapter 6: Health And Illness
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
Access and Use of Health Care
HIV/AIDS
Sanitation
Sources of Water
Washing Facilities and Water Treatment
Child Birth and Mortality
Illness of and Treatment of Youngest Child in Household:
Antenatal Care
Acceptability of „Modern‟ Health Services to Pastoralist Representatives
Discussion: Comparison of Findings with MICS 2006
Chapter 7: Livelihoods, Household Income And Expenditure
7.1
7.2
7.3
Livelihoods
7.1.1 Agriculture
7.1.2 Livestock Ownership and Dynamics
7.1.3 Other Livelihood Activities:
Income, Income Sources and Livestock Sales
7.2.1 Income and Income Sources
7.2.2 Selling Livestock
Household Expenditure
7.3.1 Sources of Food
7.3.2 Expenditure on Different Types of Goods and Services
7.3.3 Owing Money
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7.4
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Findings and Discussion
7.4.1 Agriculture
7.4.2 Livestock
7.4.3 Income and Expenditure
Chapter 8: Food and Nutrition
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Household Food Consumption
8.1.1 Who Has Eaten
8.1.2 How often did they eat different kinds of foods?
8.1.3 Have households changed food consumption in the last week?
Household Coping Strategies in the Last Three Months
8.2.2 Other Support
8.2.3 Pastoralist Perspectives
Breastfeeding and Other Infant Feeding
8.3.1 Breastfeeding
8.3.2 Other Infant Feeding in last 24 hours
Findings and Discussion
Chapter 9: Regional/ Site Differences
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
Education and Learning
Health and Wash
9.2.1 Childhood Mortality and Illness
9.2.2 Access to health care for adults and antenatal care for women
9.2.3 Sanitation
Livelihoods Income and Expenditure
9.3.1 Livelihoods
9.3.2 Income and Expenditure
Food and Nutrition
9.4.1 Food Consumption and Coping Strategies
9.4.2 Breastfeeding
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 3.1 Sites and Sub-Sites
Table 3.2: Intended and Achieved Sample Sizes by Site
Page | iv Table 4.2: Household Composition
Table 4.3: Head of household and Responden
Table 5.1: Education of Adults
Table 5.2: Reasons Adults Did Not Take Up Non-Formal Education Opportunities
Table 5.3: Education of Children: Formal Schooling
Table 5.4: Reasons for Not Sending Children to Formal School
Table 5.5: Children‟s Access to Other Educational Possibilities
Table 5.6: Reasons Why Alternative Education Opportunities Not Taken Up
Table 5.7: Primary School Fees and Costs
Table 5.8: Learning Environment in Household
Table 5.9: Education Opportunities by Radio: (A) News, Discussion, Announcements, Sports
Table 5.9: Education Opportunities by Radio: (B) Agriculture, Home Economics, Health, Religion,
Music/Entertainment
Table 5.10: Sources of Information on (A) Education and Health Care
Table 5.10: Sources of Information on (B) Sanitation and Water, Protection & Shelter
Table 5.11: Which radio or TV channel used to access information
Table 5.12: Leaflets from NGOs or Governments
Table 6.1: Where Health Care Is Sought
Table 6.2: Knowledge of HIV/AIDS
Table 6.3: Type of Toilet Facility
Table 6.4: Water Sources
Table 6.5: Handwashing Chemicals and Water Treatment Methods
Table 6.6: Birth and Infant Mortality
Table 6.7: Illness and Treatment of Childhood Illnesses: Diarrhea and Cough
Table 6.8: Illness and Treatment of Childhood Illnesses: Fever
Table 6.9: Vaccinations of and Delivery of Youngest Child
Table 6.10: Antenatal Care: Care and Vaccinations
Table 6.11: Antenatal Care: Birth Assistance and Registration
Table 7.1: Household Productive Assets
Table 7.2: Tools Available and Problems with Agriculture
Table 7.3: Proportion of Households Owning Different Types of Livestock by District
Figure 7.1: Average Number of Animals per Household by Type and by Region
Figure 7.2: Overall Maximum Numbers of Animals Received and the Average Number Received by Each
Household by Livestock Type
Table 7.4A: Maximum number of livestock acquired by a household owning given type of livestock by
region
Table 7.4B: Mean number of livestock acquired by a household owning given type of livestock by region
Table 7.5: The maximum and the mean number of animals sold by households within six months by
livestock types and by region.
Table 7.6A: Maximum number of animals lost per household from drought and diseases by livestock type
and by region
Figure 7.3: Maximum number of animals lost by a household from drought and diseases by livestock type
Figure 7.4: Mean number of animals lost by households from drought and diseases by livestock type
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Table 7.6B: Mean number of animals lost per household from drought and diseases by livestock type and
by region
Table 7.7: Net decrease in number of animals and et percentage loss over last 6 months
Table 7.8 Problems with Livestock:
Table 7.9 Other Livelihood Activities and Household and Individual Assets
Page | v Table 7.10A Household Income
Table 7.10B Household Income
Table 7.11 Why Selling Livestock
Table 7.12 Food Sources Part A
Table 7.12 Food Sources Part B
Table 7.13 Expenditure on Goods and Services Part A
Table 7.13 Expenditure on Goods and Services Part B
Table 7.14 Household Debt and To Whom Owed
Table 7.15A Priorities for Spending of Additional Income: Part A
Table 7.15B Priorities for Spending of Additional Income: Part B
Table 8.1 Food Consumption: Number of days eaten and how many meals
yesterday for age-sex groups
Table 8.2 Food Consumption: How many days in the last week were different foods eaten by adult
women?
Table 8.3 Food Consumption: What was done to cope with food shortages in the last week?
Table 8.4 Coping Strategies: Percentages adopting different strategies Part 1
Table 8.4 Coping Strategies: Percentages adopting different strategies, Part 2
Table 8.5 Breastfeeding and Other Infant Feeding
Table 8.6: Infant Feeding Items 19.12-19.18
Annex to Chapter 8
Table 8.A Food Consumption: How many days in the last week were different foods eaten? A: Sorghum
and Rice
Table 8.2B Food Consumption: How many days in the last week were different foods eaten? B: Tea or
sugared water and Cooking Oil
Table 8.2C Food Consumption: How many days in the last week were different foods eaten? C:
Cultivated Vegetables and Beans
Table 8.2D Food Consumption: How many days in the last week were different foods eaten? D: Chicken
and Beef
Table 8.2E Food Consumption: How many days in the last week were different foods eaten? E: Goat meat
and eggs
Table 8.2F Food Consumption: How many days in the last week were different foods eaten? F: Fresh and
processed Milk
Table 9.1: Regional High and Low Rates for Education and Learning
Table 9.2: Regional Highs and Lows for Child Mortality and Illness
Table 9.3: Regional Highs and Lows in Acess to Health Care and Antenatal Care
Table 9.4: Regional Highs and Lows in Sanitation,Water Sources and Water Treatment
Table 9.5: Regional High and Lows of Livelihoods
Table 9.6: Regional Highs and Lows on Income and Expenditure
Table 9.7: Regional Highs and Lows in Food Consumption
Table 9.8: Regional Highs and Lows in Food Shortages and Coping Strategies
Table 9.9: Regional Highs and Lows for Breastfeeding
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
FINDINGS WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR PROGRAMMING
MAJOR MESSAGES
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1. There are often quite large variations between the regions, but very rarely are there
substantial variations between livelihood patterns of the household within any one
region; this means that any programming has to be region specific.
2. Take up of formal education does not appear to have increased over a generation
overall child enrolment still only 20%; and, given cash income levels, fees are high.
3. In contrast, take up of Qu’aranic schooling has increased substantially over a
generation.
4. Take up of ‘modern’ health care services is, in general, low; people prefer
pharmacists and in some regions traditional practitioners.
5. About a quarter reported vaccination of either mother or child, 60% had used a
traditional birth attendant and very few reported registration of birth
6. There are wide variations in knowledge and attitudes about HIV/ AIDS which
suggests inadequate or at least uneven programming.
7. Sanitation of any kind is available to less than 20%
8. About 13% and 18% have access to secure water for drinking and cooking
respectively; but there were large variations between regions which could be a basis
for programming.
9. Over half of households had sold livestock in the last 3 months to buy food and to
buy non-food items with under a quarter in South Mudug and nearly four fifths in
Gedo and Galgaduud. More than a quarter had sold livestock to pay for services
10. Borrowed food was a principle source of food over the last 3 months for 78%,
varying between 39% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) to 93% in South Mudug
and 94% in Sanaag.
11. Average expenditure is US$125 a month which is high; but over four fifths of
households (83%) owed money for an average of US$406, about three times monthly
expenditure.
12. Beans, eggs, beef, chicken or goat meat had been eaten on less than 1 day during the
last week. Cultivated vegetables had been eaten just under 1 day a week. Diet was
mostly rice and sorghum
13. About 36% of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) had enough food to
survive for more than a week, compared to less than 15% of households in the
other three sites who had just enough for a week with the situation particularly
worrying in Gedo where only 4% had just enough food for a week.
14. Coping strategies over the last three months had included reducing amount of food
ate each meal (78%), reducing the number of meals per day (14%), collecting
firewood (14%) or bush products (3%) to sell, relying on help from relatives or
neighbours (17%), borrowing food or cash (23%), reducing spending on non-food
items (37%). All of these strategies except borrowing were most used by households
in Gedo
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The objectives of this situational assessment of pastoralists across the Somali territories were to:
•
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•
•
To provide a secure basis for the planning and development of successful approaches by
governments, donors and implementing agencies (i.e. NGOs)
unique set of development needs as well as vulnerabilities to environmental changes and
conflict
needs and vulnerabilities are interlinked; correspondingly, support to the pastoral
communities must be a holistic, multi-sectoral programmatic approach.
.
1. METHODOLOGY: Survey Coverage, Instruments, Training and Achieved
Samples
1.1
Survey Coverage
After consultation with the Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit (FSNAU), 11 sites were
chosen in March so as to be representative of the main livelihood zones. Of the 3 shoat sites,
South Mudug with the largest population has been selected. Five of the other sites were judged
insecure and in particular all 3 of the agro-pastoral sites were seen as insecure. For this reason
two more sites (Lower Juba and Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)) were added. Information
about the security status received during April made it clear that Lower Juba was no longer a
possible site, but that parts of Galgadud and Gedo would be accessible. The final choice of sites
is shown in the final column of Table 3.1
In order to provide some additional assurance that the sample is representative, three subsites
points within each regional site were identified as locations for the survey. Any intra-site
variation would be an indication of the extent to which there might be variation between sites in
the same livelihood zone. At each of the subsites the enumerators were asked to tytavel to a
different sampling point each day.
1.2
Instruments
Rationale for Instruments
•
•
The basis of assessment was a situational assessment among a large representative
sample of households called the Household Questionnaire. with 820 items in total
including 211 items on education and ## items of health care related issues
Additional Information was, as in many other studies, collected from „Key Informants‟:
• Government and site officials
• Head teachers
• NGOs
• ‟Successful‟ pastoralist drop-outs
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Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) on sensitive issues (child discipline and child labour)
or with those usually excluded (women)
•
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In addition, interviews were carried out with representative leaders of pastoralist groups
at sampling points. These had two purposes:
• Ask those questions which have the same response for all members of the group
(e.g. about land ownership, migration patterns, or public transport).
• Ask „why‟ questions, where a closed household interview was not the most
appropriate instrument and where, as in this case, the existing household
questionnaire is already very long so that inclusion of open-ended questions is not
practicable.
Content Coverage of Household Survey
•
•
•
•
•
•
Education: description of formal and non-formal services available in the area, barriers to
access and retention in school, expectation of parents about future for children, exposure
of adults to any educational programme and brief assessment of their literacy
Health: access to and use of services, vaccination coverage, recent diarrhoeal illness,
barriers to access and use
Livelihoods: herd size and dynamics, sources of income and food, expenditure patterns
Nutrition: access to services, dietary diversity, and Middle Uper Arm Circumference
MUAC measurements where training support is available
Social Protection: including child labour and its compatibility with education for their
children, abuse of children, safety nets and the security of migration patterns
WASH: access and barriers to use of services, limited number of health behaviour
questions
Additional Instruments with Key Informants
•
•
•
•
Site/ Regional Authorities : Interviews with the contact officials, the Education Officer
and the officers in charge of local agricultural, health and WASH programmes to identify
any relevant activities.
(I)NGOs: Interviews with any local NGOs working with pastoralist communities to seek
information about other relevant people and to follow up where possible
Interview Head teacher or School Director: At each „site‟, go to schools where there is a
significant minority, at least 25%, of pastoralist children and interview about provision of
services to pastoralists
Interviews with successful pastoralist „drop-outs‟ : Interview a maximum of 6 such
people (2 each of businessmen, professionals and students) about why they left, what
they think would benefit their former colleagues. Only interview those working in the
local headquarters who can be interviewed whilst you are in the field.
Language of Instruments
The survey tools (Questionnaires, observation forms and guideline questions for Focussed Group
Discussions (FGD)) were developed in English. The tools were then translated and back
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translated. All instruments have been made available in English and Somali: as the bulk of the
structured questionnaire will consist of closed questions for the purposes of data entry it will not
matter which one is used; for the other instruments, the Team Leaders will be asked to complete
if possible in English; if not the responses will be back translated into English.
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1.3
Training And Pre-Tests
The training was conducted in three phases: for the North West Zone (Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed)) and Togdheer) at Hargeisa between 4th and 12th April; for North East and North
Central zone (Sanaag and South Mudug) at Galkayo between 12th and 20th April; and separately
for Gedo in Mandera (Kenya) between 29th May and 6th June and for Galgaduud at Galkayo at
the same time.
At each training site before the training itself, Horn Relief staff together with local NGOs
organized the recruitment of enumerators and team leaders and organised a site for training and
accommodation for facilitators and, where necessary for the trainees. The questionnaires and
other instruments were where possible printed on site; but this proved difficult at Mandera and
half the questionnaires were printed in Nairobi and dispatched by bus to Mandera.
The training lasted 7 days and followed a similar pattern throughout (Facilitation was provided
by one of the two consultants to the project together with Horn Relief staff. Team Leaders were
then provided with the household questionnaires and all the other instruments they needed.
1.4.
Data Collection Experience
it was not possible to start fieldwork until April. This was a very important timing constraint on
the survey, starting just before the spring rains with the obligation to complete all reporting by
the end of August. This meant that fieldwork had to be carried out by mid June at the latest in
order to allow sufficient time for data entry, analysis and write up. As it happened, the rains
were late and limited, but it was very important to distinguish between the three phases of
fieldwork described in Table 3.3 below as the conditions were very different for the pastoralist
groups in each phase.
In terms of the sample sizes for the Household Questionnaires, originally the plan was to
complete 800 per site for a total of 4,800 questionnaires. The budget allowed for increased
sample sizes at nearly all the sites, which was done. The final total sample size was 6,650, 36%
more than originally planned.
Table 1.1: Intended and Achieved Sample Sizes by Site
Site
Main Livelihood
Estimated Rural
Activity
Population (000‟s)
Rural
First Phase
Maroodi Jeex Agro-Pastoral
210
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
Agro-Pastoral (Camel) 279
Second Phase
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Actual Dates of
Fieldwork
Final Sample
Sizes
14th - 30th April
1,100
14th – 30th April
900
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South Mudug
Sanaag
Third Phase
Gedo
Galgadud
Sheep/Goat
Mixed:
131
214
Camel
247
Agro-Pastoral (Camel) 271
x
22nd April – 8th May
22nd April – 8th May
900
1,150
6th – 23rd June
6th – 23rd June
1,500
1,100
2. EDUCATION AND LEARNING
2.1
Educational Experiences of Adults and Children
2.1.1 Education of Adults
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Overall, households reported that 14% of adult men (18 years and older); and for women overall
9%, varying between 6% in South Mudug and 32% in Togdheer. The pattern across the sites
was similar for men and for women; and men were more likely to have gone to formal school
than women.
Over a quarter (28%) of respondents, reported that they had been to a Qu‟ranic school varying
between 10% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 52% in Gedo, although the percentages
reported for other adults in the household were much smaller (around 8%). The higher rates of
participation in Qu‟ranic schools tend to correspond to lower rates of participation in formal
schooling, although the correlation is not exact. Otherwise, less than 3% of respondents and less
than 2% of other adults overall have attended a mobile school, an Integrated Quaranic School, an
intensive course, an AABE course or a vocational training course.
Seven percent (7%) of respondents (whether men or women) reported that either they or one or
more of the adults in the household had been offered one or more of these opportunities, but had
been unable to take them up. Of the 384 respondents overall the reasons for not taking up the
opportunities were: for 71% they were engaged in livelihood activities, for 59% they would have
had to pay and lacked money, for 43% they were constantly migrating and for 14% they could
not see the benefits of the programme. Although there were wide variations in the percentages
between sites, as the numbers involved were relatively small, there is no obvious pattern.
When asked about other alternative educational possibilities, fewer than 3% of women regularly
listened to women‟s programmes on the radio, and less than 2% have listened to educational
broadcasts nor have they attended a skills training, a correspondence course, a self-study course,
courses designed by the Ministry of Health, an adult literacy course or a leadership programme.
2.1.2 Education of Children
Formal schooling by boys aged 6-17 has been taken overall by 21% of boys and 19% of girls
aged 6-17 are in or have been in formal schooling, with under 10% in South Mudug and
Galgaduud and over 40% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Togdheer. Boys were always
more likely to be attending or have completed formal school than girls, with the largest gap (of
9%) in Togdheer. The rates are higher than their parents and the regions with the lowest and
highest rates are the same for both parents and children; on the face of it there has not been much
improvement in the coverage of formal schooling. The MICS survey in 2006, although not
directly comparable because they were asking about current attendance of 6-14 year olds, whilst
these results include those who have completed school as well as those currently in school, and
because it included samples in towns and villages as well as for pastoralists reported that, in rural
areas, 10% of children in rural areas were attending primary school (p.60).
The average time to school for those children who went to school in all sites was 57 minutes but
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this varied very widely between 16 minutes for those in South Mudug and 148 minutes for
children in Sanaag households. Of those who paid fees, the amount ranged between $121 in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and $215 in South Mudug.
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Forty four percent of parents overall reported that one or more of their children had been to a
Qu‟ranic school. These percentages were substantially higher than the percentages reported for
the adults in the household (whichever version is taken) and regions where adult participation in
Qu‟ranic schools was high tend to be regions where the parents are sending higher proportions of
thier children to Qu‟ranic schools although there is not an exact correspondence Four percent of
parents overall reported that one or more children had been to an Integrated Qu‟ranic schools;
and less than 2% of parents in households in any of the sites reported that any of their children
had been to mobile schools, intensive courses, AABE courses, vocational training courses, or to
other types of non-formal educational possibilities
2.2
Acceptability and Appropriateness of Education and Formal Schools
According to the head teachers, formal education is considered important by most pastoralists as
they believe that it prepares their children for better future; and that the ability to read and write
and knowledge of hygiene and sanitation matters is something that many pastoralist parents find
useful. The headteachers some suggestions about raising the awareness of the need for education;
limiting household tasks to allow children time for school; and specifically for girls, stopping
early marriage. They were concerned that parents in sedentary communities should discipline
their children and thought that providing recreation facilities in schools could discourage idleness
and to prevent the adoption of negative vices such as chewing khat.
In the semi-structured interviews, pastoralist representatives said that, with the exception of
religion which is taught in Qu‟ranic schools, other knowledge and skills like herding and
trekking are passed over from parents or elders to children through apprenticeship or storytelling.
They were certain that knowledge and skills about pastoralism and farming are not taught in
formal schools, except in a few schools that teach some aspects of environmental protection/
conservation. This contrasts with the views of head teachers that what their schools provide for
pastoralists is appropriate. They also spoke of the limited job opportunities in the area
discouraging participation in education since there are educated and trained people who do not
have work; and low desire to attend school because of the tough pastoral way of life; however, in
the household survey, of those who had sent their children to formal school, over 80% said that it
had been very useful. At the same time, they said that it is important to take all children (both
boys and girls) to school. The main reason given is that education will give the children
knowledge and skills that will enable them to engage in alternative livelihood activities (real
employment), thereby improving their lives in the future. More specifically, those educated will
collectively contribute towards development of their community.
In the household survey, about half of those parents who had not sent their children to formal
school said that schools were not available, a little over a third said that they did not have enough
money and under a fifth cited constant migration. Whilst the same reasons were given by
pastoralist representatives, they also referred to engagement of children in household tasks and
livelihood activities but only an eighth of respondents to the household survey cited engagement
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with livelihood activities as a problem. In the semi-structured interviews, the pastoralist
representatives described the obstacles making it difficult for their children to attend schools,
with the typical differentiation between boys (herding) and girls (domestic chores and early
marriage) but in the household survey, although the questions were asked separately for boys and
for girls, interestingly the percentages of parents giving the different reasons in the household
Page | survey were very similar for boys and girls.
xiii
Those children interviewed who were not in formal school, whether or not they know friends
who are in formal school, would have like to go to school, partly because they say that they are
doing very little at home so that they are bored. Those already in formal school said that they are
able to continue with household tasks
2.3
Recommended Provision by Different Groups
In the semi-structured interviews, the pastoralist representatives gave several suggestions of the
kind of programmes that would be suitable for adults like themselves. These included:
 Basic literacy skills of reading and writing
 Basic numeracy
 Animal health
 Health and sanitation and community health
 Farming skills (for agro-pastoralists)
 Awareness in environmental protection
 Peace building and conflict management
 Handicraft skills
Their suggestions for appropriate education and training for children in their group were:
 Formal education that can be enhanced by establishing boarding schools to ensure that
learning is not disrupted when other family members migrate with the livestock
 Skills training (masonry, carpentry, welding, electrical technician, veterinary technician)
which can enable the children to engage in alternative livelihood activities
 Religious education which is important for their moral upbringing
 Community health to ensure that there are trained persons to handle medical emergencies
when groups move
 Mobile schools to take care of those who may not be able to get into boarding schools
These can usefully be compared with the responses in the household survey about the
preferences of parents. It is clear from the 44% percent sending one or more of their children to
Qu‟ranic school that this is the most preferred option; but it is interesting given the suggestions
above that only 18% of parents said that they preferred a mobile school, and that very few (less
than 1%) said that they preferred vocational training.
2.4
Learning Environment in Households and Sources of Information
2.4.1 Learning Environment in Households
Textbook Availability and Use Thirty three percent (33%) of parents overall report they have
xiii
textbooks in the home and 33% report that the books are or have been used by the children in the
household. Overall 35% of households own radios and 86% of those with radios usually have
batteries for their radio. The percentages with radio are lowest in South Mudug and Galgaduud
(about 22%) and highest in Sanaag and Gedo (about 44%, i.e. double).
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Listening to Radio Overall, 60% of men, 43% of women and 15% of children listen regularly to
the radio. The percentages for men vary between 35% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)
households and about three quarters in Togdheer, South Mudug and Gedo households, so that the
possession of a radio with batteries does not necessarily imply that household members will
listen to the radio. The patterns of listening were very similar for men and women, but the
numbers of children listening were too small for breakdowns by site. Typically about 90% of
men, women and children listen to news programmes, and about 50%-70% listen to health and
religion programmes; otherwise about 20%-40% of adults listen to each of the other types of
programme (discussion programmes, announcements, sports, family life, home economics and
health prgrammes). In general, households in South Mudug and Sanaag were less likely to listen
to different types of programmes and households in Gedo more likely.
2.4.2 Sources of Information
Respondents were also asked about which were the most useful sources of information on
educational opportunities, health care, sanitation and water, or protection and shelter from among
a choice of sixteen possible sources. Less than 3% overall and less than 10% in any one site had
learnt about any of these topics from television, newspapers, the internet, a SMS message from
someone they know, and SMS from an organisation or from a community or religious leader, a
representative from a humanitarian organisation or neighbours or a loudspeaker announcement
and so there is very little to report. For each of the topics, the percentages saying that they had
received information by phoning a help line or from a friend or family member in each site was
respectively 4% and 7%, and in both cases about half of those who said they had used a help line
at all or had received information from a friend or family member reported using a help line for
all four topics, so that the use of a help line is restricted to a specific small group mostly in
Sanaag (about 7%) and in Gedo (about 10%).
For the other four sources (radio, notice board, community meeting or government
representative) where the overall percentages for each topic are over 10%, the patterns are very
similar across the four topics and so we summarise by giving the ranges for each source.
Between a third and a half overall said that they had learnt about educational opportunities from
the radio. About a sixth overall said that a notice board was the source; and unsurprisingly
nearly twice as many of those reporting formal education cited this source. Also about a sixth
overall said that a community meeting was the source. Overall 22% said that they had received
information from a government representative. In general, households in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) are least likely to use any of the 16 sources of information and those in Gedo
and Galgaduud more likely.
xiv
Page | xv
3.
HEALTH AND WASH
3.1
Child Mortality
Of those who had given birth, 35% had experienced an infant death. Mothers reported 2.9 births
of boys and 2.4 births of girls. Despite variations between the sites, in every site the number of
male births was greater than the number of female births. Overall mothers reported about \0.7
deaths of male and female births, with male deaths always (slightly) larger than female deaths
3.2
Access and Use of Health Care by Adults and Children
3.2.1 Access and Use of Health Care by Adults
Overall, 75% say have access to a health care facility; but the trip takes on average 4 hours,
although for those in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) the trip takes „only‟ 2 hours. Overall
63% of households go to modern „health care facility‟, 68% a pharmacist and 7% a traditional
practitioner but the patterns are very different in different regions; and the pattern of health care
use does not seem to be determined by distance. For example, only 28% of those in Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) go to a „modern‟ health care facility when sick compared to 88% of
those in Gedo; in contrast, only 1% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) see a traditional
practitioner compared to 12% in Sanaag and Galgaduud.
3.2.2 Child Illness, Treatment and Prevention
Diarrhea and Given ORS About 40% reported that their youngest child had had diarrhea in the
last two weeks. Although over two-thirds had used ORS fluids, there were wide variations with
over half using a home-made fluid in Sanaag.
Cough and % to Private Pharmacy A little over half of the children in each of the sites had had
a cough in the last two weeks. Of those who had had a cough, overall 30% went to a private
pharmacist and about the same percentage went nowhere. Of those who had seen any health care
provider, about two fifths had been given medicine, equally divided between a pill and a syrup.
Fever, Sought Advice and Percent Given Medicine Nearly half of children had had a fever in the
last two weeks. Over half of those had sought advice, with wide variations between sites. Of
those who had sought advice (about 760 overall), over 40% had been to a private pharmacist.
Nearly half overall had been given medicine; about equally divided between an ant-malarial and
a pain-killer. The balance varied between sites reflecting availability.
Vaccination Card: Overall 26% of the youngest children had a vaccination card, with wide
variations between 9% in South Mudug and 51% in Gedo. Although the correspondence is not
perfect, the percentages reporting BCG, polio drops and DPT follow a similar pattern to the
percentages with a vaccination card.
xv
3.3
Antenatal Care, Vaccinations, Delivery and Registration
Antenatal Care Overall 44% of mothers, varying widely between 26% of mothers in South
Mudug and Sanaag households to 67% in Gedo, had received some antenatal care. Overall 35%
of mothers reported that they had seen a doctor, 15% a nurse and 34% a traditional birth
Page | xvi attendant. There are sharp contrasts between sites with 64% of mothers in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) using the „modern‟ services and 79% of mothers in Galgaduud using
„traditional‟ providers.
Vaccinations Overall 22% of mothers had a vaccination card, with the highest rate of 39%
recorded in Gedo, the next highest at17% was in Togdheer and the other four sites all less than
9%. Based on their responses, the percentages reporting an injection followed a similar pattern.
Assistance with Delivery Overall about 18% were assisted by a doctor, a nurse or an auxiliary
midwife. Sixty percent (60%) were attended by a traditional birth attendant and 19% by a
relative or friend.
Registration of Birth and Birth Certificate About 2% of child births were births registered with
the civil authorities, 11% of mothers could produce or said that they had a birth certificate, and
80% said that they did not have a birth certificate. Overall 3% of mothers knew how to register
their child‟s birth.
3.4
Sanitation, Hygiene and Water Quality
3.4.1 Sanitation and Hygiene
Sanitation Most (80%) of used the bush as a toilet. Pit latrines were available to 18% overall,
with very wide variations between 2% in Gedo and 46% in South Mudug.
Cleaning Products and Handwashing: About two-thirds of households overall had some kind of
detergent available; just less than half of households had soap available; and shampoo was
available to just under a quarter of all households. Soap was used for washing hands by 44% of
households overall; ash was used for hand washing by about a quarter (26%) of households; and
over 70% only used water for hand washing.
3.4.2 Water Quality
Sources of and Accessibility to Water Nearly half (46%) overall have access to relatively secure
water although very few (4%) had access to piped water, 35% have access to boreholes and 7%
have access to a protected well; but only 7% of households in Gedo have access to secure water
compared to 79% of households in South Mudug. Conversely, 53% of households in Gedo used
unsecure water (an unprotected well, surface water) compared to 26% overall. Rainwater use
was reported by 12% of households overall, varying from less than 3% in Togdheer and South
Mudug to 26% in Gedo. A tanker truck or reservoir was the water source for 44% of
households overall, varying between 8% of households in Gedo and 72% in Sanaag. The
average time to the water source was about an hour in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and
xvi
Togdheer, just over half and hour in South Mudug, and nearly 2.5 hours in Sanaag.
Treating Water A fifth overall said that they treated water, varying between 1% of households in
Galgaduud and 34% of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). Of those who do treat
their water, about a third (34%) said that they boiled their water, and 28% of households use the
Page | sedimentation method. There are wide variations between very few in Galgaduud and South
xvii Mudug.
3.5
Awareness and Knowledge of HIV/AIDS
Most (80%) respondents had heard of HIV/AIDS; most agreed that it could be transmitted from
mother to baby either during pregnancy, delivery or breastfeeding; and again most (85%) of
those agreed that HIV/AIDS could be contracted through sexual liaison, although less than twothirds (63%) said that they knew how to protect themselves. On the other hand, quite large
proportions had mistaken beliefs about modes of transmission: about a quarter (24%) thought
that it could be contracted through witchcraft, nearly three fifths (57%) thought it could be
contracted through mosquito bites, nearly half (46%) thought it could be contracted by sharing
foods, and 40% thought that a healthy looking person could not have HIV/AIDS.
4
LIVELIHOODS, INCOMES AND EXPENDITURES
4.1
Agriculture
Farming and Crops Overall, about a quarter (24%) said that they owned land and practice
agriculture, but that was mostly in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), where over four fifths
owned land and practice agriculture, followed by just under a third (29%) in Gedo. About four
fifths grew sorghum and maize and about two fifths grew beans, with households in Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) concentrating on sorghum and maize whilst those in Gedo concentrate
on beans.
Tools Available About two fifths (42%) have a hoe and about a quarter each have a panga and an
axe. For those practicing agriculture, their major problems, cited by two fifths, were lack of
tools and lack of rain, with those in Gedo being more concerned about lack of rain than lack of
tools and the reverse is true in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed).
Other Skills Less than 10% said that they had any non-agricultural skills; however, nearly a
quarter of households (22%) said that they were involved in manual labour, whilst about 15%
overall said that they were involved in petty trading and 14% in farming. A quarter of
households have a radio but none of the other electrical goods; on the other hand about a quarter
of household report that one of their members each have a watch of a mobile telephone.
4.2
Livestock
It is clear that many more cattle, goats and sheep died at those sites where interviews took place
in June than those that took place in April although the interviews in June were at sites where
herds of goat and sheep were larger to begin with.
xvii
4.3
Income and Expenditure
4.3.1 Income Sources and Sale of Livestock
Page |
xviii
The average annual income reported was US$893 but this varied between US$504 in Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) to US$1,212 in Sanaag. Major sources of income were livestock sales
(reported by 65%), sales of livestock products (reported by 32%), casual labour (reported by
25%). sale of agricultural produce (reported by 18%), petty trading and remittances (both
reported by 16%). These percentages varied widely from region to region; and it is noticeable
that that livestock sales were a considerably more important source of income among the sites
surveyed in June than those in sites surveyed earlier.
More than half of the households had sold livestock in the last three months to buy food and to
buy non-food items with under a quarter in South Mudug and nearly four fifths in Gedo and
Galgaduud; and four fifth say that the situation is worse than during the last two years. More
than a quarter (27%) had sold livestock to pay for services.
4.3.2 Sources of Food
The most important overall source of food during the last week was 41% for purchased food,
35% for their own livestock and the last at 17% was borrowing food. [There were large
variations between the regions with respondents in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) saying that
67% of their food came from their own livestock, 28% was bought and only 3% borrowed,
compared to South Mudug where 10% was their own livestock, 48% bought and 25% borrowed.]
Overall the proportion depending at least partly on their own crops over the last 3 months was
41%, varying between 5% in Togdheer and 79% in Gedo. Purchased food was the main source
for 67% of all respondents. Borrowed food was a principle source of food over the last 3 months
for 78%, varying between 39% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) to 93% in South Mudug and
94% in Sanaag.
4.3.3 Expenditure and Debt
Pattern of Expenditure: Ninety percent was on food (average US$79), 37% on non-food items
(average US$19), 12% on education (average US$29), 28% on health services (average US$30),
12% on fuel (average US$27), 45% on water (average US55) and 9% had spent on presents
(average US$77). Taking into account the percentages spending, the average spend is US$125 a
month, varying between US$78 in Gedo and US$200 in Sanaag; and, given that these are
monthly expenditures, they are high. It is noticeable that whilst the percentages of households
spending on health and education in Gedo are the highest, they spend the lowest amount.
Debt Over four fifths of households (83%) owed money for an average of US$406. Taking the
percentages into account, the average amount owed per household overall is US$337 varying
between US$99 in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and US$674 in Sanaag. On average, these
debts are nearly 3 times monthly expenditure and that is the case in all sites except Maroodi Jeex
xviii
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) where it is less than one month‟s expenditure.
Page | xix
5
FOOD AND NUTRITION
5.1
Eating and Food in the Household
Overall 3.1% of households said that had not eaten in the last 24 hours, with the lowest
proportions (about 0.5%) in the North Western regions (the first surveyed in April), and the
highest 5.8% in the South Western region of Gedo (surveyed in June). In general, adult women
eat more meals per day (on average about 2.5 meals) than the children under 5, boys or girls
between 5 and 14 or adult men (all three groups on average about 2.0 meals).
The eating patterns over the immediately previous week of 7 days were more or less consistent
for all 5 age groups, within types of household within each site. Rice, tea and cooking oil had
each been taken on between 4 and 6 of the previous 7 days, except in Gedo where rice was eaten
on less than 2.5 days and oil used on less than 1.5 days. Sorgum had been eaten between 1.5 and
1.8 days a week but with wide variations between about 0.5 days in Sanaag and over 3.5 days in
Gedo. Milk (fresh or processed) had separately been consumed by children under 5 between 1.5
and 3 days per week in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), South Mudug Gedo and Galgaduud
but for less than 0.5 days in the other two sites. Beans, eggs, beef, chicken or goat meat had
been eaten on less than 1 day during the last week. Cultivated vegetables had been eaten just
under 1 day a week but varying between about 0.5 days in Gedo and Galgaduud and over 1.5
days in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed).
About 36% of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) had enough food to survive for
more than a week, compared to less than 15% of households in the other three sites who had just
enough for a week with the situation particularly worrying in Gedo where only 4% had just
enough food for a week.
5.2
Coping Strategies
Overall 58% of households (and 77%) in Gedo) had reduced the number of meals per day during
the last week; 38% of households (and 58% in Gedo) had skipped entire days without eating;
70% of households (84% in Galgaduud) had borrowed food; and 23% of households (54% in
Gedo) had sent family members away to stay with relatives.
Over the last three months, two-thirds of households overall (78% in Gedo) have tended to
reduce the amount of the food they ate at each meal; over half (54%) of households (77% in
Gedo) had reduced the number of meals per day; 14% overall of households (43% in Gedo) have
collected firewood to sell over the last three months; only 3% of households (but 11% in Gedo)
had collected bush products; 17% of households (but 41% in Gedo) relied on help from relatives;
there were 7% of households (but 25% in Gedo) where family members had migrated to find
work; 23% of households (but 46% in South Mudug) had borrowed food or cash; 37% of
households (but 55% in Gedo) had reduced spending on non-food items; 14% of households (but
35% in Gedo) had sent children to stay with relatives; less than 4% of households overall had
rented out or sold land (but 8% and 12% in Gedo) to buy basic items over the last three months;
xix
30% overall (but 61%) had sold livestock to buy basic items; 3% overall of households (9% in
Gedo) had taken their children out of school and 2% of households (10% in Gedo) had sent them
out to work in the last three months; 4%) of households overall (11% in Gedo) had consumed
seed stock.
Page | xx
The proportion depending on Food Aid crops varies between 4% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) and 34% in Sanaag, with those relying on agriculture more likely to have appealed to
food aid than pastoralists; and, for those who have received food aid, the percentage of food
provided this way varies between 20% in Sanaag and 45% in Togdheer.
5.3 Breastfeeding and Other Infant Feeding
In this survey, overall, 93% of mothers started breastfeeding immediately after birth; in MICS
2006, three out of five children are breastfed within one day of being born.

Liquids: In the last 24 hours, 86% of mothers overall had given plain water to their infant, 50%
of mothershad given tinned, processed or fresh milk to their infant, and 33% of mothers had
given their infant tea or other sugared drinks. In general, the percentages were lowest in South
Mudug and highest in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed).
Vegetables and Fruits: Overall 18% of mothers) had given grains, roots or tubers to their infant,
and 7% had given legumes or nuts to their infant. Dairy products were given to infants in the last
24 hours by 39% of mothers. The percentages tended to be highest in Gedo. Only very small
percentages (under 7%) had given fruits to their infant.
Meat, Eggs and Oils: Overall 4% of mothers had given flesh and 3% had given eggs to their
infant, with little variation between sites; cooking oil or fats were given to their infant by 13% of
the mothers overall, varying between 7% in Galgaduud and 23% in Togdheer.
Any mushy or solid foods for how many times: Overall 17% of mothers, varying between 6% in
South Mudug and 29% in Gedo had given mushy foods to their infant; on average, those who
had given mushy foods to their infant had given them 2.4 times with little variation in the last 24
hours. Overall, 27% of mothers had given solid foods to their infant in the last 24 hours. The
lowest percentages were in South Mudug households and the highest in Gedo households.
xx
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Page | 1
Background
The protracted, complex humanitarian and livelihoods crises among the Somali populations have
resulted, among other problems, in increasing socio-economic vulnerability and worsening
poverty, with almost 50% of its people in need of urgent external assistance and close to 1.5
million internally displaced, approximately 16% of the 7.5 million1 people living in the Somali
territories . Livestock and their products account for 80% of export income in normal years, but
trade has been significantly interrupted by drought and international bans in the last decade. The
cycle of drought in the last 4 to 5 rainy seasons has led to a significant loss of livestock, severely
affecting the livelihoods of pastoral communities, with a rise in pastoral dropouts.
It is estimated that 65% of the Somali population are pastoralists2. Their non-sedentary way of
life translates to a unique set of development needs as well as vulnerabilities to environmental
changes and conflict. Those needs and vulnerabilities are interlinked; correspondingly, support to
the pastoral communities must be a holistic multi-sectoral programmatic response including
livelihoods, environment, health, water and sanitation, protection and education sectors.
In education, adults in Somali territories have one of the lowest literacy rates in the world
ranging between 19% and 35% for rural and urban populations respectively3. The overall
enrollment rate in primary schools is less than 30%4 with significant gender and region based
differences. While there has been some progress in recent years, there is also a marked divide
between education provision, enrolment and quality between urban areas and rural areas.
Differences in access to education also exist within the rural areas where the lowest levels of
provision and investment for education are found in pastoral communities as opposed to rural
settled communities. There are also similar disparities in the provision of health care services
and WASH as well as the known precarities of livelihoods and obvious lack of protection.
1.2
Stakeholders
The major stakeholders are, of course, the pastoralists themselves; the funders (DFID and
UNICEF); and the local education authorities and those aid agencies who will be able to use the
evidence from the assessment to help with their own programming.
In order to represent these stakeholders, Horn Relief agreed together with UNICEF to set up a
Technical Steering Committee to meet at intervals between 4 and 6 weeks. The membership of
the Technical Steering Committee is: UNICEF (Education, Health, WASH Protection and Child
Protection; FNSAU; MMM Learning and Development; Save the Children; Africa Educational
Trust (AET).
1
UNDP population figures, 2005
FAO Water Report 29 (2005)
3
UNDP and World Bank. Socio-Economic Survey, 2002.
4
Survey of Primary School Education 2006-2007, UNICEF
2
1
1.3 Rationale for this Assessment
In recent years, there have been a number of innovative approaches to formal and non-formal
education (i.e. mobile primary schools and leadership coursesfor 15-25 year olds), which have
been successful on a small scale. Given these encouraging results, it is evident that there is a
Page | 2 need for an increased focus on the development of approaches specifically catered to nomadic
pastoral needs. Support to the pastoralist communities, therefore, necessitates a deeper
understanding of their specific needs for education, health, water, environment, protection and
livelihood support and how all these are linked with their mobile way of life and practices in
relation to livelihood and natural resources, as well as their coping mechanisms in the face of
changing natural and conflict induced circumstances.
A small scale survey of pastoralists in the Sanaag Region called the “Camel Caravan” was
conducted in 2009 and 2010 as a culminating activity of Horn Relief‟s Pastoral Youth
Leadership (PYL) course. This revealed significant trends about the declining pastoralist way of
life. One such revelation was that following the droughts in 2009 up to 80% of camels were lost.
Results of the 2010 Camel Caravan were presented in a donor and stakeholder conference in
November 2010, which generated the funding for this much more comprehensive PSA.
For the planning and development of successful, innovative approaches, a comprehensive
situational analysis on the needs of pastoralists in the Somali territories needs to be carried out.
Besides meeting the current knowledge gaps, this analysis would provide up to date information
on the needs on the ground among pastoralists, bringing to fore the complexities, challenges and
opportunities that exist in providing quality services such as education, health,
water/hygiene/sanitation and secure the livelihoods for the pastoral communities. The data
therein will benefit resource and program planning by governments, donors and implementing
agencies.
1.4
Objective of Pastoralist Situational Assessment (PSA)
•
•
•
•
To provide a secure basis for the planning and development of successful approaches by
governments, donors and implementing agencies (i.e. NGOs)
unique set of development needs as well as vulnerabilities to environmental changes and
conflict
needs and vulnerabilities are interlinked; correspondingly, support to the pastoral
communities must be a holistic, multi-sectoral programmatic approach.
Hence representative sample survey is required.
2
2.
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
2.1
Introduction
2.1.1 Purpose
Page | 3
The pastoralist population comprises the majority of Somalis, yet the least information is known
about them than other segments of the population. The purpose of this review is to briefly
summarise what the literature says about pastoralists in the Somali territories that can provide a
context to the findings we present in the rest of the report. It should be emphasised that it is not a
comprehensive literature review.
2.1.2 Definition of pastoralist
. “Pastoralists are the people who rely on mobile livestock rearing as the main source of their
livelihood.” (Nori (
), p 25).
There are various definitions of a pastoralist or an agro-pastoralist which distinguish between
livelihood being based on 1) income or sustenance and 2) use of labour or cultural identity. The
degree of integration with crop cultivation characterises agro-pastoralists. Generally pastoral
systems greatly contribute to local food security and national economies of poor countries in
areas where conditions allow for limited alternative land uses. But pastoral populations have
seen the highest rate of failures in development policies and investments.
2.1.3 Background and context
Nearly all of the Somali territory is pastoral where 98% of the agricultural land is pasture
(Behnke, 2006). He identifies several different political entities covered by the Somali pastoral
system, three of which (2006) are within the borders of the former Republic of Somalia.
In 2010, the total population was estimated to be 8,757,003 (Linard et al., 2010), but since the
collapse of the government 1991 and dramatic internal and external population displacement considered one of the fastest and greatest ever recorded on the African continent - there is little
idea of what the real population may be. In 2004 a report by the World Bank (2006) records
55% were pastoralists or agro-pastoralists, 24% crop farmers, 1% fishermen, whilst 21%
engaged in services and 12% in light industrial work and crafts.
Despite differences and wide disparities, the territory covered by the former Republic of Somalia
is one of the few parts of Africa where the majority of the population share a common language,
culture and religion, largely Sunni Muslim. It has a patriarchal, clan identity, which the collapse
of the state has made more important as it offers protection and social, economic and political
participation (Tripp, 2003).
3
2.2
Sectoral Analyis
2.2.1 Environment, Water and Sanitation
Page | 4
There is a lack of up-to-date environmental data, including natural resource management. UNEP
(2005) describes three categories of natural resources: the surface including marine resources,
which have recently increased in consumption and export; surface resources and subsurface
resources.
Areas of concern include deforestation, overgrazing, overfishing and soil erosion with
inadequate financial and human resources to address these issues. This is compounded by the
lack of political structure and droughts that have undermined many livelihoods (World Bank,
2007) confirmed these concerns. Until recently, pastoralism was seen as the optimal use of the
land, successfully sustained over generations. Accessing safe and reliable water sources are a
cause for concern in most parts of the country. Although locally variable, it is nevertheless
estimated that renewable freshwater is falling to levels which hamper well being and
development. Sanitation facilities are also limited (UNEP, 2005).
2.2.2 Education
Education is viewed as a fundamental right, a means of empowerment and generally a social
good. However, in terms of enrolment, attendance, achievement and transition to higher levels,
this is not the case for nomadic populations. The Camel Caravan, a limited scope survey, found
that 86% of pastoralists‟ children in Sannag Region had not been to school (Horn Relief, 2010).
The rationale and ideology of service providers and nomads rarely agree, with mistrust between
pastoralists and government officials, primarily over land loss. Rights are considered from an
individual standpoint, whilst the basic productive unit of the pastoral economy is the household
or group of households (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2007; Kratli and Dyer, 2006). Ministries of
education need to change the way they include pastoralists in their education systems (Kratli and
Dyer, 2009) and to help pastoralists become modern livestock producers.
The civil war exacerbated an already poor situation with widespread destruction of basic
infrastructure. Two „lost generations‟ have resulted, who, lacking skills and education, have been
drawn into criminal activity. Primary school enrolment for 2003/4 was recorded as being only
20% and a later report by the World Bank (2008) gives an estimated gross enrolment rate as 15%
for girls and 27% for boys. Koranic education reaches an estimated 50% of youth for two years;
and pastoralist groups have traditionally travelled with a Koranic teacher. Reasons for drop-out
are seen as failing to recognise the needs and lifestyle of pastoralists, promotion of an
authoritarian system, insufficient schools with those existing being ill-equipped, the yearly and
daily timetable incompatible with the pastoralists‟ life, the curriculum irrelevant, teachers rarely
having a pastoralist background and having little respect for them.
Studies highlight a number of problems impacting on pastoralists in formal education
programmes. Chores and income generation are more important to household functioning than
education and school is seen as having no immediate economic return, i.e. no income generating
4
skills are taught, learners develop a dislike of manual work and children are alienated from
family life (Horn Relief, 2010; Syong‟oh 2002). Both graduates and school drop outs were
reported to be more dependent on their families than those that never enrolled and formal
education was not seen to produce high enough returns to the family.
Page | 5
Other studies show how the school timetable is incompatible with pastoralist socio-economic
dynamics. Education materials and approaches designed for pastoralists need to consider their
seasonal mobility and schools adapted to fit the nomadic lifestyle by offering flexible timetables.
Literacy and numeracy was seen as the highest priority in education and training by pastoralist
groups surveyed by Africa Educational Trust (2007). Although children of pastoralist „dropouts‟
have higher access to formal education, particularly in urban areas, their nutritional status is
often diminished through a lack of easy access to the milk and meat they had when moving with
the animals (Horn Relief, 2010).
2.2.3 Health
A report by the World Bank (2006) gives under five and maternal mortality rates as 224 and 1116 per 1,000 live births, respectively. Access to health facilities is low in rural areas, physically
and in terms of finance. A Somali person typically visits a health facility every 3.6 years (World
Bank 2006, 2008). Malaria, TB and water borne diseases are most prevalent. Although many
children have been vaccinated, the coverage is not comprehensive.
Under five malnutrition prevalence rates are 26%. Wasting rates (weight for height) show the
short term effects of the conflict and drought at above 20% in some areas. Measures of long term
malnutrition such as stunting (height for weight) show rates of up to 37% in some areas that have
a long term effect on growth and cognitive capacity. Gender based violence such as rape is a
major problem with 12% of adults and 8% of children claiming firsthand knowledge of a child
rape victim (World Bank, 2006).
Traditional Birth Attendants, traditional practitioners, community health workers and retail
pharmacies are distributed throughout the regions, but the workforce is small and underskilled
and numbers of health workers have declined. Noor et al. (2009) record 45 public health
facilities, 227 public health professionals, and 194 private pharmacies for approximately 0.6
million people in the three Somali zones of Somaliland, Puntland and Central South. Other
surveys find that even where modern medicine is readily accessible, pastoralists favour faith
healing, but whether it is the high cost of drugs, transport and lack of physiccal and financial
access or to a preference for religious-based healing, is unknown (Horn Relief, 2010).
2.2.4 Livelihoods
Leonard (2009:18) notes how Somali business has undergone „explosive growth‟ with Somalis
now the dominant traders in the region, controlling major finance and transport systems.
Menkhaus (2003) describes a “radically privatized, unregulated economy focusing mainly on
commercial trade and the service sector”, this supported mainly by remittances. Both the
business community and civil society groups were more organized, willing to play a more direct
role in social and political affairs.
5
Nevertheless, there is high dependence on livestock in the Somali territories; for example,
livestock comprises 60 – 65% of Somaliland‟s gross domestic product (GDP) and livestock
export provides 40% of their GDP (Tripp, 2003), supporting the import of essential foodstuffs
(Behnke, 2006). Camels predominate in the north of the country (the drylands of Puntland) and
Page | 6 cattle in the south, with sheep and goats ranging throughout (Nori, 2010). It is commercialised,
not merely subsistence, and very market orientated compared to other pastoralist systems
(Holleman, 2002; UNEP, 2005). Southern parts of the Somali territories export substantial
numbers of livestock, especially cattle, to Kenya via the key border market town Garissa
(Somaliland Chamber of Commerce, 2009). Since the collapse of the formal government,
(illegal) trade with Kenya and Ethiopia has increased (Nori, 2009). Border markets command
higher prices than the national cattle market in transit trades (Little, 2005).
Other trade products include wheat flour, kerosene and sugar (from food aid), with large price
spikes for critical foods like wheat flour and maize when unofficial cross-border trade was
negatively affected either through trade embargoes or floods (Little, 2005).
In 2006, the Alive/LEAD e-conference discussed whether or how to support pastoralism, noting
Somali pastoral livelihoods as more diversified and integrated with the cash economy than ever
before, with the majority of households having access to at least one source of income not
derived from livestock production and marketing. Additionally, this development in market
exchange patterns has raised consumption of cereals and lowered the direct utilisation of animal
products and enabled consistent population growth on rangelands. It is also recognised that
some family members can be encouraged to exit whilst others continue the pastoralist way of
life. Equity and rights rather than poor technology is seen as the reason for pastoralism‟s poor
performance (Alive/LEAD, 2006; Horn Relief, 2010).
There are two opposed views of the impact of climate change: either that pastoralists are the first
to feel the effects through water points and rangelands drying out, or that they are best able to
adapt to conditions of scarcity, so their way of life will increase (Najid and Crosskey, 2008).
The underlying causes of vulnerability are seen as political and social, not natural, however,
although these trigger crises (Devereux, 2006). Agriculture is thought to have suffered more
from the conflict than pastoralism, and displacement of farming communities has consequently
impacted on local expertise and labour (UNEP, 2005). Twenty five to thirty per cent of
pastoralists were estimated to be very vulnerable as herd sizes were less than 12.6 tropical
livestock units per 6 member household, the minimum needed to sustain a family through
drought (UN OCHA Pastoralist Communication Initiative, 2006). The most recent survey
carried out by the Camel Caravan (Horn Relief, 2010) found 70% of respondents no longer had a
single camel or pack camel and that 80% of all camels and pack camels had died due to drought.
The role of Aid in Livelihoods
UNEP (2005) considers NGO activities, such as the building of simple dams by Horn Relief,
provide effective environmental resource management. The health service is almost completely
dependent on donor funding. There have been substantial investments in livestock and their
products from donors. Food aid in the region has increased dramatically.
6
3.
METHODOLOGY
This chapter summarises the methodology; a fuller version is provided in an Appendix.
3.1 Choice of Sites and Sub-Sites, sampling and Sample Size
Page | 7
3.1.1 Choice of Sites and Sub Sites
Six sites in six regions were chosen as representative of the different livelihood zones (camel
pastoralists of Togdheer, Gedo and Galgaduud shoat pastoralists in the southern districts of
Mudug, mixed of Sanaag, the agro-pastoral and cattle areas of Lower Juba, and of Maroodi Jeex.
Three geographically distinct sub-sites were chosen in conjunction with the team leaders and
enumerators to reflect the possible variations in livelihoods across the site; and additional
questions were asked in order to obtain estimates of the size of each (type of) group.
Table 3.1
Sites and Sub-Sites
Maroodi Jeex
Sites
Togdheer
(W. Galbeed)
Livelihoods Agro-Pastoralist Agro-Pastoralist
Subsites Wajaleh
Burco
Baligubadle
Aynaba
Darasalaam
Oodwayne
S Mudug
Budbud
Wisil
Bitaale
Bandiiradley
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
Camel
Badhan Belet Hawa Cadaado
Hingalool Dolooh
Caabudwaaq
Erigavo Luuq
Dhusamarreeb
3.1.2 Sample Points and Sampling of Households
Ten or more sampling points at each of those sub-sites were chosen where the actual field work
with pastoralists was to be carried out. At each sub-site, both grazing areas and trading centres
were included. The precise selection of each sampling point (settlements and other meeting
points) was decided in conjunction with local agencies and local officials, depending on where
that particular group of pastoralists tend congregate, the size of their group and, in particular,
where they are likely to be just after the rains have started. At this stage, there were some
political considerations that may have influenced the precise selection.
At each sampling point, if only a sample were to be chosen, the resulting sample would almost
certainly be restricted to the most articulate!; it was therefore agreed that, at each sampling point
outside the settlements all households were to be interviewed.
3.1.3 Sample Size
The appropriate sample size for any particular variable of interest is determined mainly by three
factors: (i) the standard error of the sample mean which in the case of a percentage depends on
the estimated proportion of the population affected by livelihood crises, (ii) the acceptable
margin of error and (iii) the desired level of confidence (i.e. the probability that the true value
7
will be within the acceptable margin of error). The sample size is then calculated according to
the formula n = Z2.p.(1-p) +1 once the proportion of variable of interest (which determines the
standard deviation) and the acceptable margin of error and confidence intervals have been
established. There are sample sizes calculators that can be used5.
Page | 8
Of course the much more usual case, applicable in this case, is where there are a large number of
variables for which an estimate should be made and, because their standard deviations vary, the
sample sizes required for the same margin of error with the same confidence levels will vary. In
principle, the correct procedure is to take the largest calculated sample size, but there will usually
be issues of cost and feasibility which means that there has to be a more pragmatic decision
about sample size.
The budget available suggested a sample of about 850 households at each of the six sites; at each
site, these would be divided approximately equally between the three subsites. These samples
sizes are always less than 1% of the estimated population sizes and so the finite population
correction factor is never less than 0.995. With these sample sizes it would have been possible
to detect at the usual 95% confidence level a between-site difference of about 4% and a withinsite (between sub-site) difference of about 6% for a specific variable of interest with a value
around 20%. However, given that the eventual questionnaire had 820 items and that there are a
large number of possible breakdowns, we have adopted a much more cautious 99.9% confidence
level and with that level, a between-site difference of about 10% and a within-site (between subsite) difference of about 20% for a specific variable of interest with a value around 20%.
3.2.
Instruments
3.2.1 Rationale
The basis of data collection is a situational assessment among a large representative sample of
households using the a precoded Household Questionnaires. Additional information is collected
from interviews with key informants, Focus Group Discussions; and interviews with
representative „leaders‟ of pastoralist groups at sampling points.
3,2,2 Coverage of Themes in Household Questinnaire Surveyinstruments
The survey was multi-sectoral, although more attention was paid to the education sector.
•
•
•
•
Education: description of formal and non-formal services available in the area, barriers to
access and retention in school, expectation of parents about future for children, exposure
of adults to any educational programme and brief assessment of their literacy
Health: access to and use of services, vaccination coverage, recent diarrhoeal illness,
barriers to access and use
Livelihoods: herd size and dynamics, sources of income and food, expenditure patterns
Nutrition: access to services, dietary diversity, and Middle Uper Arm Circumference
MUAC measurements where training support is available
5
Where there are finite populations and where the sample is likely to be more than 10% of the population size a
‘Finite Population Correction should be used where FPC =sqrt [(N-n)(N-1)]
8
•
•
Page | 9
Social Protection: including child labour and its compatibility with education for their
children, abuse of children, safety nets and the security of migration patterns
WASH: access and barriers to use of services, limited number of health behaviour
questions
3,2,3 Coverage of themes in Other Instruments
Interviews with Government and Site Officials: The focus here is on the purpose of their
programme, the target group, their type of intervention, problems of taking methods to scale
Headteacher: Between two and four schools were interviewed at each site about the schooling
services they provide.
NGOs: main focus, target groups
Representatives of Pastoralist Groups: This interview covered the group profile; changes in
living conditions, views about education, health and nutrition; and communication.
to ask e.g. about land ownership and migration patterns; and to ask „why‟ questions, where a
closed household interview was not the most appropriate instrument and where, as in this case,
the existing household questionnaire is already very long so that inclusion of open-ended
questions is not practicable
Focussed Group Discussions: These were on sensitive issues (child discipline and child labour)
or with those usually excluded (women); and group discussions with children at a small number
of sampling points on their views about formal schooling.
3.2.4 Language
The survey tools (Questionnaires, observation forms and guideline questions for Focussed Group
Discussions (FGD)) were developed in English and then translated into Somali. All instruments
have been made available in English and Somali: as the bulk of the structured questionnaire will
consist of closed questions for the purposes of data entry it did not matter which one was used;
for the other instruments, the Team Leaders were asked to complete if possible in English; if not
the responses were back translated into English.
3.3.
Data Collection Experience
3.3.1 Achieved Sample Sizes of Household Questionnaires
In terms of the sample sizes for the Household Questionnaires, the original plan was to complete
800 per site for a total of 4,800 questionnaires. The budget allowed for increased sample sizes at
all sites; and the final total sample size was 6,650, 36% more than planned (see Table 3.2).
9
Table 3.2: Achieved Sample Sizes by Site
Site
Main Livelihood Estimated Rural
Activity
Population (000‟s)
Rural
First Phase
Maroodi Jeex Agro-Pastoral
210
Page | 10 Togdheer
Camel:
279
Second Phase
Sanaag
Mixed:
214
Galgadud
Agro-Pastoral
271
Galgadud
Camel
271
Third Phase
Gedo
Camel
247
South Mudug Sheep/Goat
131
Actual Dates of
Fieldwork
Final Sample
Sizes
14th - 30th April
14th – 30th April
1,100
900
14th - 30th April
14th – 30th April
1,100
1,150
6th – 23rd June
6th – 23rd June
1,500
900
3.3.2 Numbers of Qualitative Instruments






3.4.
Over 30 Head teachers interviews
Over 20 Government officials interviews
Over 150 Pastoralists leaders interviews
Over 30 each FGD Men and Wmen
Over 20 FGD Children
Over 20 Dropout pastoralists interviews
Data Processing and Analysis
3.4.1 Data Entry
There was an attempt to enter the data at a centre point for each of the sites. In Maroodi Jeex,
the first site, it was rapidly realised that the quality of data entry was poor and so all the other
questionnaires were shipped back to Nairobi to be entered by a dedicated data entry team under
the supervision of a Somali speaker who translated the non-precoded answers.
The Household Questionnaire has 820 items and it was calculated that a competent data entry
clerk working under reasonable conditions could enter the responses for 15 questionnaires a day.
Given that the achieved sample size was 6,650, the number of data entry clerk days was
estimated at 440 days and with 11 data entry clerks, meaning 40 days or 8 weeks. Data entry
started in Nairobi at the beginning of May was completed mid-July
3.4.2 Data Cleaning
In general, there were no obvious systematic mistakes affecting groups of questionnaires
collected by specific enumerators or groups of data entered by specific data entry clerks. For the
data from Maroodi Jeex, however, there was a group of 130 questionnaires where there were so
many errors which appeared to have arisen during data entry that they were re-entered.
10
There were several questions which had been included with some hesitation as they involved
estimation of quantities or percentages (i.e. hectares of land, cost of cereals in dollars) .
Unsurprisingly, these generated difficulties at both interview and data entry stage. In part these
could be identified through values that were out-of-range values detected by machine and
checked back with the individual questionnaires. But, it also became obvious that, for many of
Page | 11 the percentage and value questions, there had been some confusion between a fraction and a
percentage or between Somali shillings and the US dollar and these were solved by machine.
3.4.3 Bases for Percentages
In general, for each item, the base N, after taking into account out-of-range values, was the
numbers of non-missing values. There were several cases where there was a group of questions
which should have been answered (either Yes or No) by the same people and in those cases the
decision has been taken to take the least number of missing for that group and to adjust the
responses for the other questions in the same group accordingly. In addition, there were several
sets of linked questions (i.e. where one question should only have been answered by those who
answered positively to a previous question) and those links have been taken into account in
presenting the base numbers in the tables even though the number that is the basis for the
percentages may be smaller.
3.4.4 Approaches to Analysing Variability
It was assumed from the outset that the major dimension of variation would be according to
livelihood activity. This can be defined either in terms of the activity of the household or in
terms of the predominant activity of the locations/ sample sites. The actual survey was carried
out in 6 sites, but within each of those sites enumerators went to 3 separate „sub-sites‟ and the
actual interviews were held with pastoralist households in 10-12 locations giving a total of about
200 locations throughout the Somali territories. A crucial question was therefore the extent of
variation between sites and between sub-sites compared to variation between households
according to their own livelihood activity.
The basic analyses are simply the breakdown of all the responses on the 820 questionnaire items
by each of the sites. These show that, for a large number of items, the variety of valid answers
was small and/ or the percentages of interest were small. Subsequent analyses by sub-sites, by
households‟ own livelihood activity and by income within site are therefore restricted to those
items where there is sufficient variability or where the percentages of interest are sufficiently
high.
3.4.5
Comparisons with the 2006 MICS Survey
The 2006 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) provided detailed information on child
mortality, nutrition, child health, child protection, water and sanitation, education, reproductive
health, knowledge of HIV/AIDS and fertility. There is considerable interest to see whether the
results of this survey focussing on pastoralists will be different.
11
CHAPTER 4: GENERAL BACKGROUND ABOUT PASTORALISTS
4.1
Page | 12
Interviews with Pastoralists Representatives about Group Movement
Pastoralists‟ leaders of different standings were interviewed. These included Chiefs, Village
elders both male and female and head of troops in cases of highly mobile pastoralists groups.
Estimation of number within the groups and geographical coverage seems to have been a
problem. The table below gives averages of these numbers for five sites.
Table 4.1
Region
Population Size, and Area Coverage
Men
Women
South Mudug
Sanaag
Togdheer
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)
Gedo
Children
Total
1114
425
1800
450
1410
328
76
400
355
102
600
431
247
800
360
450
600
Area
coverage
25 - 60 km2
25- 40 km2
20 - 50 km2
15 - 25 km2
500 m2
The estimates from Sanaag appear to be more realistic and we can use it to generalize pastoral
areas while that of Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) can illustrate population distribution in agropastoral areas.
Majority of all the leaders interviewed confirmed that their group had moved within the last four
seasons. However, there were some variations across the regions with more movements being
confirmed in South Mudug, Togdheer and Gedo. While in Sanaag and Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) there were relatively lower movements with a number of leaders reporting that they
have indeed hosted other people within the four seasons.
Lack of pasture and water coming as a result of prolonged drought was the major cause for
movement in all the regions. However, in South Mudug some leaders also said their groups
moved as a result of insecurity. Services such as health centres and schools were not cited by any
leader as reasons for movement.
Movement is usually one of the ways by which pastoral communities effectively utilize the
fragile pastoral rangelands. In most of the cases, there is no extensive consultation before
different households decide to move. As the elders put it, prevailing environmental conditions
dictates decision to move and it usually comes automatically when draught sets in. However,
when there is conflict between communities, consultations are usually held to ensure the families
only move to safe areas. This occurs for both drought and security instigated migrations.
In normal times, the pattern of movement is regular with different communities (clans) moving
to specific areas traditionally utilized for grazing at different times of the year. But when there is
prolonged drought they venture into other areas out of their designated grazing land. As part of
traditional resource sharing, communities can move anywhere for grazing and watering to save
their animals in times of crisis, although extensive movements may be curtailed by conflicts.
12
In pure pastoralists groups the tendency is to have all family members move together, but this
depend on the situation. If the distance of movement is too long, then weak members of the
community such as the elderly and children who cannot withstand the journey are left behind at
strategic places usually watering points together with weak animals. In agro-pastoral areas, only
Page | 13 strong men move with the animals leaving behind women, elderly people, the sick and children
to take care of farm land.
All the leaders interviewed said that their groups are based on kinship coming either from
lineage hence belonging to the same clan or as a result of marriage. Such kinship is also what
determines regular pattern of movement. In some cases, long association in some common
grazing areas may also create cohesion among different groups.
4.2
Household Structure
4.2.1 Average Household Size, Numbers of Men, Women Boys and Girls
The „typical‟ household (inverted commas because there were really large variations) has about 6
members with only minor variations between sites (lowest 5.8 in South Mudug and highest 6.4 in
Gedo) and the ranges were petty similar as there was little variation in the mean divided by
standard deviation measure (about 2.4 for each site). The numbers of adults (overall mean 2.8)
showed a little more variation between sites (lowest 2.3 in Sanaag and highest 3.2 in Galgaduud)
and the within site variation was also large with the mean/standard deviation measure at 1.7
varying between a low of 2.1 in Gedo and a high of 1.5 in Sanaag. Overall there were equal
numbers of men and women in the household (about 1.4 of each), although considerably more
men than women in Galgaduud (1.7 compared to 1.5) and considerably fewer in South Mudug
(1.3 compared to 1.5). There was slightly more variation in the numbers of children in the
households (compared to the number of adults) around an overall mean of 3.4 between a low of
2.8 in Galgaduud and a high of 3.9 in Sanaag although the within site variation was about the
same varying between 1.2 inn Galgaduud and 1.7 in Sanaag around an overall mean of 1.5.
There were considerably more boys than girls overall (1.8 compared to 1.6) and in every site,
with the largest discrepancy of 0.3 in Galgaduud and the lowest (less than 0.1 in South Mudug).
Table 4.2: Household Composition
Size
N of Adults
Men
Women
N of children
Boys
Girls
N
Site_ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Maroodi Jeex 1032
6.05
2.94
1.54
1.48
1.45
3.15 1.31
1.68
1.44
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
874
6.03
2.69
1.74
1.36
1.31
3.38 1.51
1.77
1.59
South Mudug 1090
5.81
2.78
1.64
1.29
1.47
3.05 1.33
1.56
1.48
Sanaag
1138
6.16
2.32
1.51
1.19
1.11
3.88 1.74
2.04
1.83
Gedo
1487
6.41
2.69
2.11
1.36
1.31
3.77 1.68
1.97
1.78
Galgaduud
1008
6.05
3.22
1.69
1.73
1.47
2.84 1.18
1.56
1.28
Total
6629
6.11
2.76
1.67
1.39
1.35
3.38 1.45
1.78
1.59
1: Household Size; 2: Number of adults (18+) in household; 3: (mean/Standasd Deviation) of Number of adults (18+)
in Household; 4: Number of Men in household (18+); 5: Number of Women in Household (18+); 6: Number of
Children (<18) in Household corrected; 7: (Mean/standard deviation) Number of children (<18) in household
corrected; 8: Number of boys in Household corrected; 9: Number of gilrs in Household corrected
13
4.2.2 Demographics of Household Head and of Respondent
Not everyone –but over 90% - answered the questions about the head of household. Overall,
nearly 60% were male adults (varying between 45% in South Mudug and 74% in Sanaag) and
nearly 40% female adults (varying between 25% in Sanaag and 55% in South Mudug), with
Page | 14 overall 2% of child headed households but this average dominated by 7% in Gedo with the next
highest being Sanaag at 1.1%.
Slightly more answered the question about the respondent and their relationship to the head of
household. Overall 59% were female, varying between 42% in Sanaag and 75% in Togdheer.
Table 4.3: Head of household and Respondent
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
Total
Head of household
Overall Male
Female
N
Adult
Adult
1023
63.3%
36.5%
Child
(<18)
.2%
Respondent
Overall N %
Female
1024 65
804
69.0%
30.5%
.5%
833
1020
44.8%
54.9%
.3%
1078
1044
73.8%
25.2%
1.1%
1120
1262
46.6%
46.2%
7.2%
1301
864
63.5%
36.3%
.1%
880
6017
59.3% 38.9%
1.9%
6236
%
Head
Household
of
%
Some
Education
75
68
42
58
51
59
4.2.3 Responsibilities of Household Members
Generally, men are expected to provide for their families and are therefore engaged in a number
of activities that forms livelihood in any given area. These include herding of livestock, farm
work in agro-pastoral areas, casual labour and burning of charcoal. Beside these, they control
sale of livestock. Other roles include resolving disputes and conflicts between households over
grazing and water resources, looking for better grazing area for relocation during drought, and
gathering information about the general livelihood and security situation through informal
gatherings and community meetings.
Women are involved in herding of livestock, domestic chores such as fetching of water,
firewood, cooking and petty trade such as sale of tea. In some regions such as Galmudug and
Sanaag women were also reported to be involved in making of handcraft such as mats and
traditional utensils. In agro-pastoral areas they also work in the farms along with men. In some
areas, (Togdheer) they are also involved in construction of shelter (traditional Somali agal)
Boys help their fathers in herding of animals, construction of animal enclosures, farm work and
in some cases help in fetching of water. Girls depending on their age also help their mothers in
all household tasks such as cooking, washing of clothes, fetching water and firewood. They are
also involved in herding of animals in grazing areas close to the homes.
14
4.3
Fuel and Materials Used in Housing
4.3.1 Fuel Use
Page | 15
By far, the fuel most likely to be used (answered by 3985) was wood (89%) with South Mudug
lowest at 79%and Sanaag highest at 97%, although 10% overall said that the fuel most likely to
be used was charcoal with 19% those in South Mudug compared to 2% of those in Sanaag. The
second choice of fuel (answered by 1491) was charcoal (36%, with variations between 24% in
Sanaag and 56% in Togdheer) followed by straw/ shrubs/ grass (34% with variations between
12% in Togdheer and 64% in Sanaag)) and wood (22% with variations between 6% in Sanaag
and 29% in South Mudug). Only 668 answered the question about the third most likely source of
fuel with 41% saying straw/ shrubs/ grass and 22% saying wood.
4.3.2 Rooms and Materials of Floors, Roofs and Walls
Of the 4,925 (74% of all respondents) who answered the question, 77% said one room for
sleeping varying between 64% in South Mudug and 95% in Gedo.
Of those who answered the question about the number of rooms (4,439), 82% had natural earth
floors (varying between 63% in South Mudug and 93% in Togdheer), and inversely only 12%
cement (varying between 4% in Togdheer and 30% in South Mudug). Of those who answered
the question about the materials used in roofs (4419), 29% reported corrugated iron sheet
(varying between 3% in Gedo and 59% in South Mudug), and inversely, 34% reported thatch
(varying between 10% in South Mudug and 65% in Gedo), and 16% reported carboard (varying
between 6% in Sanaag and 30% in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed)) and 15% tented covering
(between 6% in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) and 27% in Togdheer). Of those who answered the
question about the number of sleeping areas, and who answered the question about walls (2320),
36% reported stone (varying between 4% in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) and Gedo and 77% in
South Mudug), 29% mud (varying between 7% in South Mudug and 95% in Gedo) and 24%
reported planks (varying between 1% in Gedo and 72% in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed)).
Number of rooms
N1
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
965
2a
68
2b
5.2
N2
939
Floor
Materials
Roof Materials
3a
4b
3c
80
6.9
4c
Wall Materials
4d
4e
N3
544
5a
5b
9
13
30
40
6
744
73
4.0
680
93
4.3
250
41
16
10
45
27
1044
64
5.6
1030
63
29.7
756
7
59
11
10
18
511
85
2.0
419
85
9.3
217
36
36
6
25
21
921
95
0.4
665
92
.2
280
95
3
21
65
5
757
79
3.2
706
90
4.7
273
49
42
13
24
19
4925
77
3.6
4439
81.8
11.7
2320
29.2
29.3 15.8 34.0 15.2
Total
N1 N of respondents about rooms; 2a: One room only; 2b: Three or more rooms; N2: N of respondents;
3a: Natural Earth; 3c: Cement; 4b: Corrugated Iron Sheets; 4c: Cardboard; 4d: Thatch; 4e: Tent; N3: N
for wall materials; 5a: Mud; 5b: Stone; 5c: Planks
15
5e
72
4
11
77
46
4
39
36.4
34
6
10
1
3
24.2
Those who did not answer the question about the number of rooms for sleeping but did answer
the question (440)
Page | 16
Of those 448, 83% said that they had natural earth for a floor (varying between 68% in South
Mudug and 95% in Togdheer); of the 464 who answered the question about roof covering, 27%
said corrugated iron sheets (varying between 13%in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 56%
in South Mudug), 23% said thatch (varying between 9% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)
and 36% in Togdheer) and 21% said tented covering (12% in South Mudug and 22% in
Togdheer). Of those who answered the question about walls (299), 27%, 23% and 19%
4.4
Contact with Towns and Trnsport
Contact with Town
Overall, 90% of respondents said that someone in the household had been to the nearest town,
with the lowest figure of 73% for households in South Mudug. Of those who had gone to the
nearest town, about 6% overall had gone to see an official, 65% had gone to buy (varying
between 40% in South Mudug and 78% in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed)) and 70% to sell (varying
between 38% South Mudug and 86% in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed)). About 85% of households
had relatives in town with the lowest figure of 73% in South Mudug. About a quarter overall
(26%) went at least once a week to town to sell or buy (varying between 12% in South Mudug
and 42% in Gedo), 55% at least once a month (varying between 44% in Galgaduud and 67% in
Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed)), but 20% had not been to town in the last twelve months (varying
between3% in Gedo and 32% in South Mudug).
Transport
When asked if they had any means of transport at all, 20% overall had andanimal-drawn cart
(varying between 2% in Togdheer and 56% ikn Gedo), and 16% had a camel or horse or donkey
(varying between 4% in South Mudug and 31% in Sanaag). Only about around 1% had a bicycle,
motor cycle or any other type of vehicle.
N1
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
1016
Going to
town
Relatives
How often to town
Means of
transport
2b
3
4a
5c
78
2c
86
87
23
4b
4c
5d
67
11
7
24
25
2
8
32
3
4
29
9
31
3
56
10
29
7
19
20
16
16
Total
N1: N of respondents to question 12.2 to 12.5; 2b: Gone to town to buy livestock/ provisions; 2c: Gone to
town to sell livestock/provisions ; 3: Had relatives in nearest town; 4a: Been to town to buy or sell
livestock/ provisions at least every week; 4b: Been to town to buy or sell livestock/ provisions at least
846
834
1031
1422
930
6079
67
40
65
811
50
65
72
38
72
76
70
70
94
73
87
89
83
85
20
12
21
42
28
26
16
56
55
50
55
44
55
every month; 4c: Not been to town to buy or sell livestock/ provisions for more than a year; 5c: Animaldrawn cart; 5d: Camel/horse/ donkey
Page | 17
17
CHAPTER 5 ON EDUCATION AND LEARNING
5.1
Pastoralist Experience of Education
5.1.1 Adults
Page | 18
The information about adults‟ formal schooling is presented in Table 5.1 and the information
about non-formal schooling in Table 5.2.
Formal Schooling
Overall households reported that 14% of adult men (18+), varying between 5% in South Mudug
and Galgadiid and 28%% in Togdheer had some formal schooling. For women overall the rate
was 9%, varying between 3% in Galgaduud and 20%in Togdheer. For both men and women, the
percentages in Sanaag and Gedo are similar to the overall average, but the percentages for the
other four sites are significantly different from the overall averages. The base for the
percentages is most of households (>85%) in each site. In every site, adult men have more
formal schooling than adult women. The average grade attained by those who have been to
formal schooling was overall about Grade 6, with the lowest in Galgaduud about 2.6 and the
highest in Gedo about 3.6. Variations by income tercile within site were only statistically
significant in Gedo and Galaduud for both men and women
Table 5.1 Education of Adults
Formal Schooling of Adults
N1
1.3M
1.3W
2.5
% Respondents to Formal and
Qu’ranic Education
N2 2.2a
2.2c
M
W
M
686-693
21
11
15
% Adults to Formal and
Qu’ranic Education
N3
2.4ai-v
2.4ci-v
W
2
981
13
2
28
15
38
46
38
829
1027
830
1442
989
14
4
18
9
4
3
16
8
8
8
13.8
8.8
ALL
5697-6032
2.9
2792-2953
20
15
34 21
6088
10
Key N1: N reporting on formal schooling of adults in households; 1.3M: Calculated n% of formal schooling of adult
men; 1.3W: Calculated schooling of adult women; 2.5: Average grade attained in formal school; N2: N reporting on
their own education: 2.2A % Respondents with formal schooling; 2.2C: % respondents having been to Qu’ranic
school; N3: N reporting on education of other adults in the household; 2.4ai-v: % Other adults to formal schooling;
2.4c1-v: % Adults to Qu’ranic
8
Maroodi Jeex
(W, Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
904-938
764-795
846-1017
832-870
1399-1434
952-978
3.0
19.3
27.7
4.5
13.0
16.1
4.9
10.0
19.5
3.9
8.8
9.7
3.4
2.3
3.4
3.0
3.6
2.6
221-246
595-662
658-674
3331-48
379-381
49
6
20
40
10
36
9
12
24
16
30
22
50
55
24
Formal Schooling and Non-Formal Education Reported by Respondent
In addition to completing the household grid where the respondent recorded whether or not each
adult had been to school – which are the results reported in the preceding paragraph - the
respondent was also asked directly about their experience of formal and non-formal schooling;
and it can be seen that the levels reported are higher. Overall 18% report that they themselves
have had formal schooling, varying between 8% in South Mudug and 41% in Togdheer. Those
percentages, together with 11% for Galgaduud, are significantly different from the overall
18
average. When broken down by gender, overall 20% of men and 15% of women report having
gone to formal school and the variations between regions follow the same pattern. Overall, 28%
of respondents said that they had attended a Qu‟ranic school, varying between 10% in Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 52% in Gedo. Apart from Togdheer, the percentages for the other
sites are significantly different from the overall average. When broken down by gender, overall
Page | 19 34% of men and 21% of women report having gone to Qu‟ranic school and gain the variations
between regions follow roughly the same pattern. Less than 3% overall have attended a mobile
school, an Integrated Quaranic School, an intensive course, an Accelerated Alternative Basic
Education (AABE) course or a vocational training course. Again these percentages are based on
most households (>80%) in each region.
Formal Schooling and Non-Formal Education for Other Adults in Household
Overall 10% of other adults in the household were reported to have attended formal schooling,
varying between 4% in South Mudug and Galgaduud and 18% in Sanaag. These percentages
were significantly different from the overall average. Overall, 8% of the other adults were
reported to have attended a Qu‟ranic school, varying between 2%in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) and 3% in Togdheer to 16% in South Mudug and these percentages were significantly
different from the overall average. Otherwise less than 2% overall have attended a mobile
school, an Integrated Qu‟ranic School, an intensive course, an AABE course or a vocational
training course. These percentages are based on most households (>90%) in each region. In this
case, it is noticeable that the percentages of formal schooling reported for other adults in the
household here is lower than the levels recorded in the household grid (the results reported in the
first paragraph of this section).
Respondent and Other Adults to other Types of Non-Formal Education
Less than 3% of women listened to women‟s programmes and less than 2% of men and women
have listened to educational broadcasts, attended a skills training, a correspondence course, a
self-study course, courses designed by Ministry of Health, an adult literacy course or a leadership
programme. These percentages are based on most households (>90%), except for Togdheer
where a large proportion did not answer any of these questions.
Reasons for Not Taking up Non-Formal Opportunities
Seven percent (7%) of respondents overall reported that either they or one or more of the adults
in the household had been offered one or more of these opportunities, but had been unable to
take them up, varying between 2% in Galgaduud and 18% in Togdheer.
Of the 384 respondents who gave a reason for not taking up any of these opportunities, 71% said
engagement with livelihood activities prevented them from taking up the opportunity, 59% said
that they would have had to pay and lacked money, 43% indicated they were constantly
migrating and 14% could not see the benefits of the programme. Given the numbers involved,
differences of less than 20% are not statistically significant, so the following commentary is
therefore limited to only large differences. In Togdheer, 91% of respondents were more likely to
cite engagement in livelihood activities, whilst 31% of respondents in South Mudug were less
19
likely. The only site different from the overall average citing „having to pay‟ as a reason was
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) where money was less of an issue (24%). Sixty five percent
(65%) of respondents in Gedo were more likely to cite constant migration, whilst those in South
Mudug were less likely (16%) Numbers are too small for further breakdowns.
Page | 20 Table 5.2 Reasons Adults Did Not Take Up Non-Formal Education Opportunities
Question #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
Ever offered opportunities
N3
2.9
995
5
700
1062
1018
1199
967
Reasons for not taking up opportunities
N4
2.10A
2.10B
2.10C
2.10D
50
72
24
27
12
18
4
6
11
2
106
45
55
109
19
91
31
60
74
58
66
73
56
67
47
28
16
60
65
63
6
7
10
31
5
ALL
5941
7
384
71
59
43
14
Key N3: N reporting on whether or not they were offered any of these kinds of programmes, but unable to take up;
2.9: % Took up education opportunities; N4: N reporting on reasons for not taking up opportunities; 2.10A: %
Engagement with livelihood activities; 2.10B: % Had to pay and lacked money; 2.10C: % Constant migration; 2.10D:
% Lack of perceived benefits
5.1.2 Children
The detailed results aboiut the education of children are shown in Tables 5.3 and 5.4.
Formal Schooling
Formal schooling by boys aged 6 to 17 has been taken up overall by 21%, varying between 4%
in Galgaduud and 48% in Togdheer households. Nineteen percent (19%) of girls aged 6 to 17
overall are in or have completed formal schooling, varying between 4% for South Mudug
households and 40% of Togdheer households. Boys were always more likely to be attending or
have completed formal school than girls, with the largest gap of 9% in Togdheer. Given the
large samples, differences of more than 4% from the overall average are statistically significant
so that there is therefore a clear difference between the lower take up of formal education in
Table 5.3 Education of Children: Formal Schooling
Question #
% boys with
formal educ.
N1 2.13B
% girls with
formal educ.
N2 2.13G
% children
boarding
N3 2.14B
Av
grade
2.14A
Lower Primary
Upper Primary
Time to
School
N6
2.19
N4
2.15
2.16
N5
2.17
2.18
328
362.
.98
96
93
91
65
78
5.8
5.9
5.2
5.9
5.2
5.2
152
163
26
117
86
78
97
99
92
90
60
18
5.7
5.9
5.4
5.9
5.2
5.1
376
64
506
36
48
1
24
128
16
148
89
10
ALL
21.4
3772
18.9 1382
3858
3
3.0
1179
91
5.7
88 562
5.7
Key N1: N reporting on boys’ formal education; 2.13B: % Boys with formal education; ; N2; N reporting on girls’
formal education; 2..13G; % Girls with formal education N3; N reporting on grades and boarding; 2.14B: % Children
boarding; 2.14A: Average grade attained; N4: N reporting on Lower Primary (LP); 2.15: % Children to LP in morning;
2.16: # Days per week to LP school; N5: N reporting on Upper Primary (UP); 2.17: % Children UP school in morning;
2.18: # Days per week to UP school; N6: N reporting on time to school; 2.19: Average minutes to school
386
57
Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi
Togdheer
Galbeed)
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
503
504
550
788
997
516
41.5
48.0
8.5
19.2
15.2
4.3
526
512
555
754
952
473
33.9
39.5
7.4
18.4
14.0
3.6
397
3
402
98
251
184
50
3
0
2
10
0
20
3.1
3.0
2.4
3.1
3.1
3.5
85
203
164
37
South Mudug and Galgaduud and the higher take up in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and
Togdheer. Variations by income tercile within site were statistically signifciant in Galgaduud.
The average grade attained by children was Grade 3 with little difference between the sites. The
overall percentage boarding was just over 3%, with none in South Mudug and Galgaduud, but
Page | 21 10% in Gedo.
Time and Frequency of Attendance
Of those going to lower primary school, overall 91% of children go in the morning, varying
between 65% in Gedo and 98% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). Of those going to upper
primary school, overall 88% go in the morning, varying between 50% in Gedo and 97% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). Given the level and sample sizes only the percentages in
Galgaduud and Gedo are different in that nearly all the other children in Gedo go all day, whilst
all the others in Galgaduud go in the afternoon. On average, children went both to lower and
upper primary for 5.7 days a week to school with only small differences between sites.
Travel Time to Formal School
The average time to school for those children who went to school in all sites was 57 minutes, but
this varied very widely between 16 minutes for those in South Mudug and 148 minutes for
children in Sanaag households (ignoring the one respondent in Galgaduud).
How Useful was Formal School
Of those parents who had sent one or more or their children to formal schooling, overall 81%
said that it was very useful, varying between 48% of parents in Gedo and 95% in Togdheer,
although none of these differences were statistically significant.
Reasons for Not Sending Children to Formal School (boys and girls)
Of those parents who had NOT sent their children for formal schooling, the main reason, cited by
45% for their boys and by 51% for their girls, was that schools were not available. This varied
between under 20% in South Mudug to over 80% in Sanaag for both boys and girls and all the
percentages except those for Galgaduud are significantly different from the overall average.
Lack of money was the reason cited at 35% for boys and 38% for girls by parents overall,
varying between 14% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and nearly 60% in Sanaag, but only
those extreme values are significantly different from the overall average. Constant migration
was the reason given by parents at 17% for boys and 18% for girls varying between 3% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 40% in Sanaag but only those extreme values are different
from the overall average. Finally, regarding a lack of perceived benefits for sending children to
school was reported by 13% of parents for boys and 11% for girls overall, varying between 1%
for both boys and girls in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households and by 12% of parents
for boys and by 10% of parents for girls in Gedo households.
21
Table 5.4 Reasons for Not Sending Children to Formal School
% Very Useful
N1
Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi
Page | 22 Togdheer
Galbeed)
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
306
332
63
218
172
38
2.20
Reasons for Not Sending Child(ren) to Formal School
N2
90
95
71
77
48
62
Boys
2.21b1
697
281
863
740
905
624
Girls
2.21g1
21
24
18
81
65
49
Boys
2.21b2
22
28
20
84
77
57
Girls
2.21g2
14
29
41
57
32
28
Boys
2.21b3
14
36
44
60
38
31
3
15
4
39
19
20
Girls
2.21g3
Boys
2.21b4
3
15
5
42
21
21
Girls
2.21g4
1
2
3
3
12
10
1
2
5
3
10
8
ALL
1129
81
4110
45
51
35
38
17
18
13
Key N1: N reporting on usefulness of formal school; 2.20: % formal school very useful; N2: N reporting on reason for
not sending children to school; 2.21b1: % Schools not available (for boys); 2.21g1: % Schools not available (for girls);
2.21b2: % Lack of money (for boys); 2.21g2: % Lack of money (for girls); 2.21b3: % Constant migration (for boys);
2.21g3: % Constant migration (for girls): 2.21b4: % Lack of perceived benefits (for boys); 2.21g4: % Lack of
perceived benefits (for girls)
11
Access to Other Non-Formal Educational Possibilities
The detailed results about non-formal education for children are shown in Tables 5.5 and 5.6.
Forty four percent (44%) of parents overall reported that one or more of their children had been
to Qu‟ranic school, varying between 24% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 58% in
South Mudug. These percentages, together with 36% in Galgaduud and 53% in Gedo, were
significantly different from the overall average. According to pastorlist representatives, apart
from Sanaag where some leaders said that girls may also attend Koranic schools when there is
opportunity, leaders from other regions did not report the same. It is therefore apparent that even
though such schools are not exclusively for boys, attendance of boys is more widespread
compared to girls.
Table 5.5 Children’s Access to Other Educational Possibilities
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
N1
904
Qu’ranic
2.22c
24
IQS
2.22e
3
631
886
984
1145
694
48
58
41
53
36
13
1
4
6
1
% Very Useful
N2
2.23
314
70
452
451
349
559
177
85
75
81
55
99
Preferred Form of Education
N3
2.22b 2.22d
2.22f
351-771
18
50
2
76-352
441-831
162-489
313-804
184-498
18
6
33
49
63
76
67
74
82
82
17
1
3
6
1
ALL
5244
44
4
2392
73 1527-3745
28
70
3
N1: N reporting on other educational possibilities; 2.22b: % who have sent their children to Qu’ranic school; 2.22c: %
who have sent children to Integrated Qu’ranic School; N2: N reporting on usefulness of other possibilities; 2.23: %
Other education possibilities were very useful; N3: N reporting on preferred form of education; 2.22b: % Preferring
mobile school; 2.22d: % Preferring Qu’ranic school; 2.22f: % Preferring Integrated Qu’ranic school
Four percent (4%) of parents overall reported that one or more children had been to an
Integrated Qu‟ranic School, varying between 1% in South Mudug and Galgaduud households
and 13% in Togdheer households. Togdheer had the only percentage significantly different from
the overall average. Less than 2% of parents in households in any of the sites reported that any
of their children had been to mobile schools, intensive courses, AABE courses, vocational
training courses, or to other types of non-formal educational possibilities. Of those responding to
22
the question, 73% of parents thought that these alternatives had been very useful, the percentage
varying between 55% in Gedo and 99% in Galgaduud. The percentages were significantly
different from the overall average except in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and South Mudug.
If restricted to parents who had sent their children to one of these alternative forms, the overall
percentage increased to 82%, with small increases in each site.
Page | 23
Preferences about Other Non-Formal Education Possibilities
Overall 18% of parents said that they preferred a mobile school, varying between 4% of South
Mudug households to 44% of parents in Galgaduud households and all the percentages with the
exception of that of Sanaag are significantly different from the overall average. Overall, 70% of
parents said that they preferred a Qu‟ranic school, varying between 50% in Maroodi Jeex (W.
Galbeed) and 82% in Gedo and Glgaduud. Overall 3% of parents said that they would have
preferred an Intensive Qu‟ranic School (IQS), but in all sites the percentage was 6% or less
except for the 17% of parents in Togdheer households. It is noticeable that the percentage
preferring IQS almost exactly mirrors the percentages saying that they had sent one or more of
their children to an IQS. Many of those replying to these questions had not sent their children to
any of these possibilities. When restricted to parents of children where one of them had been to
one of the alternatives, the percentage preferring a mobile school increased to 22%, with small
increases in each site.
Difficulties in Taking Up Non-Formal Education Possibilities
The details on thes questions are shown in Table 5.6.
Ever Offered Any of These Programmes: Seven percent (7%) of parents overall said that one or
more of their children had been offered one or more non-formal possibilities. The percentages
varied from 5% or less in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), South Mudug, Sanaag and
Galgaduud to 12% in Togdheer and Gedo and 14% in Togdheer. Only the latter three sites are
significantly different from the overall average.
Table 5.6 Reasons Why Alternative Education Opportunities Not Taken Up
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
Ever offered alternatives
N1
2.24
764
5
604
629
843
1036
595
14
5
3
1
4
Reasons why parents were unable to take up the alternatives
N2
2.25A
2.25B
2.25C
2.25D
32
55
22
34
16
57
80
86
36
5
29
36
72
18
0
18
82
89
87
0
101
67
62
66
25
20
60
90
57
5
ALL
4471
7
257
65
68
50
12
Key N1: N reporting on ever offered opportunities, but not taking them up ; 2.24: % Ever offered any of these
programmes, but unable to take them up; N2: N reporting on reasons for not taking up; 2.25a: % saying engagement
with livelihood activities: 2.25b: % Had to pay and lacked money: 2.25c: % Constant migration: 2.25d: % Lack of
perceived benefits
Reasons Why Possibilities Not Taken Up: Overall, 257 parents gave reasons why their children
did not take up any possibilities in non-formal education. Across all sites, 65% said engagement
23
with livelihood activity was a reason, and although the percentages varied from 36% in South
Mudug to 80% in Togdheer and given the small numbers, only the former was statistically
significant. Having to pay and not having money was the reason stated by 68% of parents
overall varying between 22% of parents in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households and
90% of parents in Galgaduud households. Together with the parents in Sanaag households, these
Page | 24 were the only percentages significantly different from the overall average. Constant migration
was given as the reason by exactly half of parents, varying between 18% of parents in South
Mudug households and 87% of parents in Sanaag households. Overall 12% of parents did not
see benefits to any of these non-formal possibilities, varying between none of the parents in
Galgaduud and Sanaag households and 25% of the parents in Gedo households. The percentages
of parents who were ever offered one of these possibilities and the number of positive cases were
too small for further breakdowns.
Fees and Other Costs for Primary Primary Education
The results reported in Table 5.7 are based on 295 responses of parents who had reported that at
least one of their children had gone to school, excluding fees for any single item that was
reported to be greater than US$100 and excluding amounts reported for „other fees‟ because
there were too few responses. On average overall, parents paid $9 for registration, $60 annual
fees, $28 for educational materials and $24 for meals making a total average annual cost for
education of US$121. The lowest fees were paid by parents in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) households who paid $6 registration, $31 annual fees, $24 for educational materials
and $10 for meals, making an average annual total of $71. The highest fees were paid by parents
of households in Galgaduud who paid $15 for registration, $142 annual fees, $22 for educational
materials and $36 for meals, making an average annual total of US$215.
By Income Tercile within Site: There were wide variations in school fees paid between the
bottom and top income tercile for example between $53 and $230 in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) and between $71 and $265 in South Mudug
Table 5.7 Primary School Fees and Costs
Reg.
2.26AP
Maroodi Jeex (W.
Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
138
6
Ann.
2.26BP
31
63
29
35
33
13
7
10
13
15
15
69
77
115
75
142
25
38
37
35
22
20
59
36
61
36
121
184
201
186
215
ALL
301
9
60
28
24
121
N
Mat.
2.26CP
24
Meals
2.26DP
10
Total
71
N: N reporting on fees; 2.26AP: $ Registration fees; 2.26BP: $ Annual fees;
2.26CP: $ Educational materials; 2.26DP: $ Meals; Total: Sum of 2.26AP+2.26BP+2.26CP+2.26DP
5.1.3 Learning Environment in Household
The results for the learning environment of the child and the educational opportunities for the
household are shown in Table 5.8, 5.9A and 5.9B.
24
Textbooks (have and used)
Thirty three percent (33%) of parents overall report they have textbooks in the home and 33%
report that the books are or have been used by the children in the household. The percentages for
each site are very similar and so only the second set (whether or not the children use textbooks)
Page | 25 are reported. The percentages vary between 12% in Galgaduud and 54% in Togdheer. All the
percentages except that of Sanaag are significantly different from the overall average.
Radio and Batteries
Overall 35% of households own radios, varying between 22% in South Mudug households and
46% in Togdheer households. Of those with radios, 86% overall usually have batteries for their
radio, varying between 73% in Gedo and 95% in Sanaag, and only those extreme percentages are
significantly different from the overall average.
Table 5.8 Learning Environment in Household
Textbooks
Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi
Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
N1
738
3.1
46
3.2
45
640
298
538
774
303
55
23
31
17
13
54
22
31
17
12
Have radio and
have batteries
N2
3.3
3.4
1021
28
91
812
1046
1062
1346
978
46
22
42
45
23
Listen Regularly to Radio
Men
Women
N3
3.5M
3.5W
715
92
94
95
73
79
400
249
556
707
360
35
74
78
63
73
51
25
62
31
47
63
30
Children
3.5C
10
33
6
12
25
8
ALL
3291
33
33
6265
35
86
2987
60
43
15
Key N1: N reporting on text books; 3.1: % Have textbooks in the household; 3.2: % Children use textbooks; N2: N
reporting on radios and batteries; 3.3: % Have radio; 3.4: % Have batteries; N3: N reporting on listening regularly to
radio; 3.5M: % Men listen regularly to radio; 3.5W: % Women listen regularly to radio; 3.5C: % Children listen
regularly to radio.
Listen Regularly (men, women and children)
Overall, 60% of men, 43% of women and 15% of children listen regularly to the radio. The
percentages for men vary between 35% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households and
about three quarters in Togdheer, South Mudug and Gedo households. For women, the
percentages range from 25% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households to above 60% in
South Mudug and Gedo households. Ten percent (10%) or fewer of children in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed), South Mudug and Galgaduud households listen regularly to the radio, while
33% of children in Togdheer households do. Only the mentioned percentages are significantly
different from the overall averages.
Programmes Listened To (men, women and children)
Restricting the calculations to those who say that they listen regularly, information was provided
for 692 male respondents, 402 female respondents and 118 children. The number of children is
too small for the breakdown by site so only the overall percentage is given; and even for men and
women there are only a few statistically significant differences. Moreover as the between-site
25
patterns are very similar for men and women, only the patterns for women are discussed in the
text.
News Programmes: Ninety two percent (92%) of men, 89% of women and 76% of children listen
to news programmes, varying for women from 65% in Galgaduud to 96% in Gedo. Only the
Page | 26 percentage in Galgaduud is significantly different from the overall average.
Discusion Programmes: Thirty three percent (33%) of men, 34% of women and 38% of
children listen to discussion programmes, varying for women between 7%-8% in South Mudug
and Galgaduud and 48% in Gedo. Gedo is significantly different from the overall average.
Announcements: Twenty eight percent (28%) of men, 32% of women and 45% of children listen
to announcements, varying for women from 8% in Galgaduud to 54% in Gedo, which is again
the only significant difference from the overall average.
Sports Programmes: Twenty four percent (24%) of men, 25% of women and 47% of children
listen to sports programmes, varying for women between none in South Mudug and Galgaduud
to 45% in Gedo. The rate for women in Gedo is again significantly different than the overall
average.
Table 5.9 Education Opportunities by Radio: (A) News, Discussion, Announcements, Sports
Sports
Men
3.6dm
17
Wom.
3.6dw
23
29
10
6
47
18
22
0
7
45
0
692
402
118
92
89
33
34
28
32
24
Key N1: N reporting on men’s listening habits; N2: N reporting on women’s listening habits; N3: N reporting on
children’s listening habits; 3.6m: % Men listening regularly to news; 3.6aw: % Women listening regularly to news;
3.6bm: % Men listening regularly to discussion programmes; 3.6bw: % Women listening regularly to discussion
programmes; 3.6cm: % Men listening regularly to announcements; 3.6cw: % Women listening regularly to
announcements; 3.6dm: % Men listening regularly to sports; 3.6aw: % Women listening regularly to sports.
25
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
Number Listening Regularly
Men
Women
Children
N1
N2
N3
175
111
48
71
124
81
206
35
46
28
61
139
17
16
7
12
30
5
News
Men
3.6m
92
Wom.
3.6aw
84
96
88
96
99
91
91
82
87
96
65
Discussion
Men
Wom.
3.6bm
3.6bw
22
28
39
16
42
50
23
41
7
35
48
8
Announcements
Men
Wom.
3.6cm
3.6cw
20
27
31
5
16
56
5
23
13
14
54
8
Family Life Programmes: Twenty one percent (21%) of men, 40% of women and 34% of
children listen to family life programmes. The lowest rate for women is 12% for South Mudug
and the two highest rates are 63% and 68% in Galgaduud and Gedo, all three significantly
different from the overall average.
Agriculture: Twenty eight percent (28%) of men, 28% of women and 36% of children listen to
discussion programmes, varying for women from none in South Mudug and Galgaduud to 51%
in Gedo and only the rate for Gedo is significantly different from the overall average.
Home Economics: Thirty one percent (31%) of men, 42% of women and 38% of children listen
to home economics programmes, varying for women between 14%-15% in South Mudug and
26
Sanaag and 79% in Gedo. Each percentage is significantly different from the overall average.
Health Programmes: Fifty two percent (52%) of men, 77% of women and 52% of children
listen to health programmes, varying for women between 35% in South Mudug and 93% in Gedo
and both the extreme percentages are significantly different from the overall average.
Page | 27
Religion Programmes: Seventy five percent (75%) of men 30% of women and 72% of children
listen to religion programmes, varying for women between none in Galgaduud and 47% in Gedo.
Again the only the percentage in Gedo is significantly different from the overall average
Music/ Entertainment Programmes: Thirty percent (30%) of men, 44% of women and 4% of
children listen to music/ entertainment programmes, varying for women between 17% in Sanaag
and 54% in Gedo. Both extreme percentages are significantly different from the overall average.
Table 5.9 Education Opportunities by Radio: (B) Agriculture, Home Economics, Health, Religion,
Music/Entertainment
Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi
Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
Family Life
Agriculture
Home Economic
Health
Men
3.6em
21
Wom.
3.6ew
26
Men
3.6fm
25
Wom.
3.6fw
25
Men
3.6gm
18
Wom.
3.6gw
25
Men
3.6hm
40
29
0
13
62
23
19
41
12
68
63
31
0
6
55
5
23
0
7
51
0
27
5
13
67
24
19
15
14
79
53
52
9
62
77
52
Religion
Music/Entertainment
Wom.
3.6hw
32
Men
3.6im
69
Wom.
3.6iw
63
Men
3.6jm
25
Wom.
3.6jw
41
48
0
53
83
67
84
47
81
91
81
90
35
78
93
83
45
13
14
53
24
58
37
17
54
61
30
44
ALL
21
40
28
28
31
42
52
54
75
77
Note: Same N’s as in Table 5.9A
Key 3.6em: % Men listening regularly to family life programmes; 3.6ew: % Women listening regularly to family life
programmes; 3.6fm: % Men listening regularly to agriculture programmes; 3.6fw: % Women listening regularly to
agriculture programmes; 3.6gm: % Men listening regularly to home economics programmes; 3.6gw: % Women
listening regularly to home economics programmes; 3.6hm: % Men listening regularly to health programmes; 3.6hw:
% Women listening regularly to health programmes; 3.6im: % Men listening regularly to religion programmes; 3.6iw:
% Women listening regularly to religion programmes; 3.6jm: % Men listening regularly to music/ entertainment
programmes; 3.6jw: % Women listening regularly to music/ entertainment programmes
5.1.4 Sources of Information about Different Topics
Respondents were asked about the most useful sources of information on education
opportunities, health care, sanitation and water, protection and shelter, from among a choice of
sixteen possible sources, and the results are shown in Table 5.10A and 5.10B. Less than 1 % in
any of the sites had learnt about any of these topics from the internet, a representative of a
humanitarian organization, neighbours or a loudspeaker announcement. Less than 3% overall
and less than 8% in any one site had learnt about any of these topics from television, newspapers,
SMS messages from someone they knew or from a community or religious leader. Among
those, for television, newspapers, SMS from someone they knew, the numbers involved were too
small to generate significant differences, but for receiving information from a community or
religious leader, the percentages in Gedo (about 7%) were significantly different (just) from the
overall averages of 2%-3%. Again, although less than 3% overall, the percentage receiving
27
information via an SMS from an organization for any of these topics in Gedo was about 10%
which is significantly different from the overall average
For each of the topics, the percentages saying that they had received information by phoning a
help line in each site was 4%. Over half (57%) of those who said they had used a help line at all
Page | 28 reported using it for all four topics such that its use is restricted to a specific, small group mostly
in Sanaag (about 7%) and in Gedo (about 10%). For both sites, the percentage is significantly
different from the overall average. For each of the topics, the percentages saying that they had
received information from a friend or family member was 6% or 7%, with hardly any (less
than1%) in Gedo and Galgaduud, but 13% in Sanaag. Between 8% and 12% of those in Gedo
had received information this way and, once again, just under half (47%) of those who said that
they had received information from a friend or family member at all had received information
about all four topics this way. The analysis below is therefore only of the remaining four named
options (radio, from a notice board, community meeting or a government representative) where
the percentages in each site for each topic are over 10%.
Education: Nearly half (49%) overall said that they had learnt about education opportunities
from the radio, varying between 26% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and South Mudug
and 84% in Gedo. About a sixth (16%) overall said that a notice board was a source, varying
between 5% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 26% in Galgaduud and 29% in Sanaag.
Not surprisingly nearly twice as many of those reporting that they had formal education cited
notice boards. About a sixth (17%) overall said that a community meeting was the source,
varying between 1% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 26% in Gedo and 27% in
Galgaduud. Overall 22% said that they had received information from a government
representative, varying from 7% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) to 35% in Togdheer to39%
in Galgaduud. All the extreme percentages in this paragraph were significantly different than the
overall average.
Table 5.10 Sources of Information on (A) Education and Health Care
Sources of information on Education
Sources of information on Health Care
Ques #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
N1
759
12.6A1
26
12.6A8
5
12.6A10
1
12.6A13
7
N2
581
12.6B1
15
12.6B8
5
12.6B10
1
12.6B13
6
517
845
673
837
319
65
26
53
84
40
16
15
29
9
26
12
15
23
26
27
35
17
26
19
39
400
831
601
700
236
38
5
45
75
28
18
7
26
8
15
14
11
20
24
17
30
11
25
16
36
3950
49
16
17
22
3349
34
12
14
18
Key N1: N reporting on sources of information on education 12.6A1: % Radio; 12.6A8: % Notice board; 12.6A10: %
Community meeting; 12.6A13: % Government representative; N2: N reporting on sources of information on health
care; 12.6B1: % Radio; 12.6B8: % Notice board; 12.6B10: % Community meeting; 12.6B13: % Government
representative.
Health Care: Just over a third (34%) overall said that they had received information about health
care from the radio, varying between 15% and 5% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and
South Mudug respectively and 75% in Gedo. About an eighth (12%) overall said that a notice
board was the source, varying between 5% and 7% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and
South Mudug and 26% in Sanaag. Not surprisingly nearly twice as many of those reporting
28
formal education cited a notice board. About 14% overall said that a community meeting was
the source, varying between 1% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 20% in Sanaag and
24% in Gedo. Overall 18% said that they had received information from a government
representative, varying between 6% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 30% in Togdheer
and 36% in Galgaduud All of the extreme percentages in this paragraph were significantly
Page | 29 different from the overall average.
Sanitation and Water: Just under a third (31%) overall said that they had received information
about sanitation and water from the radio, varying between 13% and 3% in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) and South Mudug respectively and 71% in Gedo. About an eighth (12%)
overall said that a notice board was the source, varying between 4% and 8% in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) and South Mudug and 25% in Sanaag. Not surprisingly nearly twice as
many of those reporting formal education cited this source. About 15% overall said that a
community meeting was the source, varying between 1% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)
and 26% in Gedo. Overall 18% said that they had received information from a government
representative, varying between 5% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 30% in Togdheer
and 34% in Galgaduug. In this paragraph, all the extreme percentages cited were significantly
different from the overall average.
Table 5.10 Sources of Information on (B) Sanitation and Water, Protection & Shelter
Ques #
Maroodi Jeex
(W.Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
Sanitation & Water
N3
12.6C1 12.6C8
553
13
4
12.6C10
1
12.6C13
5
Protection & Shelter
N4
12.6D1 12.6D8
550
10
3
12.6D10
0
12.6D13
383
823
593
674
229
33
3
44
71
24
18
8
25
9
16
14
11
10
26
16
30
10
26
17
34
348
827
578
634
226
23
5
40
69
24
6
8
26
11
14
14
11
20
25
19
3
20
9
26
17
36
3255
31
12
15
18
3165
29
11
15
16
Key N3: N reporting on sources of information on sanitation & water; 12.6C1: % Radio; 12.6C8: % Notice board;
12.6C10: % Community meeting; 12.6C13: % Government representative; N4: N reporting on sources of
information on protection & shelter; 12.6D1: % Radio; 12.6D8: % Notice board; 12.6D10: % Community meeting;
12.6D13: % Government representative.
Protection and Shelter About 29% overall said that they had received information about
protection and shelter from the radio, varying between 10% and 5% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) and South Mudug respectively and 69% in Gedo. Only 11% overall said that a notice
board was the source, varying between 3% and 6% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and
South Mudug and 26% in Sanaag. About 15% overall said that a community meeting was the
source, varying between none in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 25% in Gedo. About a
sixth (16%) overall said that they had received information from a government representative,
varying between 3% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 26% in Sanaag and 36% in
Galgaduud. Each extreme percentage cited in this paragraph was significantly different from the
overall average.
Those who learnt information from the radio or television were askd about their listening (see
Table 5.11). The maximum numbers from the previos four tables are reproduced in the first two
columns. Nearly all of the 1940 who had heard from radio or TV responded to the question about
29
the channel from which they had learnt information. Overall 39% had heard exclusively from
BBC, 6%exclusively from VoA, 49% from either BBC or VoA and 6% from othe combinations.
This varied widely between sites with 84% of those in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) haering
exclusively from the BBC compared to 28% in Gedo and 30% in Togdheer; and 58% ofthsoe in
Gedo and 65% in Gedo had heard from either BBC or VoA compared to 9% in Maroodi Jeex
Page | 30 (W. Galbeed).
Table 5.11 Sources of Information on (B) Sanitation and Water, Protection & Shelter
Ques #
Maroodi Jeex
(W.Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
Learnt from
Radio or TV
N1
%
759
26
N2
BBC
32
27
84.4%
VoA
N
1
BBC and VoA
Other
%
3.1%
3
9.4%
1
3.1%
517
845
673
837
319
65
26
53
84
40
343
195
323
712
145
104
106
185
199
62
30.3%
54.4%
57.3%
27.9%
42.8%
6
48
19
1
29
1.7%
24.6%
5.9%
.1%
20.0%
199
29
109
463
49
58.0%
14.9%
33.7%
65.0%
33.8%
33
12
10
49
5
9.9%
5.9%
3.1%
6.9%
3.4%
3950
49
1750
683
38.9%
104
5.9%
852
48.7%
109
6.3%
5.1.5 Leaflets from NGOs or Government Representatives
There was a particular concern about the usefulness of leaflets provided by NGOs or government
representatives. This was addressed through a different question in the education section (see
Table 5.12). Overall 26% of those who had received leaflets from an NGO or a government
representative thought they were useful, varying between 15% in South Mudug and 32% in
Sanaag. Of those who said that the leaflets were NOT useful, 13% thought that the documents
were not relevant, varying between 6% in Sanaag and 26% in Gedo. Overall, 86% said that they
could not read the leaflet, varying between 73% in Gedo and 93% in Sanaag.
Table 5.12 Leaflets from NGOs or Governments
Ques #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
Useful
N1
955
2.11
23
Why Not useful
N2
2.12a
464
10
2.12b
88
733
1033
1010
1181
919
48
15
32
26
16
196
630
513
490
606
16
13
6
26
9
77
85
93
73
91
5831
26
2899
13
86
Key N1: N reporting on question #2.11 on usefulness of leaflets; 2.11: % saying leaflets given to them by NGOs or
governments were useful; N2: Number reporting reason why leaflets were NOT useful; 2.12a % Leaflets were not
relevant; 2.12b: % Could not read.
5.2
Child Discipline
Community members were asked a number of questions in focussed group discussions on how
they instil discipline to their children. From the discussions it became clear that parents apply all
30
possible options to teach children what they consider to be the right behaviour. In some cases
and depending on the mistake committed by a child, they may employ counselling, but if such
behaviour persist they employ physical punishment that include shaking, spanking, slapping on
the bottom with bare hand, hitting with a stick or belt on the bottom or elsewhere on the body.
Depending on the age and nature of indiscipline behavior exhibited, the beating can be soft or
Page | 31 hard. Also employed is verbal chastity which may involve yelling or shouting at the offending
child as well as name calling.
Those who strongly support physical or verbal punishment believe that children need to be
scared in order to be discouraged from bad behavior. However, some of them felt that although
physical punishment may be inevitable under some circumstances, it should not be excessive and
should also not be frequent, reason being that the children may end up rebelling and become
more indiscipline. Although most of them were in agreement that physical punishment is integral
part of nurturing good behavior, most of them especially women felt that the beatings children
receive in Koranic schools (Madrassa) are more severe than at home.
Opinions were divided when asked about possibilities of raising or educating children properly
without either physical punishment of verbal chastisement. Some of them were in agreement that
non-aggressive methods such as taking away privileges, forbidding something the child likes or
not allowing the child to leave the house can be effective in nurturing the desired behavior. But
others strongly argued that with the kind of environment and lifestyle they have, such alternative
approaches of punishment are inapplicable and therefore cannot be effective. Moreover,
movement of girl child is already highly restricted and therefore grounding may not be seen as
punishment. Restriction of movement may also not work even for boys in pure pastoralists areas
since there may not be any properly built house to confine the child and more to this, the child
services in herding is permanently required. In summary, there are no much privileges or
something so priced by the child that can be withdrawn as a punishment.
5.3
Supply of Formal Education Services
5.3.1 School Calendar
This section is based on the interviews with head teachers (see Chapter 3) about the school
calendar. The calendars in all sites are largely similar (January to May and August to
December). Precise dates are determined by the respective Ministry of Education or Community
Education Committee (CEC). The uniformity in the general school terms‟ dates and holidays
suggests that most schools follow the calendar that existed before the collapse of the previous
central government. However, some of the head teachers said that they agreed to close their
school during the rainy seasons so that children would be able to join their families. In some
other cases, schools are open throughout the year because students don‟t have anywhere to spend
school year holidays and so they are kept in school, after consultation with parents.
5.3.2 Teachers and Teaching Methods
Teachers are recruited by CECs, in consultation with the school administration and almost all
31
teachers come from the local area. The head teachers interviewed felt that the school and the
teachers were well prepared to teach pastoralist children, mostly because their teachers are from
a pastoral background and know and respect the local culture, as well as following the traditional
dress code. Head teachers from South Mudug confirmed that the Ministry of Education certifies
teachers‟ qualification by giving them a professional examination.
Page | 32
Teaching methods vary from school to school. In Sanaag, some head teachers confirmed use of
participatory methods where students are actively involved in discussions during lessons, while
others said they use traditional methods where teachers write notes on the board and pupils copy.
In South Mudug, traditional methods of teaching are employed with little participation from the
pupils. In Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Togdheer, teachers employ mixed methods,
integrating both traditional methods and participatory methods. There were mixed views on the
suitability of methods employed in teaching.
Curriculum and Textbooks:
Most regions have a common curriculum across their schools. However, in South Mudug, there
is no common curriculum. In Sanaag, most schools in the survey sites implement the Puntland
state curriculum, but one head teacher said his school offers a curriculum from Yemen. There is
less consistency in the South where different districts and regions are governed by different
authorities. In South Mudug, schools offer different curricula. Some head teachers said that they
do not follow any standardized common curriculum because the local population and teachers
chose what is to be taught. Some others said they offer curriculum developed by an umbrella
education body known as FPENS or the UNICEF produced curriculum. More interesting is that
there are cases where no particular curriculum is followed and teachers teach anything that in
their opinion is important. In Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) and Togdheer all schools implement a
common curriculum, the Somaliland national curriculum. In most areas, schools do not have
enough textbooks; and in some regions (Sanaag, South Mudug) there were only teacher guides.
Main Causes of Drop Outs
Several of the causes for dropping out of school, as per head teachers, were similar for both
pastoralist and sedentary community children such as drought and hard economic times that lead
to inability to pay fees, domestic chores both inside and outside the household, cultural beliefs/
lack of appreciation of value of girls‟ education by some parents, and early marriage for girls.
Specific reasons for pastoralists dropping out of school are the regular migration in search of
pasture and water, the lack of accommodation in places where schools are available and poor
learning environments. Specific reasons for agro-pastoralist drop outs are the need to labour on
family farms, indiscipline and lack of control by the parents, learning bad habits such as chewing
of chat and parents who are not educated and therefore don‟t understand the value of education.
Improving the Quality of Education
Several suggestions about the quality of education provided were made by head teachers as
possible ways of curbing school drop outs among pastoralist and agro-pastoralist communities:
32
Similar for pastoralist and agro-pastoralist communities
• Raising awareness of the need for education by both boys and girls
• Specifically for girls, stopping early marriages
• Limiting household tasks to allow children time for school
• Providing education facilities and learning materials
Page | 33
Pastoralist specific
• Establishing boarding schools with food and shelter for children whilst parents are
migrating
• Establishing mobile schools to allow access to education during migration
• Stopping early marriage for girls and creating awareness of the importance of education
for girls
• Improving teacher training
Sedentary Community specific
• Providing support such as free education
• Encouraging parents to discipline their children and providing recreation facilities in
schools to discourage idleness and to prevent the adoption of negative vices such as
chewing khat
5.3
Summary of Findings and Discussioin
5.3.1 Educational Experiences of Adults and Children
Education of Adults
Overall, households reported that 14% of adult men (18 years and older), varying between 5% in
South Mudug and 28% in Togdheer, had some formal schooling. For women overall the rate
was 9%, varying between 5% in South Mudug and Galgaduud and 20% in Togdheer. The
pattern across the sites was similar for men and for women. Although the rates are higher for
men, the differences are perhaps not as large as some of the literature would lead one to believe.
Over a quarter (28%) of respondents, reported that they had been to a Qu‟ranic school varying
between 10% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 52% in Gedo, although the percentages
reported for other adults in the household were much smaller (around 8%). The higher rates of
participation in Qu‟ranic schools tend to correspond to lower rates of participation in formal
schooling, although the correlation is not exact. Otherwise, less than 3% of respondents and less
than 2% of other adults overall have attended a mobile school, an Integrated Quaranic School, an
intensive course, an AABE course or a vocational training course.
Seven percent (7%) of respondents (whether men or women) overall reported that either they or
one or more of the adults in the household had been offered one or more of these opportunities,
but had been unable to take them up, varying between 2% in Galgaduud and 18% in Togdheer.
Of the 384 respondents overall the reasons for not taking up the opportunities were: for 71% they
were engaged in livelihood activities, for 59% they would have had to pay and lacked money, for
33
43% they were constantly migrating and for 14% they could not see the benefits of the
programme. Although there were wide variations in the percentages between sites, as the
numbers involved were relatively small, there is no obvious pattern.
Page | 34
When asked about other alternative educational possibilities, fewer than 3% of women regularly
listened to women‟s programmes on the radio, and less than 2% have listened to educational
broadcasts or have they attended a skills training, a correspondence course, a self-study course,
courses designed by the Ministry of Health, an adult literacy course or a leadership programme.
Education of Children
Formal schooling by boys aged 6-17 has been taken up overall by 21% of boys, varying between
4% in Galgaduud and 48% in Togdheer households. Nineteen percent (13%) of girls overall
aged 6-17 are in or have been in formal schooling, varying between 4% of Galgaduud
households and 40% of Togdheer households. With the exception of children in South Mudug
and Galgaduud, boys were always more likely to be attending or have completed formal school
than girls, with the largest gap (of 9%) in Togdheer. Given the large samples, differences of
more than 4% from the overall average are statistically significant so that there is therefore a
clear difference between the lower takeup of formal education in South Mudug and Galgaduud
and the higher take up in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Togdheer. The rates
considerably higher htatn their parents but the even in relative terms has widened and the regions
with the lowest and highest rates (South Mudug/Galgaduud and Togdheer respectively) are the
same for both parents and children.
In this survey, therefore, 20% of all children 6 to 17 years old are in school or have been in
school. This can be compared with the 2006 MICS results that 49% of children 6-18 years old
are attending some form of education (42% primary, 7% secondary or higher education). In this
survey, the gendr parity index was 0.88; in MICS 2006 the gender parity index was about 0.75.
The MICS survey in 2006, although not directly comparable because they were asking about
current attendance of 6-14 year olds and because it included samples in towns and villages as
well as for pastoralists reported that, in rural areas, 10% of children 6-14 years old in rural areas
were attending primary school (p.60). In this survey, the gender parity index was 0.88; in MICS
2006 the gender parity index was about 0.75.
The average time to school for those children who went to school in all sites was 57 minutes but
this varied very widely between 16 minutes for those in South Mudug and 148 minutes for
children in Sanaag households. Of those who paid fees, the amount ranged between $121 in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and $215 in South Mudug.
Forty four percent of parents overall reported that one or more of their children had been to a
Qu‟ranic school. These percentages were substantially higher than the percentages reported for
other adults (8%) or even for the respondents themselves (28%), and regions where adult
participation in Qu‟ranic schools was high tend to be regions where the parents are sending
higher proportions of thier children to Qu‟ranic schools, although there is not an exact
correspondence Four percent of parents overall reported that one or more children had been to
an Integrated Qu‟ranic schools; and less than 2% of parents in households in any of the sites
34
reported that any of their children had been to mobile schools, intensive courses, AABE courses,
vocational training courses, or to other types of non-formal educational possibilities
Children
Page | 35
Those who are not in formal school, whether or not they know friends who are in formal school,
would like to go to school, partly because they say that they are doing very little at home so that
they are bored. Those already in formal school are saying that they are able to continue with
household tasks
5.3.2 Acceptability and Appropriateness of Formal Schools: Comparison of Views from
Different Groups
Pastoralist Representatives and Household Surveys
In the semi-structured interviews, pastoralist representatives were certain that knowledge and
skills about pastoralism and farming are not taught in formal schools, except in a few schools that
teach some aspects of environmental protection/conservation. This contrasts with the views of
head teachers that what their schools provide for pastoralists is appropriate. In the semistructured interviews, the pastoralist representatives also spoke of lack of government support in
areas without stable administration, the limited job opportunities in the area discouraging
participation in education since there are educated and trained people who don‟t have work; and
low desire to attend school because of the tough pastoral way of life. At the same time, in the
household survey, of those who had sent their children to formal school, over 80% said that it had
been very useful.
It is also interesting to compare the views elicited in the semi-structured interviews with the
results from the household survey. In the household survey, about half of those parents who had
not sent their children to formal school said that schools were not available, a little over a third
said that they did not have enough money and under a fifth cited constant migration. These
reasons were the same as the first three reasons give by pastoralist representatives but they also
referred to engagement of children in household tasks and livelihood activities but only an eighth
of respondents to the household survey cited engagement with livelihood activities as a problem.
In the interviews, the pastoralist representatives also described the obstacles making it difficult
for their children to attend schools. Common for both boys and girls were continuous mobility,
lack of schools in pastoral areas, poverty so that households cannot afford to send their children
to schools, limited job opportunities so that the educated unemployed discourage others from
goig to school, children have little energy left for school after livelihood activities, etc.; with the
archtypal differentiation between boys (herding) and girls (domestic chores and early marriage).
In the household survey, however, although the questions were asked separately for boys and for
girls, interestingly the percentages of parents giving the different reasons in the household survey
were very similar for boys and girls; and specifically about livelihood activities.
The knowledge and skills cherished most is the practice of pastoralisms according to the leaders.
This is because it is their only way of life. In agro-pastoral areas farming skills are also
35
cherished. The other things regarded highly are religious knowledge and traditional healing.
Skills such as making of handcrafts (traditional cooking stoves, mats and utensils) were also
cited as important. With exception of religion which is taught in Koranic schools, the other
knowledge and skills are passed over from parents or elders to children through apprenticeship or
story telling.
Page | 36
Asked whether the skills and knowledge are taught in pastoralist schools, most of them were of
the opinion that religious knowledge is taught in village Koranic schools and in some formal
schools. However, they were certain that other knowledge and skills on pastoralism and farming
are not taught in formal schools except a few that teach some aspects of environment.
Nevertheless, pastoralist leaders in all areas said that it is important to take all children (both
boys and girls) to school. They believed that education would give the children knowledge and
skills that will enable them engage in alternative livelihood activities (read employment) thereby
improving their lives in future, although this may mean that they would have to move to large
towns to get employment or even create employment as a result of their education.
Moreover, those educated will collectively contribute towards development of their community;
and this was reinforced in the interviews with „successful‟ pastoralist drop-outs. For example,
“Yes I think so, I can help my people in many ways, I can be a teacher, or health worker and thus
contribute the development of my community”; “I now understand what development is all
about, education can lead to development.” “Of course, it has illuminated the best way to go to
live in decent life.”; “I have not been in school but if I had educated I could have been better that
now, I would have helped my people if I had been educated person”.
The leaders gave several suggestions of the kind of education and trainings that they would want
their children to have. These were:

Formal education that can be enhanced by establishing boarding schools to ensure that
learning is not disrupted when parents move in search of water and pasture
 Skills training (Masonry, carpentry, welding, electrical, veterinary technician) which can
enable the children engage in alternative livelihood activities
 Religious education which is important for their moral upbringing
 Community health to ensure that there is trained person to handle emergencies when
groups move
 Mobile schools to take care of those who may not be able to get into boarding schools
For adults, the leaders suggested the following programmes:
 Basic literacy skills of reading and writing
 Animal health
 Community health
 Farming skills for agro-pastoralists
 Awareness in environmental protection
 Peace and conflict management
 Health and sanitation
 Handcraft skills
 Basic numeracy
36
Head Teachers‟ Views about Pastoralists and Pastoralist Representatives Views
According to the head teachers, formal education is considered important by most pastoralists as
they believe that it prepares their children for better future; and that the ability to read and write
Page | 37 and knowledge of hygiene and sanitation matters is something that many pastoralist parents find
useful. Their children when given the chance to go to school also show more interest and
perform much better compared to their sedentary counterparts. Nevertheless, the headteachers
did have some suggestions about raising the awareness of the need for education by both boys
and girls; limiting household tasks to allow children time for school; and specifically for girls,
stopping early marriage. They were concerned that parents in sedentary communities should
discipline their children and thought that providing recreation facilities in schools could
discourage idleness and to prevent the adoption of negative vices such as chewing khat.
In the semi-structured interviews, pastoralist representatives said that, with the exception of
religion which is taught in Qu‟ranic schools, other knowledge and skills like herding and
trekking are passed over from parents or elders to children through apprenticeship or storytelling.
At the same time, they said that it is important to take all children (both boys and girls) to school.
The main reason given is that education will give the children knowledge and skills that will
enable them to engage in alternative livelihood activities (real employment), thereby improving
their lives in the future. More specifically, those educated will collectively contribute towards
development of their community.
5.3.3 Recommended Provision by Different Groups
In the semi-structured interviews, the pastoralist representatives gave several suggestions of the
kind of programmes that would be suitable for adults like themselves. These included:
 Basic literacy skills of reading and writing
 Basic numeracy
 Animal health
 Health and sanitation
 Community health
 Farming skills (for agro-pastoralists)
 Awareness in environmental protection
 Peace building and conflict management
 Handicraft skills
Their suggestions for appropriate education and training for children in their group were:




Formal education that can be enhanced by establishing boarding schools to ensure that
learning is not disrupted when other family members migrate with the livestock
Skills training (masonry, carpentry, welding, electrical technician, veterinary technician)
which can enable the children to engage in alternative livelihood activities
Religious education which is important for their moral upbringing
Community health to ensure that there are trained persons to handle medical emergencies
when groups move
37
 Mobile schools to take care of those who may not be able to get into boarding schools
These can usefully be compared with the responses in the household survey about the
preferences of parents. It is clear from the 44% percent sending one or more of their children to
Qu‟ranic school that this is the most preferred option, even though far fewer of the parents
Page | 38 themselves went to Qu‟ranic schools. But it is interesting, given the suggestions above, that only
18% of parents said that they preferred a mobile school (although this varied between 4% of
South Mudug households to 44% of parents in Galgaduud households), and that very few (less
than 1%) said that they preferred vocational training.
5.3.4 Learning Environment in Households and Sources of Information
Learning Environment in Households
Thirty three percent (33%) of parents overall report they have textbooks in the home and 33%
report that the books are or have been used by the children in the household. Overall 35% of
households own radios and 86% of those with radios usually have batteries for their radio. The
percentages with radio are lowest in South Mudug and Galgaduud (about 22%) and highest in
Sanaag and Gedo (about 44%, i.e. double).
Overall, 60% of men, 43% of women and 15% of children listen regularly to the radio. The
perentages for men vary between 35% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households and
about three quarters in Togdheer, South Mudug and Gedo households, so that the possession of a
radio with batteries does not necessarily imply that household members will listen to the radio.
The patterns of listening were very similar for men and women, but the numbers of children
listening were too small for breakdowns by site. Typically about 90% of men, women and
children listen to news programmes, and about 50%-70% listen to health and religion
programmes; otherwise about 20%-40% of adults listen to each of the other types of programme
(discussion programmes, announcements, sports, family life, home economics and health
prgrammes). In general, households in South Mudug and Sanaag were less likely to listen to
different types of programmes and households in Gedo more likely.
Sources of Information
Respondents were also asked about which were the most useful sources of information on
educational opportunities, health care, sanitation and water, or protection and shelter from among
a choice of sixteen possible sources. Less than 3% overall and less than 10% in any one site had
learnt about any of these topics from television, newspapers, the internet, a SMS message from
someone they know, and SMS from an organisation or from a community or religious leader, a
representative from a humanitarian organisation or neighbours or a loudspeaker announcement
and so there is very little to report. For each of the topics, the percentages saying that they had
received information by phoning a help line or from a friend or family member in each site was
respectively 4% and 7%, and in both cases about half of those who said they had used a help line
at all or had received information from a friend or family member reported using a help line for
all four topics, so that the use of a help line is restricted to a specific small group mostly in
Sanaag (about 7%) and in Gedo (about 10%).
38
For the other four sources where the overall percentages for each topic are over 10% (radio,
notice board, community meeting or government representative), the patterns are very similar
across the four topics and so these are summarised by giving the ranges for each source.
Between a third and a half overall said that they had learnt about educational opportunities from
Page | 39 the radio. About a sixth overall said that a notice board was the source; and unsurprisingly
nearly twice as many of those reporting formal education cited this source. About a sixth overall
also said that a community meeting was the source. Overall 22% said that they had received
information from a government representative. In general, households in Maroodi Jeex (W.
Galbeed) are least likely to use any of the 16 sources of information and those in Gedo and
Galgaduud more likely. According to the pastoralist representatives, the main modes by which
information reach community members is through verbal communication, community meetings,
mobile telephone and radio broadcast; these are similar to the results from the household survey
except that mobile telephone whether through SMS or call from friend or family member.
The BBC was the most popular source of information whether exclusively (39%) or together
with VoA (49%). Given the wide differences between sites, it looks as if the responses are
strongly affected by VoA coverage. The pastoralist representatives said that the station of choice
was BBC, but that they also listen to VOA and other local stations such as Voice of Peace.
Most pastoralist leaders said pure pastoralists are not very good in interaction and they rarely
talk. But in some cases where it becomes very necessary they send their concerns through local
radio stations so that humanitarian agency can hear their problems. Alternatively, they can send
representatives to pass their concerns to the agency wherever they are located. Other means by
which they reach the agencies are through mobile phones or written request. However, this is
only true for South Mudug, Sanaag and Togdheer as leaders from Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed)
and Gedo said they do not know any way to reach the agencies so they just sit and wait if they
would come by.
According to the leaders, the best ways to distribute information is through:
 Community meetings
 Radio broadcasting
 Social meetings
 Writing
 Public awareness sessions
39
CHAPTER 6: HEALTH AND ILLNESS
This chapter covers access and use of health care facilities by adults, their knowledge of
HIV/AIDS, child mortality, child illness and mothers‟ use of antenatal care.
Page | 40
6.1
Access and Use of Health Care
This section is based on section IV of questionnaire; and the results ar shown in Table 6.1.
6.1.1 Access and Distance to a Health Care Facility
Overall, 75% have access to a health care facility, varying between 43% in Galgaduud and 91%
of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). However, on average the trip takes 4 hours,
with the lowest site average in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) (just over 2 hours) and the
longest in Sanaag (about 6.5 hours).
6.1.2 Where Household Members Go when Sick
Overall 63% of households go to a „modern‟ health care facility. The responses varied between
28% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 88% in Gedo. , A pharmacist was the source of
health care for 68% overall, varying between 51% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 81%
in Togdheer. Only 7% see a traditional practitioner, varying between 1% in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 12% in Sanaag and Galgaduud. Clearly the pattern of health care use in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) is very different from the patterns in the other sites
Table 6.1 Where Health Care Is Sought
Access
Distance
Type of Health Care
Time Since Visit
Item #
N1
4.1
N2
4.2
N3
4.31
4.32
4.33
N4
4.4A
4.4B
Maroodi Jeex
1
391
53
11
1012
91
915 129
864-876
28
64
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
864
88
626 222
426-446
66
82
2
285
45
21
South Mudug
1083
63
896 193
790-896
61
26
5
580
69
5
Sanaag
1109
68
748 391
581-680
75
77
12
484
46
14
Gedo
1450
94
1087 270
726-1097
88
73
9
929
84
2
Galgaduud
1008
43
392 286
264-392
52
71
12
172
60
10
ALL
6526
75
4470 242 3651-4387
63
68
7
2841
65
8
KEY N1: Number reporting for #4.1: 4.1: % saying they have access to a health care facility; N2: Number reporting on
#4.2; 4.2: Distance to health care facility (minutes); N3: Range of N for #4.3; 4.31: Sought help from a modern health
care facility; 4.32: Sought help from a pharmacist; 4.33: Sought help from a traditional practitioner; N4: Number
reporting on length of time since visited; 4.4A: Visited a ‘modern health care facility within last three months; 4.4B
More than a year since last time visited a ‘modern’ health care facility
By Education and Gender of Household Head within Site: The differences in Sanaag by gender
of household head are substantial, with 66% of those with male heads of household compared to
43% of those with female heads of household saying that they had accessed a health care facility
in the last six months.
6.2
HIV/AIDS
40
The results below are based on section IV of the household questionnaire; and are shown in
Table 6.2.
6.2.1 Has Heard of HIV/AIDS
Page | 41
Three-quarters (76%) of respondents overall in have heard of HIV/AIDS, varying between under
half (45%) in South Mudug and five-sixths (83%) in Togdheer and Sanaag.
6.2.2 Knowledge of Causes and Modes of Transmission
Supernatural Causes For those who have heard of HIV/AIDS, about one in seven (14%) overall
thought that it could be contracted through witchcraft, varying between 4% of Galgaduud
respondents and 26% of Togdheer respondents.
Transmission through Sexual Activities Just over three-fifths (62%), varying between 46% of
Galgaduud respondents and 78% of Maroodi Jeex respondents, agreed that HIV could be
contracted through sexual liaisons. Of those who agreed, 40% said that they knew how to
protect themselves (e.g. condoms), varying between 26% in Gedo and 52% in Togdheer.
Mosquito Bites About a third (33%) overall, varying between 13% in South Mudug and 51% in
Togdheer, said that HIV/AIDS could be contracted through mosquito bites.
Sharing Foods Those who believed that one could contract the condition through sharing food
with an infected person were 26% of respondents overall, varying between sites (13% in South
Mudug to 39% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)).
Table 6.2 Knowledge of HIV/AIDS
Have heard
N2
902-924
For those who have heard of HIV/AIDs
Causes
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
16
68
76
44
39
45
4.12
67
Mother to Baby Transmission
N3
4.13a 4.13b
581-586
95
95
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W.Galbeed)
Togdheer
N1
1011
4.5
79
859
83
709-749
26
72
65
51
38
42
75
497-531
80
86
South Mudug
1078
45
647-683
5
48
33
13
13
16
27
179-181
92
89
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
1122
1462
990
83
82
81
946-1028
1216-1257
689-787
17
14
4
52
76
46
68
52
48
27
37
20
22
25
17
25
43
21
47
62
40
349-424
482-605
286-296
86
81
91
77
58
85
89
81
ALL
6522
5117-5413
2381-2580
76
14
62
59
33
26
33
54
Key N1: N reporting for #4.5; 4.5: % heard of AIDS; N2: Range of N for items #4.6-4,12; 4.6: % caused by witchcraft;
4.7: % sexual transmission was possible; 4.8: % knew how to protect themselves (e.g. by using condoms); 4.9: %
transmitted via mosquitoes; 4.10: % caught by sharing foods with an infected person; 4.11: % healthy looking person
could have the virus; 4.12: % transmitted from mother to baby; N3: Range of N for 4.13A/B; 4.13a: % transmitted
during pregnancy; 4.13b: % transmitted during delivery; 4.13c: % transmitted during breastfeeding
Healthy Person Could Have HIV/AIDS About a third (33%) of household respondents overall,
varying between 16% in South Mudug and 45% in Marood Jeex agreed that a healthy looking
person could have HIV/AIDS.
6.2.3 Transmission from Mother to Baby
41
Overall 54% of respondents knew that HIV/AIDS could be transmitted from mother to baby,
varying between 27% in South Mudug and 67% in Maroodi Jeex (W.Galbeed). Of those 54%
who agreed, 89% overall they also agreed that the virus could be transmitted during pregnancy,
with little variation between sites (between 81% in Gedo and 95% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed)). Eight one percent (81%) overall agreed that the virus could be transmitted during
Page | 42 delivery, with some variation between 58% in Gedo and 95% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed)). Overall 91% agreed that the virus could be transmitted during breastfeeding with
little variation between sites (between 79% in Gedo and 94% in Galgaduud).
6.3
Toilet Facilities
This section is based on section V of the questionnaire; and he results are shown in Table 6.3.
Across all sites overall, only 2% had access to a flush toilet and analysis by site is therefore not
sensible because the percentages are too small. Pit latrines were available to 18% overall, with
wide variations between 2% in Gedo and 46% in South Mudug. For 80% overall the bush is
used as a toilet. This varied between 52% in South Mudug and 97% in Gedo. Of those, who had
access to either a flush toilet or to a pit latrine, where responses were restricted to less than 300
metres (on the basis that longer distances seemed unrealistic), the overall average was 14 metres
away, varying between 12 metres for households in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) and 23 metres
away for those in Togdheer. Overall 41% shared these facilities with other households, with
wide variations from 10% of households in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) to 60% in Galgaduud.
Table 6.3 Type of Toilet Facility
Item #
Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Type and Use of Toilet Facility
N1
5.1A
5.1B
5.1C
1027
6
17
77
699
2
21
78
1079
1
146
52
N2
218
292
507
5.2
11.7
22.9
9.67
5.3
10
33
50
1087
0
9
91
92
9.1
42
Gedo
1404
0
2
97?
63
16.7
49
Galgaduud
1012
1
20
76
173
15.2
60
ALL
6308
2
18
80
1324
13.9
41
KEY: N1: N reporting for Items 5.1A-5.1D; 5.1A: % using flush toilet; 5.1B: % using pit latrine; 5.1C: % using bush;
N2: Base N for items 5.2 and 5.3; 5.2: Distance to flush toilet or pit latrine in minutes; 5.3: % sharing toilet;
6.4
Sources of Water
This section is also based on section V of the household questionnaire; and the results are shown
in Table 6.4.
6.4.1 Water Sources
Although the questions were asked separately for drinking and cooking water, there is little
difference between the patterns of responses and so the results are only reported for the largest
percentages overall on the basis that any water source could eventually be boiled or otherwise
treated for drinking purposes. Four percent (4%) of households overall had access to piped
42
water, with very little variation between sites (between none for Gedo households to 7% for
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households). Boreholes were available to 35% of households
overall, varying between 5% of households in Gedo and 64% in South Mudug. Seven percent
(7%) of households overall had access to a protected well, varying from 2% in Gedo to 13% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Togdheer. Sixteen percent (16%) of households overall
Page | 43 had access to an unprotected well, varying from 4% in South Mudug to 29% in Gedo.
Rainwater use was reported by 12% of households overall, varying from less than 3% in
Togdheer and South Mudug to 26% in Gedo. Surface water is available to 10% of households
overall, with some variations between 1% in South Mudug and 24% in Gedo. A tanker truck
was the water source for 20% of households overall, varying between 3% of households in Gedo
and 45% in Sanaag. A reservoir was available to 24% of households overall, varying between
5% in Gedo and 36% in Togdheer.
Table 6.4 Water Sources
Sources of Drinking Water
Item #
N3
5.4a
5.4b
5.4c
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
993
367
1082
7
4
10
26
26
64
13
13
5
Sanaag
1070
5
45
Gedo
Galgaduud
977
1016
0
4
5
33
Cleaning Materials in Household
5.4d
5.4g
5.4h
N4
5.6a
5.6b
5.6c
5.4e
5.4f
11
10
4
18
1
3
19
3
1
32
29
13
32
33
17
1010
830
1085
78
79
53
81
75
36
19
34
31
6
15
12
6
45
27
1103
76
46
36
2
7
29
24
26
7
23
13
3
4
5
29
1367
1017
72
46
32
30
7
24
ALL
5506
5
35
7
16
12
9
20
23
6402
67
48
N3: Number for 5.4A-5.4H; 5.4a: % with piped water; 5.4b: % with access to borehole; 5,4c: % with access to
protected well; 5.4d: % with access to unprotected well; 5.4e: % using rainwater; 5.4f: % using surface water; 5.4g: %
using tanker trucks; 5.4h: % with a reservoir; N4: Number using various chemicals ; 5.6a: % Detergent; 5.6b: %
Soap; 5.6c: % Shampoo
6.4.2 Time to Water Source
The average time to the water source, restricted to less than 6 hours, was 64 minutes in Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), 57 minutes in Togdheer, 38 minutes in South Mudug, and 141 minutes
in Sanaag. When unrestricted, the average time to the water source was 79 minutes in Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), 119 minutes in Togdheer, 44 minutes in South Mudug, and 226
minutes in Sanaag. There is not much difference.
6.5
Washing Facilities and Water Treatment
This sub-section is also based on section V of the household questionnaire, and the results are
shown in Table 6.5.
6.5.1 Hygiene Products for General Use
About two-thirds of households overall, varying between about half of households in South
Mudug and Galgaduud and over three quarters of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed), Togdheer and Sanaag, had some kind of detergent available. Overall just less than
43
24
half of households had soap available, with wide variations between 30% in Galgaduud and 81%
in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). Shampoo was available to just under a quarter of all
households, varying between 7% in Gedo and more than a third of households (34% and 36%) in
Togdheer and Sanaag.
Page | 44
6.5.2 Hand Washing Products
Soap was used for washing hands by 44% of households, varying between 14% in Galgaduud
and about three fifths (between 57% and 66%) of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed), Togdheer and Sanaag. Ash was used for hand washing by about a quarter (26%) of
households overall in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), Togdheer and Gedo, by less than one in
seven (13%) households in Galgaduud and by two fifths (41%) in Sanaag. Overall over 70%
only used water for hand washing, varying between just under three fifths (58%) of households
in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed),and about over four fifths in Galgaduud.
6.5.3 Treating Water
Twenty percent (20%) overall said that they treated water, varying between 1% of households in
Galgaduud and 34% of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). Of those who do treat
their water, about a third (34%) said that they boiled their water, with wide variations between
9% of households in South Mudug and 81% in Gedo. Twelve percent (12%) say that they use
chemicals to treat water, with quite large variations between none in Galgaduud and 48% in
Togdheer, with a similar pattern for those filtering their water. Only 5% overall use the solar
method (SOLDIS) for purifying their water, although that is used by 30% of households in
Sanaag and 24% in Togdheer. Overall, 28% of households use the sedimentation method with
wide variations between none in Galgaduud and 81% in South Mudug.
Table 6.5 Handwashing Chemicals and Water Treatment Methods
Handwashing
Chemicals
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
N5
1029
Distance
5.7A
5.7B
5.7C
66
26
58
5.8
1.10
Water Treatment
N6
5.9
950
34
N7
575-629
5.10A
5.10B
5.10C
5.10D
5.10E
19
10
6
2
23
734
60
28
74
1.17
754
22
50-111
70
48
14
24
1078
23
19
77
.38
1029
7
534-562
9
2
2
1
1061
57
41
72
2.71
988
8
37-82
66
29
22
30
1194
47
29
63
1.50
1276
33
156-354
81
33
33
13
978
14
13
83
1.35
942
1
3-8
100
0
0
0
6074
44
26
71
1.32
5939
20 1361-1746
34
12
12
5
KEY ; N5: N for handwashing materials available; 5.7A: % Soap; 5.7B: % Ash; 5.7C: % Water only; 5.8: Minutes to
water source; N6: Number for #5.9; ; 5.9: % Doing anything to make water safe; N7: Number for types of treatment
methods; 5.10A: % Boiling; 5.10B: % Chemicals; 5.10C: % Filtration; 5.10D: % Solar method (SODIS); 5.10E: %
Sedimentation
6.6
Child Birth and Mortality
This section is based on section XVI of the questionnaire; an the results are shown in Table 6.6.
Of those who had given birth, 35% had experienced an infant death, with some variation
44
41
1
81
72
0
28
between 44% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Togdheer compared to 26% in South
Mudug and Sanaag. Overall mothers reported 2.9 births of boys, varying between 2.4 in South
Mudug and 3.3 in Togdheer, and 2.4 births of girls, varying between 2.3 in South Mudug and 2.7
in Togdheer and Sanaag. Despite the variations, in every site the number of male births was
greater than the number of female births. Overall mothers reported 0.71 deaths of male births
Page | 45 and 0.70 of female births, varying in both cases between 0.40 and 0.84, but with male deaths
always (slightly) larger than female deaths.
Table 6.6 Birth and Infant Mortality
Births and Infant Deaths
Deaths by Gender
Item #
N1
16.1 16.2 16.3B 16.3G
N2
16.4B 16.4G
Maroodi Jeex
808-1009
90
44
3.04
2.38
1018-1028
0.59
0.58
(W. Galbeed)
786-816
96
44
3.28
3.34
823-831
0.84
0.82
Togdheer
934-964
97
26
2.40
2.20
1179-1183
0.40
0.40
South Mudug
975-1020
96
27
3.08
2.61
1069-1102
0.84
0.83
Sanaag
1261-1332
95
40
2.82
2.38
1406-1425
0.79
0.78
Gedo
863-926
93
26
2.70
2.27
969-981
0.82
0.81
Galgaduud
ALL
5728-6066
94
35
2.88
2.44
6468-6546
0.71
0.70
Key N1: Range of numbers for 16.1-16.3; 16.1: % ever given birth; 16.2: % given birth, child later died; 16.3B: N of
boys born; 16.3G: N of girls born; N2: Range of numbers for 16.4B and 16.4G; 16.4B: N of boys died; 16.4G:of girls
died
6.7
Illness of and Treatment of Youngest Child in Household:
This section is based on section XVII of the household questionnaire; and the results are shown
in Tables 6.7 and 6.8 .
6.7.1 Diarrhea and Given ORS
About 40% reported that their youngest child had had diarrhea in the last two weeks, varying
between 27% in Sanaag and 59% in Gedo. Just under a quarter (24%) overall had used the prepackaged fluid, 44% made up the fluid from a packet and 32% made up a homemade fluid.
There were wide variations between sites for using a pre-packaged fluid or a packet, from 45%
in Sanaag to 91% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed).
6.7.2 Cough and % to Private Pharmacy
A little over half of the youngest children in each of the sites, with small variations between 45%
and 60%, had had a cough in the last two weeks. Of those who had had a cough, overall 30%
went to a private pharmacist, with some variation between the sites between 17% in Togdheer
and 44% in Galgaduud. Twenty eight percent (28%) went nowhere, with substantial variation
between 7% in Gedo and 61% in Togdheer. Of those who had seen any health care provider,
overall 41% of the youngest children had been given medicine, with substantial variations
between 27% in South Mudug and 66% in Gedo. Only 3% overall had been given an injection,
about half had been given a pill and just under half had been given syrup (with no substantial
variations between sites).
45
Table 6.7 Illness and Treatment of Childhood Illnesses: Diarrhea and Cough
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi
Galbeed)
Page | 46 Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Diarrhea
N1
1
2A
2B
Cough
N2
3
4.8
4.14
Cough Medicine
N3
5
6.1
6.2
534
32
26
9
516
58
37
30
549
44
45
55
525
34
50
516
60
540
569
45
52
26
52
679
472
27
21
50
59
44
15
55
61
12
26
33
27
17
30
418
548
578
16
37
17
48
38
46
Gedo
1142 59
26
38
1123
57
30
7
956
66
40
46
Galgaduud
441 35
12
15
432
57
44
28
353
42
60
39
ALL
3758 40
24
32
3696
55
30
28
3427
41
47
51
Key N1: Number reporting on diarrhea; 1: % Ever had diarrhea; 2A: % Given pre-packaged ORS fluid; 2B: % Given
homemade fluid; N2: Number reporting on cough; 3: % Had cough; 4.8: % Private pharmacy; 4.14: % Went nowhere;
N3: Number reporting on medicine given for cough; 5: % Given any medicine for cough; 6.1: % Given pill for cough;
6.2: % Given syrup for cough
6.7.3 Fever, Sought Advice and Percent Given Medicine
Overall 46% of children had had a fever in the last two weeks with variation between the sites
from 35% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) to 63% in Galgaduud. Over half (56%) of those
with a fever overall had sought advice, varying between 26% in South Mudug and 92% in
Galgaduuud. Of those who had sought advice (about 760 overall), over 40% had been to a
private pharmacist, with substantial variation between 24% in Gedo and 69% in Galgaduud,
compared to 13% who had been taken to the village health worker, varying from none in
Gelbeed and Galgaduud to 30% in South Mudug.
Table 6.8 Illness and Treatment of Childhood Illnesses: Fever
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi
Galbeed)
Togdheer
Had Fever
N1
17.7
534
35
525
36
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
Sought advice
N2
17.8
123
48
46
152
29
17.9d
0
17.9h
38
9
41
30
41
Medicine
N3
17.10
17.11a
17.11b
234
59
30
54
315
30
32
10
53
81
548
40
77
226
69
578
38
37
26
8
57
402
26
23
73
1142
55
259
64
18
24
793
60
64
35
441
63
147
92
0
69
283
52
26
66
ALL
3758
46
764
56
13
41
2253
49
42
53
Key N1: Number reporting on who had fever 7: % had fever; N2: Number reporting on seeking advice 8: % sought
advice for fever; 9.4: % Sought advice from village health worker; 9.8: % sought advice from private pharmacy; N3:
Number reporting on medicine 10: % given medicine for fever; 11A: % given an anti-malarial; 11B: % given a
painkiller
Nearly half overall (49%) had been given medicine, with hardly any variation between 26% in
Sanaag and 30% in Togdheer. Of these, approximately 1200, 42% overall had been given an
anti-malarial of some kind and 52% had been given a painkiller of varied strengths. The balance
varied between Gedo where 64% were given an anti-malarial and 35% a painkiller compared to
South Mudug where 10% were given an anti-malarial and 81% a painkiller.
6.7.4 Vaccination
46
The information about vaccination of the children are shown in Table 6.9.
Vaccination Card: Overall 26% of the youngest children had a vaccination card, with wide
variations between 9% in South Mudug and 51% in Gedo. With wide variations from between
7% in Galgaduud to 51% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), overall 31% of the youngest
Page | 47 children had had anti- tuberculosis (BCG) vaccination.
Table 6.9 Vaccinations of and Delivery of Youngest Child
Vaccination Card, BCG
Polio Drops
DPT
Delivery
Item #
N1
12
13A
13B
N2
13CA 13CB
N3
13D
13E
N4
14A 14B
Maroodi Jeex
71
524
19
51
61
337
14
1.0
398
50
2.0
468
12
(W. Galbeed)
494
27
45
60
315
15
1.0
415
35
1.8
446
5
68
Togdheer
547
9
13
15
220
10
1.0
494
13
1.7
479
7
58
South Mudug
Sanaag
541
16
18
23
124
18
1.0
368
12
2.0
399
3
37
Gedo
1008
51
73
75
833
40
1.0
952
73
2.5
968
16
55
Galghaduud
427
7
7
18
113
7
1.0
280
11
2.1
320
1
44
3541
26
41
47
1942
25
1.0
2907
41
2.3
3080
9
56
ALL
Key N1: Number reporting about vaccination card and providing information on vaccinations; 12: % Vacc. card; 13A:
% BCG vaccination; 13B: % anti-polio drops; N2: Number reporting on polio drops; 13CA: ;% drops in first 2 weeks of
birth; 13CB: Mean Number of times drops were given; N3: Number reporting on DPT vaccine; 13D: % DPT
Vaccination; 13E: Mean Number of times given; N4: Number reporting on delivery;14A: % born in facility; 14B: %
born at home with TBA.
Polio Drops, Percent Drops in First Two Weeks and How Many Times Anti-polio drops had
been given to 47% overall, varying widely between 15% in South Mudug and Sanaag to 61% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). Overall 24% had been given the drops in the first two weeks
after birth, varying from 7% in Galgaduud to 40% in Gedo).
DPT Vaccination and How Many Times Varying from 12% in Sanaag to 50% in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed), 41% overall had been given a (DPT) vaccination. The DPT vaccination
was given, for an overall average of 1.6 times, varying between 1.7 times in South Mudug and
2.5 times in Gedo.
6.8
Antenatal Care
This section is based on section XVIII of the household questionnaire; and the results are shown
in Tables 6.10 and 6.11.
6.8.1 Saw Anyone for Antenatal Care
Overall 44% of mothers, varying widely between 26% of mothers in South Mudug and Sanaag
households to 67% in Gedo, had received some prenatal care. Overall 35% of mothers said that
had seen a doctor (it is of course possible that they mistook a male nurse for a doctor) varying
between 4% in Galgaduud and 64% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households; overall
15% had seen a nurse varying between none in Galgaduud and 12% in South Mudug.
Traditional birth attendants were seen overall by 34% of mothers, varying widelyfrom 10% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 79% in Galgaduud. The region where mothers most
used the „modern‟ services was Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), with 64% seeing a doctor,
47
17% a nurse and only 10% a traditional practitioner. The region relying the most on
„traditional‟ services was Galgaduud, with 4% of mothers seeing a doctor, none a nurse and 79%
a traditional birth attendant. Overall mothers saw someone on average 2.2 times, with some
variation between those in Galgaduud households 1.6 times and those in South Mudug 2.3 times.
Page | 48
6.8.2 Vaccinations
Overall 22% of mothers had a vaccination card, with the highest rate of 39% recorded in Gedo,
the next highest at17% was in Togdheer and the other four sites all less than 9%. According to
this card, overall nearly all (97%) had received a tetanus injection, however, this varied between
76% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) to 90% or more in the other 5 sites, with an average of
2.6 times with limited variation between 2 times in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and
Togdheer and 2.8 times in Gedo. For those who did not have a card, a further 34% overall had
had a tetanus injection, varying between 5% in Galgaduud and 68% in Gedo, and on average
about 2.5 times, varying between 1.8 times in South Mudug and 2.6 times in Gedo. Combining
together those who had a card and those who did not (the results shown in the Table 6.8), we find
overall that 43% of mothers had had a tetanus injection, with the highest rate of 73% in Gedo,
followed by 43% in Togdheer and the rates in each of the other four sites below 17%.
Table 6.10 Antenatal Care: Care and Vaccinations
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
Saw anyone
N1
18.1
384
46
409
368
433
937
280
33
26
26
67
28
Who was seen
N2
18.2A
166
64
129
95
103
608
76
59
42
33
24
4
18.2B
17
18.2C
10
18.3
2.1
9
12
10
18
0
21
39
49
34
79
2.0
2.3
1.8
2.4
1.6
Vaccinations of Mothers
N3
18.4 18.5A 18.5B
362
9
12
2.03
383
349
408
888
266
17
9
5
49
2
21
16
5
73
7
1.97
2.22
2.07
2.79
2.20
18.6
24
18.7
2.4
32
11
11
68
5
2.0
1.8
2.0
2.6
2.1
ALL
2811
44
1177
35
15
34
2.2
2656
22
43
2.58
35
2.5
Key N1: Numbers reporting on antenatal care; 1: % saw anyone; N2: Numbers reporting on who they saw; 2A: %
saw doctor; 2B: % saw nurses; 2C: % saw traditional birth attendant; 3: Number of times saw someone; N3: Numbers
reporting on Vaccinations; 4: % with own Vac. Card; 5A: % tetanus; 5B: Mean Number of times; 6: % anti-tetanus
injections; 7: Mean N times;
6.8.3 Assistance with Delivery
Overall about 18% were assisted by a doctor, a nurse or an auxiliary midwife. Sixty percent
(60%) were attended by a traditional birth attendant, 4% by a community health worker and 19%
by a relative or friend. The highest rates of being assisted by a doctor, nurse or auxiliary
midwife were 21% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 26% in Gedo. The highest rate of
being assisted by a community health worker was 5 % in South Mudug.
6.8.4 Registration of Birth and Birth Certificate.
About 2% of child births overall were births registered with the civil authorities, with the highest
rate of 5% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). Overall 11% of mothers could produce or said
that they had a birth certificate, with the highest rate of 18% in Gedo, and 80% said that they did
48
not have a birth certificate. The lowest rate (72%) of no birth certificate was also in Gedo.
Overall 3% of mothers knew how to register their child‟s birth and the highest rate of 10% was
again in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed).
Table 6.11 Antenatal Care: Birth Assistance and Registration
Page | 49
Item #
Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Delivery Assistance
N4
18.8A 18.8B
318
21
69
305
15
67
325
15
57
292
6
48
769
26
56
Birth Registration
N5
18.9 18.10A
357
5
14
378
1
4
359
0
8
403
1
4
870
3
18
18.10B
80
92
81
90
72
Know How
N6
18.11
254
10
296
5
285
4
308
1
443
1
Gedo
170
5
71
258
2
7
74
130
0
Galgaduud
ALL
2179
18
60
2625
2
11
80
1716
3
Key N1: Number reporting on delivery assistance; 8A: % doctor or nurse or auxiliary assisted; 8B: % traditional
practitioner; N2: Number reporting about registration of birth; 9: % registered; 10A % with a birth certificate; 10B %
with no birth certificate; 11: % know how to register
6.9
Acceptability of ‘Modern’ Health Services to Pastoralist Representatives
6.9.1 Interviews with Pastoralist Representatives
In terms of health services the leaders recommended the following:
 Training individuals from the area on community health services
 Locating area health centres in locations close to pastoral temporary settlements
 Training women on midwifery so that they can assist during births
 Establishing health posts in strategic water points and farming areas
 Training only for members of the community so as to be accessible to pastoral groups
when migrating
 Providing trained persons, possibly with medical kits, to move with pastoral communities
in order provide health assistance during migration
 Providing outreach programmes to control common child ailments such as malaria
 Preferring women for midwifery, but for other male emergencies recommending both
sexes for training
As far as health services are concerned all leaders in pastoral areas said they do not have health
services close by and they have to move to larger towns to access such services. However, in
many locations they confirmed availability of some private pharmacies that can be found in
small trading centres.
However, as far as hygiene issues are concern, responses were varied in different regions. In
Galmudug and Gedo the leaders confirmed that their groups have been visited several times by
people talking about hygiene. In Sanaag, Togdheer and Galbeed some leaders confirmed visits
while others said they had not seen such people.
Provision of milk to children during drought is a challenge in all the regions. All the leaders
interviewed said that those with money purchase powdered milk for the children, but due to
49
poverty most children have to do without milk during drought.
As far as health services are concerned all leaders in pastoral areas said they do not have health
services close by and they have to move to larger towns to access such services. However, in
many locations they confirmed availability of some private pharmacies that can be found in
Page | 50 small trading centres.
As far as hygiene issues are concerned, responses were varied across regions. In South Mudug
and Gedo the leaders confirmed that their groups have been visited several times by people
talking about hygiene. In Sanaag, Togdheer and Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) some leaders
confirmed visits while others said they had not seen such people.
6.9.2 Interview with WASH Supervisor in Belet Hawa, Gedo
Waterborne diseases continue to present significant health risks for conflict-affected populations
in Belet Hawa. Support for health, nutrition, and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)
programs remains critical. Conflict may resume as competition for water resources and pasture in
drought affected areas increases. Pastoralists use water from open places and contaminated water
troughs also used by their animals, which increases the disease incidents in the area. There are no
pit latrines; children defecate in the open and within the homestead. Rubbish and animal feces is
lying everywhere in pastoralist homesteads.
6.9.3 Harmful Traditional Practices
Opinions of women were sought during FGDs on some harmful traditional practices such as
female genital mutilation (FGM). Most of them were in agreement that such practices are not
good as they are harmful to the girl child and the young women who are forced to undergo the
process. They cited a number of negative side effects that comes with the operation such as
interference with urinal system, discomfort at menses, pain during conjugation and ruptures
during deliveries. However, a few of them were in support of the practice saying it is good
though without elaborating or citing any advantage that comes with the operation.
6.10
Findings and Comparison of Results with MICS 2006
Results on Child Mortality
According to MICS, the highest levels of mortality are found in the Central South Zone; and in
this survey infant mortality was also higher in Galgaduud and Gedo. According to MICS2005-6,
male children experience higher mortality than female children and the sex difference is
especially pronounced for infant mortality; there was only a small difference in this survey.
Results on Vaccination
According to MICS, thirty percent (30%) of children aged 12-23 months had received the BCG
vaccination; and the current survey had a similar rate with 41% of the youngest children having
50
had anti- tuberculosis (BCG) vaccination, although with wide variations between regions.
According to MICS, just under a quarter of children age 12-23 months had received the dPT1
vaccination; the current survey shows an increase to 41%. Thirty-six percent (35%) of children
age 12-23 months, have not received any of the basic · vaccinations.
Page | 51
Results on Child Illness
Diarrhea and Given ORS About 40% reported that their youngest child had had diarrhea in the
last two weeks. In the MICS survey 2006, nationally 21% of children under age five had diarrhea
at some time in the two weeks before the survey. Just under a quarter (24%) overall had used
the pre-packaged fluid, 44% made up the fluid from a packet and 32% made up a homemade
fluid. This compares with percentages of 9%, 7% and 9% respectively in MICS 2006. Just
under 80% of children with diarrhea did not receive any type of treatment at all. END MICS
Cough and Treatment: A little over half of the youngest children in each of the sites, with small
variations between sites had had a cough in the last two weeks. Of those who had had a cough,
overall 30% went to a private pharmacist, with some variation between the sites. Twenty eight
percent (28%) went nowhere, with substantial variations between sites. Of those who had seen
any health care provider, overall 41% of the youngest children had been given medicine, with
substantial variations between sites. Only 3% overall had been given an injection, about half had
been given a pill and just under half had been given syrup (with no substantial variations
between sites). The comparison with MICS is more difficult because that survey refers to
symptoms of acute respiratory infection rather than a cough, and antibiotics rather than medicine.
Comparison of Results on Antenatal Care, Assistance with Delivery and Birth Registration
Assistance with Antenatal Care and Delivery: According to MICS 2006, 26% of mothers who
had a live birth in the two years preceding the survey received antenatal care from a doctor, nurse
or trained midwife; in this survey about 44% had received antenatal care from a health care
professional. According to MICS 2006, a third of the births were delivered at home with the
assistance of skilled health personnel (that is, a doctor, nurse or midwife) but in this survey only
18% of pastoralist households were assisted by a doctor, a nurse or an auxiliary midwife.
According to MICS 2006, 51% of births are attended by a traditional birth attendant (TBA)
whilst this survey showed 60% were attended by a traditional birth attendant.
Birth Registration: In this survey, about 2% of child births overall were births registered with the
civil authorities, compared to 3% in MICS. Overall 11% of mothers could produce or said that
they had a birth certificate. Overall 3% of mothers knew how to register their child‟s birth; this
was highest in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) as it was highest in the North Western Zone in MICS.
Comparison of Results on Water and Sanitation with MICS 2006
Water source: Although the questions were asked separately for drinking and cooking water,
there is little difference between the patterns of responses and so the results are only reported for
the largest percentages overall on the basis that any water source could eventually be boiled or
51
otherwise treated for drinking purposes. Four percent (4%) of households overall had access to
piped water, 35% to boreholes and 7% had access to a protected well. This compared with 29%
reported in the MICS 2006 who had access to an improved source of drinking water. Sixteen
percent (16%) of households overall had access to an unprotected well, 12% used rainwater, 10%
used surface water, 20% a tanker truck and 24% used a reservoir. There was little difference
Page | 52 between the results in this survey and MICS 2006 of about 1 ¼ hours to fetch water.
Water treatment: Twenty percent (20%) overall said that they treated water, and this was similar
to the result reported in MICS 2006. Of those who do treat their water, about a third (34%) said
that they boiled their water. Twelve percent (12%) say that they use chemicals to treat water,
with a similar pattern for those filtering their water. Only 5% overall use the solar method
(SOLDIS) for purifying their water. Overall, 28% of households use the sedimentation method.
Hygiene Products for General Use and Hand Washing Products:About two-thirds of households
overall had some kind of detergent available. Overall just less than half of households had soap
available. Shampoo was available to just under a quarter of all households. Soap was used for
washing hands by 44% of households. Ash was used for hand washing by about a quarter (26%)
of households overall. Overall over 70% only used water for hand washing.
Excreta Disposal: Overall, only 2% had access to a flush toilet and analysis by site is therefore
not sensible, because the percentages are too small. Pit latrines were available to 18% overall.
The total of 20% with a sanitary means of excreta disposal compares with 37% in the MIOCS
2006 survey. For 80% overall the bush is used as a toilet; this compares with 50% in the MICS
2006 survey, but there were substantial differences between urban and rural areas.
Comparison of Results on HIV/AIDS with MICS 2009
According to MICS 2006 64%% of women age 15-49 have heard of AIDS,; this survey found
80% of all respondents had heard of HIV/AIDS. Overall 62% agreed that HIV could be
contracted through sexual liaisons. Of those who agreed, 40% said that they knew how to
protect themselves (e.g. condoms), i.e. 25% of all respondents. This compares with 15% in
MICS 2006 survey who knew about condoms and the role they could play in preventing
transmission of HIV. According to MICS 2006, 34% of women know that a healthy-looking
person can have the AIDS virus; this survey found the same percentage (33%). Many women in
2006 erroneously believe that AIDS can be transmitted by supernatural means, mosquito bites
and by sharing food; and this was still true in 2011.
Overall 86% of respondents knew that HIV/AIDS could be transmitted from mother to baby. Of
those who agreed, 83% overall also agreed that the virus could be transmitted during pregnancy,
77% agreed that the virus could be transmitted during delivery and 85% agreed that the virus
could be transmitted during breastfeeding. These percentages were about the same as in the
2006 MICS survey.
52
CHAPTER 7: LIVELIHOODS, HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
7.1
LIVELIHOODS
This chapter is based mostly on section 6, 7 and 8 of the questionnaire.
Page | 53
7.1.1 Agriculture
The breakdown of results for land ownership and agriculture are shown in Table 7.1; and the
breakdown of results for tools available and problems with agriculture are shown in Table 7.2.
Land Ownership:
Overall 24% of the households own land, but most of that percentage is accounted for in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) (81%), with between 13% in Sanaag and 26% in Gedo and
only 1% in South Mudug and 2% in Galgaduud. The average holding for those who have land is
5 hectares, with those in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) where there was the most land having
4 hectares, compared to nearly 12 hectares in Togdheer where only 18% have land. Overall 80%
of land is communally owned, rather than individually owned with very little variation (the value
of 60% for South Mudug is where least land is owned).
Agriculture:
Overall 24% said that they practice agriculture, but again, that was mostly in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) (82%), with between 12% in Sanaag and 29% in Gedo and only 1% in South
Mudug and 2% in Galgaduud. Unsurprisingly, these percentages are almost exactly the same as
those who own land; so that there were obviously only small numbers in Togdheer and Sanaag
(about 100) and very few in South Mudug. In addition there were very few responses to the
questions about bag size and number of bags, so the presentation is just on the percentages about
growing different crops in the three sites, ignoring South Mudug and Galgaduud. Overall, 77%
grew sorghum, varying between 51% in Sanaag and 85% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed).
Overall, 82% grew maize, varying between 30% in Sanaag and 87% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed); and overall 38% grew beans varying between 16% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) and 72% in Togdheer and Gedo.
Table 7.1 Household Productive Assets
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
Own Land?
N1
6.1
Area and Ownership
N2
6.2
6.3
Farmer?
N3
6.4
1008
825
1080
1107
1394
1007
81
18
1
13
26
2
813-856
124-138
15-20
102-211
278-350
15-20
4.0
11.8
1.7
4.9
3.5
1.5
86
73
60
70
72
85
923
581
1039
895
1167
942
82
18
1
12
29
2
507-749
64-79
5-14
54-79
251-308
17-20
85
82
14
51
67
29
87
81
0
30
89
29
16
72
100
24
72
70
ALL
6421
24
1419-1523
4.6
80
5547
24
116-901
77
82
38
N4
What Grown
6.51
6.52
6.53
Key N1: N reporting for #6.1; 6.1: % saying that they own farming land; N2: N reporting on #6.2, #6.3; 6.2: How
many hectares; 6.3: % saying individual land ownership; N3: N reporting on #6.4; 6.4: % practicing agriculture;
N4: N reporting on #6.5; 6.51: % growing sorghum; 6.52: % growing maize; 6.53: % growing beans;
53
It is because most of the land is in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), with a substantial part of
the remainder in Gedo, that the percentages in both Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Gedo
for sorghum and maize are hardly significantly different from the overall average, whilst those
for Togdheer are about the same as the overall average; only those for Sanaag are significantly
different from the overall average. The percentage growing beans varies between 16% in
Page | 54 Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 72% in Togdheer and Gedo and all those three are
significantly different from the overall average.
Farming Tools:
On average 42% have a hoe, but that varies between 20% in Sanaag and 67% in Gedo (again
ignoring Gamadug and Galgaduud where there are very few responses); twenty four percent
(24%) have a panga, varying between 15% in Sanaag and 52% in Togdheer; and 26% have an
axe, varying between 13% in Marodi Jeex and 52% in Gedo. The percentages for each of four
sites are significantly different from the overall average for all three implements.
Problems with Agriculture
[NOTE: There are very few responses from South Mudug (3) and Galgaduud (18) so those sites
are not included in the discussion below] Less than 2% overall cited insecurity or pests or soil
erosion as the greatest hindrance to agriculture, and were not analysed further. The largest
percentage overall was 42% who said that the lack of tools was the most important problem but
there is some variation between the sites from 29% in Gedo to 49% in Sanaag. The next largest
percentage was 38% who said that lack of rains was the most important problem; and that varied
between 29% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 56% in Gedo. None of the other
problems were cited by more than 6% overall.
Table 7.2 Tools Available and Problems with Agriculture
Tools available to household
N5
6.61
6.62
6.63
First and Second Most Important Problems
N6
6.7p1a 6.7p1e 6.7p2a 6.7p2b
6.7p2e
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
789-804
30
18
13
750
46
29
25
26
16
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
109-124
3-4
122-127
344-383
13-33
61
75
20
67
30
52
33
15
33
13
43
67
17
52
33
116
3
122
375
18
45
67
49
29
39
43
0
33
55
56
32
0
37
15
6
7
33
15
23
35
38
67
25
16
6
1437-1474
42
24
26
1384
42
38
24
23
19
ALL
N5: reporting on question #6.6; 6.61: % owning hoe; 6.62: % owning panga; 6.63: % owning axe; N6: N reporting
on important problems for agriculture; 6.7p1a: % saying lack of tools; 6.7p1e: % saying lack of rains; 6.7p2a: %
saying lack of tools; 6.7p2b: % saying lack of seeds; 6.7p2e: % saying lack of rains
When asked to cite the second most important agricultural problem, again very few cited
insecurity or soil erosion so they are not analysed further; but this time there were no
„favourites‟. Overall 24%, 23%, 19%, 15% and 14% cited lack of tools, lack of seeds, lack of
rain, lack of manpower and pests respectively. There was not much variation between the sites
47% overall named the lack of tools, with little variation between sites, with the largest and only
significant differences being for 37% in Sanaag citing lack of tools and 38% in Togdheer citing
54
lack of rains.
In agro-pastoral areas with irrigation potential, leaders reported that poor irrigation system has
lead to decline in agricultural production. Apart from diminishing productive assets, other factors
that makes the leaders feel that situation has become worse is lack of basic services such as
Page | 55 health care both for human and livestock and opportunity for education for their children.
However, it is important to note that some leaders from Maroodi Jeex (W.Galbeed) were of the
opinion that situation has indeed improved. The reason behind this perception was that security
has improved in the area over the last ten years and due to this, they believe that peoples living
conditions have also correspondingly improved.
7.1.2
Livestock Ownership and Dynamics
Overall 83% of all those interviewed own livestock, varying between 66% in South Mudug and
91% in Togdheer although the proportion of type of livestock owned varies. Goats are the most
common livestock owned by a majority of households interviewed, with 79% of respondents
confirming that a household member owns some goats. This is followed by sheep owned by 55%
of all households interviewed. On the other hand, chickens are the least common livestock, with
only 6% confirming ownership. Other livestock owned are camels at 27%, cattle at 24% and
donkeys at 29%. Wide variations were noted in distributions of these livestock across the regions
with clear preference for some types of animals in some regions. Table 7.3 shows the details of
households owning different types of livestock in different regions.
Table 7.3 Proportion of Households Owning Different Types of Livestock by District
Livestock
Region
Maroodi Jeex
Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Galgadud
Gedo
(W.
Camel
Cattle
Goats
Sheep
Chicken
Donkey
26%
53%
62%
55%
14%
40%
30%
15%
32%
25%
34%
6%
3%
14%
4%
54%
85%
64%
88%
86%
85%
50%
22%
78%
41%
72%
1%
0%
4%
1%
11%
13%
1%
27%
6%
66%
In terms of numbers, the overall average of camels owned per household is 8.1 (± 10.1), cattle
7.4 (± 11.8), goats 37.5 (± 45.9), sheep 27.3 (± 60.3), chickens 7.8 (± 11.3) and donkeys 1.9 (±
2.1). But the numbers vary greatly across the regions for different types of livestock, with pure
pastoral areas having significantly higher numbers of animals. Figure 7.1compares means of
different types of livestock in the six regions.
The threshold number of animals required for the average household size of about 6 subsistence
through pastoralism is 24-42 cattle, 100-462 shoats, or 12-30 camels (Dahl and Hjort 1976)6.
From the averages indicated above, it is apparent that nearly all households have numbers of
livestock that are way below the minimum survival requirements for pastoral livelihood.
6
Dahl, G. and Hjort, A. 1976. Having herds: Pastoral herds growth and household
economy. Dept. of Anthropology, Stockholm.
55
Livestock being the main supporting livelihood activity among the pastoral communities, the
survey went further to investigate the dynamics of these important assets. Respondents were
asked the number of specific livestock born and those they bought or received as gifts or dowry;
about how many animals they have sold; and about the number of livestock that had died from
drought and diseases within the same period.
Page | 56
Figure 7.1 Average Number of Animals per Household by Type and by Region
70
Average no of animals
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Sanaag
Galgaduud
Gedo
Camel
Maroodi Jeex
8.4
Togdheer
9.1
South Mudug
6
6.3
6.5
10.1
Cattle
4.5
8.3
12.9
5.7
22.4
8.8
Goat
20
35.3
44.2
37.6
57.6
30
Sheep
18.5
23.7
37.6
53.9
18.5
12.3
Chicken
8.6
5.2
60
9.5
18.7
5.5
Donkey
1.8
1.6
1.9
1.9
2
1.9
The maximum number of camels born in a household stock within the period was 30, but with a
wide range, thereby giving a small mean of 0.9 (± 2.2). The maximum number of cattle born to a
household was 70, with a mean of 1.9 (± 3.8). Goats were the most prolific with households
reporting a maximum of 125 animals being born, with a mean of 5.4 (± 8.7). There were a
maximum of 50 sheep being born with a mean of 2.3 (± 3.8) per household, 41 chickens with a
mean of 2.5 (± 5.7) and 20 donkeys, with a mean of 0.2 (± 0.9) per household.
Generally, there were few animals that were acquired by the households through purchase or as
gifts. The maximum number of camels bought by a household was 30, but the overall mean for
all the households surveyed was only 0.04. These low numbers were also true for other livestock,
with cattle having a maximum of 40, but with mean of 0.06; goats having a maximum of 100 and
mean of 0.3; sheep with a maximum of 80 and a mean of 0.1; chickens at 100 maximum and
mean of 0.06; and donkeys with a maximum of 7, but with a lower mean of 0.01. The number of
animals received as gifts were also equally low, with all having a mean of less than 0.5 for all the
households surveyed (Figure 7.2).
Even though the global average was generally low, some variations were noted in the number
and types of animals acquired in different regions. Details of these numbers are provided on
Tables 7.4A and B.
56
Page | 57
Maximum no. of animals received
80
0.25
75
70
0.2
0.2
60
50
0.15
40
40
40
30
30
0.1
25
0.07
20
0.04
10
0.05
0.04
0.03
6
0.01
0
Camel
Cattle
Goat
Sheep
Maximum animals received
Chicken
Average no. of animals received per
household
Figure 7.2: Overall Maximum Numbers of Animals Received and the Average Number Received by
Each Household by Livestock Type
0
Donkey
Average number of animals received
Table 7.4A: Maximum number of livestock acquired by a household owning given type of livestock
by region
Camel
Cattle
Goat
Sheep
Chicken
Donkey
Livestock
Region
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sannag
Galgaduud
Gedo
Bought
Gift
Bought
Gift
Bought
Gift
Bought
Gift
Bought
Gift
Bought
Gift
2
10
10
6
20
10
30
15
20
6
7
3
30
2
7
21
6
9
5
4
40
5
5
2
10
40
6
2
4
24
25
15
100
40
70
40
40
12
50
50
70
75
80
20
100
12
12
7
2
20
14
40
0
0
0
100
2
30
0
0
10
30
1
0
4
4
3
1
0
3
3
6
Table 7.4B: Mean number of livestock acquired by a household owning given type of livestock by
region
Camel
Cattle
Goat
Sheep
Chicken
Donkey
Livestock
Bought
Gift
Bought Gift
Bought Gift
Bought
Gift
Bought
Gift
Bought
Gift
Region
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sannag
Galgaduud
Gedo
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.07
0.03
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.004
0.01
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.02
0.006
0.2
0.02
0.07
0.004
0.02
0.2
0.07
0.002
0.004
0.03
0.09
0.06
0.7
0.07
0.2
0.7
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.03
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.03
0.002
0.09
0.06
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.7
0.05
0.04
0.0
0.0
0.03
0.05
0.002
0.0
0.01
0.008
0.03
0.001
57
0.0
0.004
0.01
0.03
The numbers of animals sold by the households within the six months period were comparatively
higher. Globally, goats had the highest number of sales with some households selling up to 300
animals within the period and with each household having a mean sale of 6.3 (± 11.3). This was
followed by sheep with maximum sale of 230 and household mean of 3.5 (± 7.9). Other types of
Page | 58 livestock also recorded relatively higher sales with cattle having maximum sales of 100 with
household mean of 1.3 (± 3.9), camel 19 with mean of 0.7 (± 1.7), Chicken 71 with mean of 0.7
(± 4.0) and donkey with maximum sale of 50 and household mean of 0.2 (± 1.3). Expectedly,
variations were noted in the types and numbers of livestock sold in different regions as shown in
Table 7.5 below.
Table 7.5 The maximum and the mean number of animals sold by households within six months
by livestock types and by region.
Camel
Cattle
Goat
Sheep
Chicken
Donkey
Livestock
Max.
sold
Mean/h
ousehold
Region
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Galgaduud
Gedo
Max.
sold
Mean/h
ousehold
Max.
sold
Mean/h
ousehold
Max.
sold
Mean/h
ousehold
Max.
sold
Mean/h
ousehold
Max.
sold
Mean/h
ousehold
10
0.7
15
0.6
103
3.5
70
3.9
20
0.2
1
0.01
15
4
10
9
19
0.4
0.03
0.3
0.3
1.7
2
9
7
100
46
0.07
0.4
0.2
4.1
2.1
100
300
170
80
120
3.8
4.9
4.4
8.1
10.0
80
100
230
25
60
2.0
2.9
5.2
1.2
3.4
0
0
2
18
71
0.0
0.0
0.05
1.6
1.4
0
3
2
9
50
0.0
0.2
0.01
0.1
0.3
Drought is the main cause of death of livestock although significant numbers of animals were
also reported to have died of diseases. Globally, the highest number of deaths as a result of
drought was in sheep where a household reported loss of 780 animals within six months period
preceding the survey. On the other hand maximum deaths from diseases were reported in goats
with a household reporting 200 deaths within the same period. Figure 7.3 show details of highest
deaths reported from drought and diseases in different types of livestock while Figure 7.4 show
the average number of animals lost per household. Wide variations were noted across the
regions with deaths being more in some than others. Table 7.6A and 7.6B compares maximum
and average deaths per household in respectively in the six regions.
Table 7.6A: Maximum number of animals lost per household from drought and diseases by
livestock type and by region
Camel
Cattle
Goat
Sheep
Chicken
Donkey
Livestock
Region
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Galgaduud
Gedo
Drou.
Disease
Drou.
Disease
Drou.
Disease
Drou.
Disease
Drou.
Disease
Drou.
Disease
6
4
17
25
100
70
780
15
6
5
3
2
60
30
42
38
69
15
60
21
30
13
13
70
50
80
120
1
10
20
31
43
200
500
210
210
372
180
200
150
32
100
150
400
200
72
128
50
100
150
20
45
0
0
10
0
60
0
0
1
0
30
5
0
3
2
11
1
0
2
0
6
58
Figure 7.3: Maximum number of animals lost by a household from drought and diseases by
livestock type
6
11
Donkey
30
Chicken
Page | 59
60
150
Sheep
780
200
Goat
43
Cattle
500
120
60
69
Camel
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Maximum animals lost by household
Drought
Diseases
Figure 7.4: Mean number of animals lost by households from drought and diseases by livestock
type
Mean no. of deaths per household
25
20
19.3
15
12.2
10
4.7
5
3.2
1.6
0
0.5
2.9
1.2
1.2
Camel
0.2
0.7
Cattle
Goat
Sheep
Drought
Chicken
0.1
Donkey
Diseases
Table 7.6B: Mean number of animals lost per household from drought and diseases by livestock
type and by region
Livestock
Maroodi Jeex
(W.
Galbeed)
Region
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Galgaduud
Gedo
Camel
Drou. Disease
Cattle
Drou. Disease
Drou.
Goat
Disease
Sheep
Drou. Disease
Chicken
Drou. Disease
Donkey
Drou. Disease
0.1
0.03
0.9
0.2
2.6
0.6
4.4
0.3
0.1
0.09
0.2
0.02
2.0
1.1
1.4
0.8
3.1
0.2
0.8
0.3
0.2
1.2
0.4
8.9
2.2
4.2
5.0
0.02
1.3
0.7
1.7
2.0
19.0
33.7
23.7
17.6
17.9
2.1
8.8
5.8
3.1
6.1
10.1
20.6
23.7
8.1
7.4
0.9
5.9
5.4
1.4
3.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.0
2.7
0.0
0.0
0.03
0.0
1.4
0.07
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.009
0.0
0.02
0.0
0.2
59
The net loss in the number of aniumals and the net percentage loss reported over the last six
months, exclusive of births that have survived, are shown in Table 7.7. The loss of camels varies
between 11% in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) to 60% in Gedo. The loss of cattle varied between
6% in Togdheer and 162% in Gedo. The loss of goats varied between 35% in Maroodi Jeex (W.
Galbeed) and 116% in Gedo. The loss of sheep varied between 47% in Maroodi Jeex (W.
Page | 60 Galbeed) and 114% in Galgaduud. The loss of chicken varied between none in South Mudug
and 102% in Galgaduud. The loss of chicken varied between 5% in Togdheer and 44% in Gedo.
Table 7.7 Net decrease in number of animals and net percentage loss over last 6 months
Camel
Cattle
Goats
Sheep
Chicken
Donkeys
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
Maroodi Jeex
0.89
11
1.8
38
6.9
35
8.7
47
0.5
5
0.3
16
Togdheer
2.70
30
0.6
6
25.7
73
13.3
56
0.0
1
0.1
5
South Mudug
1.95
33
10.6
82
47.6
108
29.4
78
0.0
0
0.2
11
Sanaag
2.02
32
3.2
55
34.4
91
34.6
64
0.5
5
0.1
8
Gedo
6.08
60
9.2
162
34.8
116
14.1
114
5.6
102
0.9
44
Galgaduud
1.53
24
10.3
118
29.8
52
10.9
59
2.3
12
0.2
11
The results for problems with livestock and whether or not anyone in the household has been
trained in animal care are shown in Table 7.8.
Problems with Livestock The most important problem with livestock was lack of pasture, cited
by 53% of respondents overall, varying between 13% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and
80% in Gedo, and both of these are significantly different from the overall average, with the
other four sites about the same as the overall average. Lack of water was named by 43%
overall, with only 12% in Gedo and 86% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and both of those
are significantly different from the overall average, with the other four sites (between 37% and
50%) not significantly different from the overall average.
Table 7.8 Problems with Livestock:
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
First and Second Most Important Problem for Livestock
N1
6.10p1w 6.10p1p 6.10p2w 6.10p2p 6.10p2d
835-874
6
86
13
9
85
689-733
50
50
30
57
13
671-704
41
56
37
43
20
932-996
46
52
42
51
7
1091-1183
12
80
24
23
54
844-882
37
59
20
44
37
Anyone trained
N2
6.12
911
9
677
30
684
2
934
2
1220
19
840
3
ALL
5040-5344
43
53
27
49
24
5266
11
Key: N1: N reporting on problems for livestock; 6.10p1w: % first most important problem was water;
6.10p1p: % first most important problem was pasture; 6.10p2w: % second most important problem was water;
6.10p2p: % second most important problem was pasture; 6.10p2d: % second most important problem was pasture;
N2: N reporting on #6.12; 6.12: % that someone had been trained in animal health care.
60
The second most important problem with livestock overall was 27% who said lack of water,
varying between 23% in Gedo and 85% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and both of those
are significantly different from the overall average, with around 50% in the other four sites.
Diseases were named by 24% as the second most important problem, varying between 6% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 54% in Gedo. In the sites where interviews took place in
Page | 61 April and May, animal diseases were seen as the third important problem whilst in the sites
where interviews took place in June, lack of water was seen as most important.
According to the interviews with pastoralist representatives, there are various ways by which
communities deal with lack of pasture and lack of water depending on their nature and
magnitude. In a normal year when periods of drought are not prolonged pastoralists communities
migrate to different parts of their normal grazing areas where they can get water and pasture. But
in case of unusually prolonged periods of drought, they migrate to distant areas that are not
traditionally grazing areas for the group. On a temporary basis, a number of humanitarian
organizations and private investors mitigate water shortage by trucking water. Those who have
lost most of their stock or with numbers that can no longer sustain the households may migrate to
towns to seek employment and other alternative means of livelihood.
Support for Animal Health Care About three quarters answered the question about government
support, but overall 89% of those said that they couldn‟t remember when a government animal
care worker had visited. Of the 517 who could remember, 45% said the last government support
was within the last month, and the remaining 55% were evenly divided between those visiting 3
months, 6 months and 12 months ago. About three quarters also answered the question about
visits by NGOs for livestock support and again 90% said that they couldn‟t remember any visits
by NGO. Of those who could remember an NGO visit, 28% said the visits were within the last
month, and 26% each said 6 months and 12 months. About two thirds answered the question
about community animal health workers and nearly all (95%) said that they couldn‟t remember
such a visit. Of the remaining 235, about 43% said that someone had visited in the last 12
months. Overall, 11% said that someone in their community had been trained in animal health
care, with Togdheer and Gedo being the outliers with 30% and 19% saying that someone had
been trained, compared with 9% or less in the other four sites.
Adequacy of Livestock Overall 84%, with some variations between the sites (from 71% in
Madoori Jeex to 93% in Gedo), said that their herd was NOT adequate to sustain their
pastioralist livelihood. Of those who said only just or not enough (92% overall), 67%, varying
between 51% in Sanaag and 80% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), said that the herd was
not large enough; and 18%, varying between 10% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 22%
in Sanaag said that pastoral conditions were inadequate.
7.1.3 Situation according to Pastoralist ‘Representatives’
In pure pastoralist areas, the main subsistence activity is pastoralisms with the population
deriving their food from livestock, livestock product or items purchased from proceeds from
livestock sale. Some leaders also reported petty trade as additional means of livelihood within
pastoral areas. In agro-pastoral areas, livelihood still relies heavily on livestock with all leaders
confirming that subsistence come from pastoralisms. But in addition to this, some of them rely
61
on subsistence farming, petty trade and casual labour. Because of the settlements some of them
also derive their survival from skilled labour and work as artisans.
All pastoralist leaders interviewed reported that situation had deteriorated over the past ten years.
They cited a number of reasons that are responsible for their current plight. The key reason cited
Page | 62 by all leaders is drought which they said has become more frequent and prolonged in recent
times. Other reasons cited, some of which are region or livelihood specific were insecurity which
is of concern in some areas of Sanaag and South Mudug, lack of effective government, depletion
of natural resources (pasture, water) and poor livestock market possibly due to the long standing
barn of livestock export to the middle east markets (the ban has since been lifted). Environmental
degradation coming possibly from overgrazing and charcoal burning has also drastically reduced
productivity of the fragile range areas which has in turn lead to diminishing herd sizes.
7.1.4 Other Livelihood Activities:
Details of other livelihood activities and household assets are shown in Table 7.9.
Skills
Overall 8% said that they had masonry skills, 3% said that they had carpentry skills, 1% said that
they had welding skills, 1% said that they had plumbing skills, 1% said that they had metalsmith
skills, and 1% had shoemaker skills. There was little variation between the sites.
Table 7.9 Other Livelihood Activities and Household and Individual Assets
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
Animals
Adequate?
N1
6.14b
902
784
807
1006
1269
914
71
83
84
84
93
84
5682
84
Other Livelihood Activities
N2
6.15d 6.15e
1023-1024
11
13
661-689
18
25
1076-1082
32
24
1085-1091
23
15
1127-1225
36
8
1003-1014
11
8
5988-6106
22
15
6.15i
43
3
1
5
31
0
14
Household and Individual Assets
N3
6.16b 6.17a 6.17b
1022-1029
21
21
36
750-791
33
39
30
1079-1080
18
10
13
1105-1109
27
16
33
1320-1361
36
25
24
1002-1015
16
23
23
6305-6389
25
22
6.17e
5
26
KEY: N1: Number reporting on #6.14; 6.14b: % animals NOT adequate for pastoralist livelihood; N2: Number
reporting on #6.15; 6.15d: % manual labour; 6.15e: % petty trading ; 6.15i: % farming ; N3: Number reporting on
6.16 and #6.17; 6.16b: % households with radio; 6.17a: % households in which someone has a watch; 6.17b: %
households in which someone has a mobile telephone;; 6.17e: % households in which someone has an animal drawn
cart
Other Livelihood Activities:
The most frequently mentioned alternative livelihood activity was manual labor, cited by 22%
overall and varying from 11% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Galgaduud to 36% in
Gedo. Petty trading was the second alternative livelihood, cited by 15% overall, varying from
8% in Gedo and Gagaduud to 25% in Togdheer. The third activity was farming at 14% overall.
In Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Gedo this was named by 43%, and 31% respectively
but hardly mentioned in the other sites. Herding or trekking animals for others was an
62
1
1
3
41
2
10
alternative for 4% overall, by 7% in South Mudug and by none in Sanaag. Other livelihood
activities were selling charcoal (12%) mentioned by 40% in Gedo, selling firewood (13%)
mentioned by 45% in Gedo, selling water (2%) and 1% each for being a watchman or house
help. No significant variation between sites occurred for any of these last mentioned activities.
Page | 63
Household Assets
Only 2% overall have electricity. A quarter (25%) overall have a radio, varying between 16% in
Galgaduud and 33% in Togdheer; and both those are significantly different from the overall
average. Only 1% overall have a mobile telephone and only 1% have a refrigerator.
Individual Assets:
Overall, 22% of household members, varying between 10% in South Mudug and 39% in
Togdheer have a watch; 26% of household members overall, varying between 13% in South
Mudug and 36% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) have a mobile telephone; otherwise, less
than 2% have a bicycle, a motor-bicycle, or a boat with an engine.
7.2
Income, Income Sources and Livestock Sales
This section is based on section 7 of the household questionnaire.
7.2.1 Income and Income Sources
Results for questions on income sources are shown in Table 7.10A and 7.10B.
Income
The average annual income reported on average is US$893, but this varies substantially between
regions from US$504 in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) to US$1,212 in Sanaag. There is
little variation between households with different livelihood activities, except in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) where pastoralists report an income of US$620 and agriculturalists
US$247.]
The proportions saying that their income came from various sources and the estimated
percentages for each possible source are shown below.
1. Sale of Livestock Overall 65% said livestock sales was a source of income, varying between
25% in South Mudug and 87% in Gedo. For those reporting, this represents nearly 60% of
income overall, varying between 42% in Gedo and 79% in Galgaduud. Unsurprisingly, for those
who say they have sold livestock, the percentages saying that is a source of income is higher for
pastoralists than for those practicing only agriculture in each of the regions.
2. Sale of Livestock Products On average 32% earn income by selling livestock products,
varying between 10% in South Mudug and 70% in Gedo. For those reporting this as a source of
income, they say this represents 30% of their income overall, varying between 25% in Togdheer
63
and 40% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed).
Table 7.10A Household Income
Page | 64
N1
7.1
N2
Selling
livestock
7.21a 7.21b
Selling livestock
products
7.22a
7.22b
Selling
Agricultural
Products
7.23a
7.23b
Big Business
7.24a 7.24b
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
883
504
989-1012
53
54
44
40
54
49
Togdheer
827
1078
683
68
60
29
25
6
50
South Mudug
1084
1054
1060-1062
25
65
10
35
0
42
Sanaag
1025
1212
1048-1049
78
62
13
28
8
40
Gedo
1341
689
1260-1269
87
42
70
28
30
33
Galgaduud
873
851
998-1000
77
79
18
26
1
39
ALL
6033
893
6044-6075
65
59
32
30
18
41
Key: N1: N reporting on #7.1; 7.1: Avg total annual income in US$; N2: N reporting on #7.21a to 7.29b; 7.21a: %
Selling livestock; 7.21b: % Livestock as % of total; 7.22a: % Selling livestock products; 7.22b: % Livestock products
as % of total; 7.23a: % Selling agricultural products; 7.23b: % Agricultural produce as % of total; 7.24a: % Big
business; 7.24b: % Big business as % of total;
3. Sale of Agricultural Produce Overall about 18% report agricultural products to be a source of
income, but this varies very widely between regions, from 54% of households in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 30% in Gedo, but by between only 0% and 8% in the other four regions.
For those who report agricultural products as a source of income, they say that this comprises
41% of their income, varying only slightly between sites (between 33% in Gedo and 50% in
Togdheer).
4. Big Business The percentage saying that they receive income from big business is never
larger than 3%. For those who do report big business as a source of income, however, overall it
generates 39% of their income, varying between 21% in Gedo and 63% in South Mudug.
5. Casual Labor Twenty five percent (28%) say they get income from casual labour, varying
between 13% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 44% in South Mudug. Of those reporting
this as a source of income, they say that this represents 47% of their income, varying between
23% in Gedo and 57% in Galgaduud.
6. Petty Trading Overall 16% of households reported petty trading as a source of income, with
variation between 11% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 25% in South Mudug. Fifty
three percent (53%) of those reported petty trading as a source of income, varying between 24%
in Gedo and 60% in Togdheer.
7. Artisan At most 2% of the households in the sites reported receiving income from artisan
activities. Of those who did report this as a source, it accounted for 27% of their income,
varying between 11% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 48% in Galgaduud.
8. Remittances Remittances are a source of income for 16% overall, varying between 9% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 31% in South Mudug. Among those who report this as a
source of income, it represents 43% of their income overall, varying between 31% in Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 60% in South Mudug and with little variation between the
livelihood activities of different households. Part of the explanation may come from their
64
3
2
3
1
4
3
3
28
40
63
44
21
49
35
proximity to international borders.
9. Traditional Birth Attendance and Similar Services Only 2% report that birth attendance and
similar services are a source of income for them, with little variation between sites. For those
who do report this as a source of income, overall they say that this represents 31% of their
Page | 65 income.
Table 7.10B Household Income
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
N1
883
827
1084
1025
1341
873
Casual
Labour
7.25a 7.25b
13
17
44
23
41
21
48
51
38
43
23
57
Petty Trading
7.26a 7.26b
12
22
25
15
11
12
46
60
67
53
24
51
Artisan
7.27A 7.27B
2
2
2
1
3
1
11
36
44
36
21
48
Remittances
Traditional Birth
Attendant
7.29A
7.29B
7.28A
7.28B
9
10
31
15
31
52
60
34
3
1
1
3
12
28
21
36
19
10
20
54
6
1
38
51
N1
16
43
3
31
ALL
28
47
16
52
2
27
Key: N1: N reporting on #7.1; 7.25a: % Casual labour; 7.25b % Casual labour as % of total; 7.26a: % Petty trading;
7.26b: % Petty trading as % of total; 7.27a: % Artisan; 7.27b % Artisan as % of total; 7.28a: % Remittances; 7.28b: %
Remittances as % of total; 7.29a: % Traditional birth attendants; 7.29b %Traditional birth attendance as % of total
10. Other Income Sources Other unspecified sources of income provide 7% of households‟
reported income, varying between 1% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 18% in Sanaag.
Of those, they say it represents 50% of their income, with little variation between the sites.
According to the interviews with pastoralist representatives, sale of livestock and livestock
products is a main source of income for most households. The other source cited in all the
regions is remittances although leaders said that such social support is only for some households
with relatives working elsewhere and that it is not regular. Other sources were cited selectively in
the interviews but, according to the household survey results, appeared to occur albeit to
different degrees in all of the regions.
7.2.2 Selling Livestock
The results for questions about selling livestock are shown in Table 7.11.
To Buy Food Households reporting that they sold livestock at once during the last 3 months to
buy food are 56%. The variation was between 23% in South Mudug and 56% in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) Twenty four percent (24%) said they did this three or more times, varying
between 8% in Togdheer and South Mudug and 48% in Galgaduud. For 79% the situation is
worse this year than during the last two years, varying between 40% in Galgaduud and 94% in
Sanaag.
To Buy Non-Food Items Livestock was also sold at least once in the previous 3 months to buy
non-food items by 58% of households, varying between 16% in South Mudug and 75% in Gedo.
Nine percent (9%) said that they sold livestock three or more times to buy non-food items,
varying between 2% in South Mudug and 19% in Gedo. Seventy eight percent (78%) said that
65
this year was worse than the last two years, varying between 39% in Galgaduud and 95% in
Sanaag.
To Pay for Services In order to acquire services, overall 27% of households had sold livestock at
least once in the last 3 months. This varied from 7% in South Mudug to 60% in Gedo. Those
Page | 66 selling livestock to pay for services three or more times were 6%, with the percentages in all sites
less than 6%, except in Gedo where it was 17%. For 79%, the situation is worse than the last
two years, varying between 48% in Galgaduud and 95% in Sanaag.
Table 7.11: Why Selling Livestock
To Buy Food
Item #
N1
7.3a.1
7.3a.3
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
976-1001
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
754-831
704-1042
984-1071
1375-1396
900-946
56
25
32
23
55
78
80
8
8
15
37
48
7.3b
76
To Buy Non-Food Items
7.4a.1
7.4a.3
7.4b
41
12
76
Pay for Services
7.5a.1
7.5a.3
29
7.5b
6
75
91
19
3
92
13
2
90
82
16
2
81
7
3
82
94
33
8
95
25
3
95
86
75
19
81
60
17
83
40
54
8
39
17
3
48
900
829
831
ALL
5781-6265
56
24
79
58
9
78
27
6
79
KEY N1: Number of respondents; 7.3a1: % Sold to buy food at least once; 7.3a3: % Sold to buy food at least three
times; 7.3b: % Worse than two previous years; 7.4a1: % Sold to buy non-food items at least once; 7.4a3: % Sold to
buy non-food items at least three times; 7.4b: % Worse than two previous years; 7.5a1: % Sold to pay for services at
least once; 7.5a3: % Sold to pay for services at least three times; 7.5b: % Worse than two previous years.
7.2.3 Child Labour
All children above five years both boys and girls help with various tasks in the households.
Those aged between 5 – 9 years take care of small animals mainly around the homesteads.
Above 10 years the assignments becomes more gender specific. Boys between the ages of 10 –
14 help in herding large livestock such as camel and cattle besides taking all other animals to
distant grazing areas and watering locations far from the homesteads. On the other hand, girls of
the same age bracket mainly help with domestic chores that include cooking for the family,
washing clothes and fetching of water and firewood. In agro-pastoral areas both boys and girls
within this age bracket are also expected to work in family farms. Anybody above 15 years is
expected to take up all assignments that are carried out by adults and with a general feeling that
girls of age bracket 15 – 19 are even ready for marriage.
In the household survey, five percent or 290 households said that they had sent one or more of
their children to work for someone outside the household. The percentage varied between 2% in
Sanaag and 7% in Gedo. When asked if the work was paid or unpaid, 170 or 59% said that the
work was paid, varying between 39% in Togdheer and 82% in Galgaduud; but, given the small
numbers involved, none of these percentages are significantly different from the overall average.
When asked about the expectation in terms of work output of children of different ages, the
groups concurred that it all depends on the age of the child. Those below nine years are given
light duties and expectations on performance are generally low. However, those between the
66
ages of 10 – 14 years are expected to have mastered various household tasks. Children above 15
years are expected to work like any other adult member of the household.
All focus discussion group members of both sex and ages were in agreement that these tasks take
a lot of children‟s time and are therefore incompatible with education hence could be one of the
Page | 67 reasons for high school dropout level.
FGD members were also asked if children within their communities could be serving as
members of militia groups within their area. Responses varied depending on the area, with those
from places with effective governant control such as Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) and Sanaag
saying that children are not involved in militia activities. However, people from places with less
government control such as South Mudug confirmed that children are recruited into militia
groups and are indeed serving as fighters in areas where there are conflicts. The main reason
cited was lack of alternative sources of income. With the dwindling livestock production leading
to increase in poverty levels, youths are highly vulnerable to conflict and criminal related offers.
7.3
Household Expenditure
This section is based on section 8 of the household questionnaire.
7.3.1 Sources of Food
Respondents were asked to name their 2 most important sources of food; and the results are
shown in Tables 7.12A and B. The reports of the first most important overall were 41% for
purchased food, 35% for their own livestock and the last at 17% was borrowing food. There
were large variations between the regions with respondents in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)
saying that 67% of their food came from their own livestock, 28% was bought and only 3%
borrowed, compared to South Mudug where 10% was their own livestock, 48% bought and 25%
borrowed. The responses from the other four regions fell somewhere in between, but it is clear
that the pattern is region-specific.
The second most important source of food, overall, was their own livestock for 12% of
respondents, purchased food for 26% and borrowed food for 49%. There were large variations
between the regions with respondents in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) saying that 22% of
their food came from their own livestock, 44% was bought and only 26% borrowed, compared to
South Mudug where 3% was their own livestock, 18% bought food and 61% borrowed food,
with the other four regions in between, but it is clear that the pattern is region-specific.
The household questionnaire inquired about what had been the main source of food over the last
3 months. Overall the proportion depending on their own crops over the last 3 months was 41%,
varying between 5% in Togdheer and 79% in Gedo, with no consistent variation between
different types of household. For those who rely on their own crops, the percentage of food
consumed overall was 33% varying, between 9% in South Mudug and 60% in Galgaduud.
67
Table 7.12 Food Sources Part A
Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi
Galbeed)
Page | 68 Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
First Most Important Source
N1
8.1a1 8.1a2 8.1a3
950
798
1062
1092
1341
971
67
26
10
17
59
28
28
36
48
54
28
54
3
33
25
26
10
10
Second Most Important Source
N2
8.1b1
8.1b2
8.1b3
837
536
976
979
1140
850
22
9
3
9
13
13
44
21
18
16
40
10
26
55
61
61
34
62
Own Crops as Source
N3
8.2ca
8.2cb
940
641
1060
968
1119
895
68
5
10
27
79
40
28
55
9
38
39
60
ALL
6214
35
41
17
5318
12
26
49
5623
41
32.6
Key N1: N reporting on #8.1a; 8.1a1: % Own livestock products, first source; 8.1a2: % Purchase food, first
source; 8.1a3: % Borrowing food, first source; N2: N reporting on #8.1b; 8.1b1: % Own livestock products, second
source; 8.1b2: Purchase food, second source; 8.1b3: Borrowing food, second source; 8.2ca: % Own crops; 8.2cb:
% Own crops as % source of food; 8.2pa: % Purchase food; 8.2pb: % Purchased food as % of source of food;
8.2fa: % Food Aid; 8.2fb: % Food aid as % source of food; 8.2ba: % Borrowing food; 8.2bb: % Borrowing as %
source of food.
For the last 3 months, purchased food was the main source for 67% of all respondents. This
varied between 59% in Togdheer and South Mudug and 78% in Sanaag and 79% in Gedo. For
those who buy food, the overall percentage of food bought was 43% of all food consumed.
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) respondents purchased 32% of their food and those in
Galgaduud purchased 60% of their food.
Overall the proportion depending on food aid crops was 13%, with a stark contrast between 3%
in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 4% in Togdheer and 21% in South Mudug and 22% in
Sanaag. Those relying on agriculture for their livelihood were more likely to have appealed for
food aid than pastoralists. Among those who have received food aid over the whole sample, the
percentage of food provided by aid was 13% varying from 2% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) to 43% in Togdheer (although the base numbers are small).
The proportion that has borrowed food as a principle source of food over the last 3 months was
78%, varying between 39% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) to 93% in South Mudug and
94% in Sanaag. Pastoralists were more likely than agriculturalists in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) to have borrowed food. Among those who borrowed food, the overall percentage for
the whole sample of total food borrowed was 31%, varying between 6% in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) to 46% in Togdheer.
Table 7.12 Food Sources Part B
Item #
Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
N
Sources of Food
8.2pa
8.2pb
940
65
32
641
59
59
1060
59
37
968
78
48
1119
79
38
895
58
60
N
67
5623
43.0
4776
68
8.2fa
3
4
21
22
8
16
8.2fb
1.6
49.4
12.4
22.2
25.1
28.9
8.2ba
39
89
93
94
79
74
8.2bb
5.9
45.5
40.8
44.2
21.3
30.4
13
5623
13.6
2017
78
5623
31.1
4557
Key N1: N reporting on #8.1a; 8.1a1: % Own livestock products, first source; 8.1a2: % Purchase food, first source; 8.1a3: %
Borrowing food, first source; N2: N reporting on #8.1b; 8.1b1: % Own livestock products, second source; 8.1b2: Purchase
food, second source; 8.1b3: Borrowing food, second source; 8.2ca: % Own crops; 8.2cb: % Own crops as % source of food;
8.2pa: % Purchase food; 8.2pb: % Purchased food as % of source of food; 8.2fa: % Food Aid; 8.2fb: % Food aid as % source of
food; 8.2ba: % Borrowing food; 8.2bb: % Borrowing as % source of food.
Page |
69
7.3.2
Expenditure on Different Types of Goods and Services
The results for detailed questions about expenditure are shown in Table 7.13.
Food The proportion that households spent on food in the last month was 90% overall, with very
little variations between the sites. Overall the average amount spent in the last month for the whole
sample was US$79 varying between US$39 in Gedo and US$114 in Togdheer.
Non-Food Items (clothes) The proportion of households that spent on clothes in the last month was
37%, varying between 12% in Togdheer and 66% in Gedo. For those who spent on non-food items
(clothes), the overall average amount spent on non-food items (clothes) in the last month was US$32
varying between US$19 in South Mudug and US$73 in Togdheer.
Education (fees) Overall, 12% of households spent on education in the last month. The variation was
between 3% in South Mudug and 27% in Gedo. For those who spent on education, overall the average
amount spent on education fees in the last month was US$29 varying between US$19 in Gedo and
US$48 in Sanaag.
Table 7.13 Expenditure on Goods and Services Part A
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
N1
972-1057
Food
8.31a
N2
8.31b
Non-Food Items
N3
8.32a
8.32b
Education Fees
N4 8.33b
8.33a
773
1060
1000
1384
964
94
91
88
86
99
80
829
689
940
863
1398
784
63
114
61
95
39
79
23
12
32
40
66
31
219
97
348
411
949
310
27
73
24
50
19
26
6
12
3
14
27
6
62
113
49
144
406
63
23
47
22
48.
19
33
6182
90
5503
70
37
2334
29
12
837
29
Key N1: ; 8.31A: % Food; N2: ; 8.31B: $ on food; 8.32A: % Non-food items; N3: ; 8.32B: $ on non-food items;
8.33A: % Education fees; N4: ; 8.33B: $ on education fees;
Health Services (human and livestock) Payment for health services in the last month was made by an
average of 28% overall. The proportion in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), Togdheer and Galgaduud
was between 10% and 11% and 65% in Gedo. For those who spent on health care in the whole sample,
the average amount spent on health care in the last month was US$30, varying between US$17 in Gedo
and US$70 in Sanaag.
Fuel (firewood, kerosene) Overall 12% of households spent on fuel in the last month, with some
variation between sites with 7% in Togdheer and Galgaduud but 23% in Gedo. For the whole sample,
an average of $27 spent on fuel in the last month by those who did spend on fuel, with a variation that
ranged from US$13 in Gedo to US$57 in Sanaag.
69
Water The proportion of households overall who spent income for water in the last month was
45%, varying between 21% in Galgaduud and 71% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). For
those who spent on water, the average amount spent on water in the last month was US$55
varying between US$18 in Gedo and South Mudug to US$86 in Sanaag.
Page | 70 Table 7.13 Expenditure on Goods and Services Part B
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W.Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
ALL
Health Care Services
N5
8.34A
N6
972-1057
11
133
477-883
10
86
1032-1196
24
261
807-1146
31
320
993-1495
65
917
920-1031
10
102
5201-6182
28
1819
8.34B
Fuel
8.35A
20
49
26
70
17
32
8
7
10
12
23
7
30
12
8.35B
Water
8.36A
89
69
126
138
346
80
21
49
17
57
13
36
71
48
43
55
31
21
616
244
456
463
319
198
848
27
45
2296
N7
N8
Gifts
8.37A
4
N9
65
8.37B
78
69
79
28
86
18
34
24
5
18
7
4
205
64
179
97
39
87
27
85
30
33
55
9
649
68
8.36B
Key N5: Number responding to 8.34a; 8.34A: % Health services; N6: Number responding to 8.34B; 8.34B: $ on
health services; 8.35A: % fuel; N7: Number responding to 8.35B; 8.35B: $ on fuel; 8.36A: % water; N8: Number of
respondents to 8.36B; 8.36B: $ on water; 8.37A: % on gifts; N9: Number responding to 8.37B ; 8.37B: $ on gifts;
Presents Given/ Dowry Paid Overall 9% of households spent on gifts or dowries in the last
month. This percentage varied between Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Galgaduud where
the average was 4% to 24% Togdheer 24%. Of those who spent on gifts, the average amount
spent on gifts in the last month was US$77, varying between $27 in South Mudug and US$87 in
Togdheer.
Other Expenditures Less than 2% overall had spent on other items, and very few reported on
the amounts.
7.3.3 Owing Money
Detailed results about money owed and to whom are shown in Table 7.14.
Table 7.14 Household Debt and To Whom Owed
Owe Money?
N1
8.4
How Much
N2
8.5
To Whom Owed Money
N3
8.6R
8.6S
N4
8.6F
8.7F
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
1008
71
637
140
870
23
73
4
680
87
Togdheer
833
90
751
519
755
34
83
7
754
73
South Mudug
1074
80
866
391
973
20
75
7
785
93
Sanaag
1059
97 1031
695
1049
31
88
10
1049
73
1379
74
1064
276
1072
33
90
5
1075
73
Gedo
990
88
851
330
898
34
94
7
881
77
Galgaduud
ALL
6343
83 5200
406
5617
29
84
7
5224
78
Key N1: Number of respondents to 8.4; 8.4: % Household owes money; N2: Number responding to 8.5; 8.5: $
Amount owed; N3: Number responding to 8.6; 8.6R: % Relatives as % of creditors; 8.6S: % Shop owners as % of
creditors; 8.6F: % Friends as % of creditors; N4: Number responding to 8.7F 8.7F: % Buy food;
Money Owed Overall, 83% of respondents said that they owed money, varying between 71% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 97% in Sanaag. Of those who do owe money, the average
amount owed was US$406, varying between $140 in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and
$695 in Sanaag, with pastoralist households generally owing more than agriculturalists. These
70
are huge amounts, given that average GDP per capita was estimated in 2009 at US$333.
Amount Borrowed Of those had borrowed money, 29% owed the money to relatives, varying
between 20% in South Mudug to 34% in Togdheer and Galgaduud. Eighty percent (84%) owed
money to shop owners, ranging from 12% in Sanaag to 27% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Page | 71 Galbeed). There were 7% who owed money to friends, and that varied little between the sites.
Debts to institutions were owed by 3% of households overall, with little variation between sites.
Why Borrowed Money Seventy eight percent (78%) overall said that they had borrowed money
to buy food varying between 73% in Togdheer, Sanaag and Gedo to 93% in South Mudug. One
percent (1%) overall had borrowed money for non-food items with no variation and no one had
borrowed money to pay for services.
7.4
Assessing Priorities
Respondents were asked what would be their priorities for any additional income that they might
receive; and the results are shown in Tables 7.15A and B.
7.4.1 Priorities Chosen
Overall 26% said that they would use the money on school fees, varying between 7% in
Galgaduud and 45% in Gedo, and those two, together with 13% in Maroiod Jeex (W.Galbeed)
were statistically significantly different from the overall average. Overall, 62%% would have
spent the money on buying more livestock, varying between 37% in Sanaag and 90% in Gedo
and those two, together with 51% in South Mudug and 71% in Togdheer were significantly
different from the overall average. Overall, 5% would spend the money on buying a bicycle,
with very little variations between the regions. Overall, 45% would spend the money on buiding
a house, varying between 27% in Togdheer and 61% in South Muidug and those two,, together
with 34% in Maroodi Jeex (W.Galbeed) were significantly different from the overall average.
Overall 26% would spend the money on buying farming land, varying between 7% in Galgaduud
and 45% in Gedo and those two, together with 13% in Maroodi Jeex (W.Ga;lbeed) and 38% in
Sanaag were significantly different from the overall average. Overall ??% would spend the
money on debt repayment, varying between noone in Maroodi Jeex (W.Galbeed), Togdheer,
South Mudug and Sanaag and those two, together with ??? were significantly different from the
overall average.
Table 7.15: Priorities for Spending of Additional Income: Part A
N2
Maroodi Jeex
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
964-1000
612-699
1074-1079
994-1029
1285-1359
977-982
School Fees
14.1A
14.1AP
13
3.2
28
30.2
19
9.2
38
31.4
45
25.5
7
39.4
Buying Livestock
14.1B 14.1BP
59
27.5
71
52.1
51
26.1
37
32.8
90
38.7
60
48.4
Buying Bicycle
14.1C 14.1CP
7
2.1
2
40.7
3
1.6
4
33.5
7
23.1
5
45.3
ALL
5906-6137
26
16.5
62
36.2
5
5.54
14.1A: Using money to pay school fees; 14.1AP: Percentage to be spent on school fees; 14.1B: Using money to buy
more livestock; 14.1BP: Percentage to be spent on buying more livestock; 14.1C: Using money to buy a bicycle;
14.1CP: Percentage to be spent on buying a bicycle;
71
7.4.2 Percentages spent on Chosen Priorities
The overall averages of the percentages were 17% on paying school fees, 36% on buying more
livestock, 6% on buying a bicycle, 28% on building a house, 18% on buying farming land, 34%
Page | 72 on debt repayment
Table 7.15: Priorities for Spending of Additional Income: Part B
Marood Jeex
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
916-957
579-641
600-1061
941-1082
1227-1338
940-977
Building a House
14.1D
14.1DP
34
12.7
27
32.5
61
29.9
38
34.8
50
26.4
48
41.7
B uying Farming Land
14.1E
14.1EP
44
15.2
15
44.1
3
1.9
13
36.7
62
29.1
5
43.0
Repay Debt
14.1F 14.1FP
32
6.6
84
38.1
83
38.0
88
48.0
85
22.3
79
51.3
ALL
5326-5928
45
27.7
26
18.3
75
33.9
14.1D: Using money to build a house; 14.1DP: Percentage to be spent on building a house; 14.1E: Using money to
buy farming land; 14.1EP: Percentage to be spent on buying farming land; 14.1F: Using money for debt repayment;
14.1FP: Percentage to be spent on debt repayment
Gender Differentiation: Overall, 24% of females and 29% of males would use the money to pay
school fees; 63% and 61% would use the money to buy more livestock; 5% each would use
money to buy a bicycle; 46% and 43% would use the money to build a house; 25% and 27%
would use the money to buy farming land. Gien the numbers, only the first difference – in
readinees ot pay school fees - is statistically significant. The only regional cases where the
differences between men and women at a regional level are statistically significant are: in Sanaag
with 42% male and 29% female would prefer to use the money to buy more livestock; in Sanaag
with 33% male and 45% female and in Gedo with 58% male and 46% female would prefer to use
the money to build a house
7.5
Findings and Discussion
7.5.1 Agriculture
Overall, about a quarter (24%) said that they owned land and practice agriculture, but that was
mostly in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), where over four fifths owned land and practice
agriculture, followed by just under a third (29%) in Gedo. About four fifths grew sorghum and
maize and about two fifths grew beans, with households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)
concentrating on sorghum and maize whilst those in Gedo concentrate on beans.
About two fifths (42%) have a hoe and about a quarter each have a panga and an axe. For those
practicing agriculture, their major problems, cited by two fifths, were lack of tools and lack of
rain, with those in Gedo being more concerned about lack of rain than lack of tools and the
reverse is true in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed).
Less than 10% said that they had any non-agricultural skills; however, nearly a quarter of
households (22%) said that they were involved in manual labour, whilst about 15% overall said
72
that they were involved in petty trading and 14% in farming. A quarter of households have a
radio but none of the other electrical goods; on the other hand about a quarter of household
report that one of their members each have a watch of a mobile telephone.
7.5.2 Livestock
Page | 73
It is clear that many more camels, cattle, goats and sheep died in Gedo both in absolute n umbers
and in percentage loss where interviews took place in June than those in Maroodi Jeex (W.
Galbeed) and Togdheer that took place in April. Lack of pasture and lack of water were the
most important problems with livestock: lack of pasture was most likely in Gedo and least likely
in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed); lack of water was most likely in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) and
least likely in Gedo.
Overall 84% said that their herd was NOT adequate to sustain their pastioralist livelihood. Of
those who said only just or not enough (92% overall), 67% said that the herd was not large
enough; and 18% said that pastoral conditions were inadequate.
The most frequently mentioned alternative livelihood activity was manual labor, cited by 22%
overall. Petty trading was the second alternative livelihood, cited by 15% overall. The third
activity was farming at 14% overall, reported mainly in Maroodi Jeex (W.Galbeed) and Gedo.
7.5.3 Income and Expenditure
The average annual income reported was about US$900 but this varied between US$500 in
Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) to over US$1,200 in Sanaag. Major sources of income were
livestock sales (reported by 65%), with sales of livestock products, casual labour, sale of
agricultural produce, petty trading and remittances (reported by between 32% and 16%. These
percentages varied widely from region to region; and it is noticeable that that livestock sales
were a considerably more important source of income among the sites surveyed in June than
those in sites surveyed earlier. More than half of the households had sold livestock in the last
three months to buy food and to buy non-food items with under a quarter in South Mudug and
nearly four fifths in Gedo and Galgaduud; and four fifth say that the situation is worse than
during the last two years. More than a quarter (27%) had sold livestock to pay for services.
Unsurprisngly, nearly all households (90%) spent on food (average US$79), substantial
percentages on non-food items (37% with an average US$19) and on water (45% with an
average US$55) and small percentages on health (28% with an average of US$30) and on
education (12% with an average US$29), and fuel (12% with an average US$27). The average
spend is US$125 a month, varying between US$78 in Gedo and US$200 in Sanaag; given that
these are monthly expenditures, they are high; and whilst the percentages of households spending
on health and education in Gedo are the highest, they spend the lowest amount.
Over four fifths of households (83%) owed money for an average of over US$400. On average,
household debts are nearly 3 times monthly expenditure and that is the case in all sites except
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) where it is less than one month‟s expenditure.
73
7.5.4 Priorities for Using any Additional Income and the Future
Overall, 62%% would have spent the money on buying more livestock, 45% would spend the
money on building a house, 26% would spend the money on buying farming land and 26% said
that they would use the money on school fees. The suggested percentages that they would spend
Page | 74 follows a similar pattern although all values are smaller except that a larger proportion (34%)
would in practice would be spent on debt repayment.
7.5.4 Main Problems and Possible Solutions according to Pastoralist ‘Representatives’
The leaders cited a number of problems and challenges that their people face in sustaining their
livelihood, most of which are common in all areas and rreinforced by the household survey..
These include:
 Prolonged drought
 Depletion of resources (livestock)
 Land degradations
 Inflation that has lead to high food prices
 Lack of good market for livestock and livestock product due to trade ban (since lifted)
The pastoralist leaders interviewed gave a number of suggestions as way forward in solving their
problems: The common ones cited by those interviewed in all regions were:
 Restocking
 Rehabilitation of pastureland (Can recommend range improvement through reseeding,
water spreading and control of soil erosion)
 Improvement of livestock health by providing support (Recommend Community Animal
Health Workers, Community Vet Shops)
 Improvement of livestock sales (they recommended cooperative societies to eliminate
middlemen so that ordinary pastoralists reap maximum benefit)
 Creation of employment opportunities
 Improvement of road infrastructure to enhance communication
 kills training to allow for alternative income generation
 Establishment of income generating activities to diversify livelihood activities
(Encourage small scale business, establishment of micro credit facility)
 Development of irrigation infrastructure in areas with irrigation potential
 Insecurity which clearly varied according ot the region
There were mixed reactions from pastoralist leaders on whether they are happy with their current
lifestyle. A number of them said they are not happy with the lifestyle but since there is no
alternative means of livelihood they must just continue with it. Their reason for this stand was
mainly due to dwindling numbers of their livestock as range areas become less and less
productive making their lives difficult. The other reason they cited was that if they were to
change to sedentary life their children will have access to better education, health facilities and
skills training that will enable them get employment or engage in other more comfortable
alternative livelihood activities. Those who said they are happy with it feel that it is their long
traditional way of life and one they know best, and since there are no other options they have to
be happy with what they have.
74
CHAPTER 8: FOOD AND NUTRITION
8.1
Household Food Consumption
This section is based on Section IX of the household questionnaire.
Page | 75
The basic results for food consumption are shown in Table 8.1. In the last 24 hours, overall
3.1% of households said that had not eaten, with the lowest proportions (about 1.5%) in Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Togdheer and the highest 5.8% in Gedo.
8.1.1 Who Has Eaten
In general, adult women eat more meals per day (on average about 2.5 meals) than the children
under 5, boys or girls between 5 and 14 or adult men (all three groups on average about 2.0
meals). Including those for whom it was reported that they had not eaten, the numbers of meals
eaten in the last 24 hours varied around these overall averages as follows:
 Children 5 and under: The number eaten varied between just over 2 times in Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), Togdheer and Sanaag, but 1.3 times in South Mudug. Children
eat more frequently in agricultural households compared to pastoralist households in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), South Mudug and Togdheer, but not in Sanaag.
 Boys between 5 and 14: The number eaten varied between about 1.9 in the previous 24
hours in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Togdheer households, 1.1 in South
Mudug and 2.1 in Sanaag.
 Girls between 5 and 14: The number eaten was about 2 times in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) and Togdheer, 1.1 times in South Mudug and 2.1 times in Sanaag.
 Adult women: The number eaten varied between about 3 times in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed), 2.6 meals in Togdheer, 2.1 in South Mudug and 2.4 in Sanaag.
 Adult men: The number eaten was about 2.8 in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), 2.4 in
Togdheer, 1.8 meals in South Mudug and 2.3 times in Sanaag.
Table 8.1 Number of days eaten and how many meals yesterday for age-sex groups
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(.W.Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
Not eaten in
24 hours
N1
9.1
936
752
1018
897
1070
791
1.5
1.6
4.3
2.0
5.8
2.8
N meals yesterday for age-sex groups
including those who had no eaten
N2
21
22
23
24
25
1005 2.00 1.87 1.97 2.91 2.80
834
1030
1085
1033
856
2.06
1.27
2.07
2.11
1.54
1.91
1.11
2.12
1.86
1.44
1.95
1.14
2.14
1.83
1.43
2.58
2.14
2.37
1.80
2.23
2.41
1.79
2.26
1.75
2.19
N meals yesterday for age-sex groups for those
who had eaten
N2
N3
21
22
23
24
25
630-674 3.20 3.00 2.99
971 2.99 2.93
.
582-612 2.96 2.71 2.70
781 2.59 2.59
535-539 2.47 2.17 2.18
877 2.12 2.12
757-907 2.99 2.56 2.55
1044 2.36 2.36
1198-1228 2.37 2.11 2.04
1380 1.77 1.76
483-561 3.01 2.53 2.51
939 2.26 2.27
Total
5522
3.1
5407 1.85 1.73 1.74 2.31 2.18 4190-4519 2.78 2.47 2.45
5992
Key N1: Number of respondents to #9.1; 9.1: % that they did NOT eat yesterday; N2: N for 21-25 including those who had not
eaten; 21: N of meals yesterday for children under 5; 22: N of meals yesterday for boys 5-14; 23: N of meals yesterday for girls
5-14; 24: N of meals yesterday for adult women; 25: N of meals yesterday for adult men; N3: N for 21-25 for those who had
eaten; 21: N of meals yesterday for children under 5; 22: N of meals yesterday for boys 5-14; 23: N of meals yesterday for girls
5-14; 24: N of meals yesterday for adult women; 25: N of meals yesterday for adult men;
Although the differences were not large, they were consistent between the sites. For adult
women, there was an overall gradient by income tercile with the richer eating about 0.15 meals
75
2.30
2.30
per day than the poorer; and there was a sharper gradient in Gedo with a difference of 0.5; for the
other age-sex groups, there were similar gradients. Unless otherwise specified, there was no
consistent variation according to types of household (pastoralist, agro-pastoralist, or other type of
livelihood) within sites.
Page | 76
8.1.2 How often did they eat different kinds of foods?
Interviewees were asked on how many days during the immediately previous week the different
age-sex groups had eaten 12 different kinds of food. Analysis based on all responses including
zeros gives very low values and includes those who apparently did not eat anything at all in the
last week; instead the tables for each age-sex group are based on those who report that the agesex group had eaten at least one of the different kinds of food. The eating patterns (shown in
Table 8.2) were more or less consistent for all 5 age groups within each site, so that the results in
the table are for adult women (who in general ate most food), and the commentary below just
gives the range. Only differences between the different demographic groups where there are
substantial differences are specified. The full tables are given in Appendix N.
Table 8.2 How many days in the last week were different foods eaten by adult women?
Food Type
Question #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
CISP
ALL
N1
3A
3B
3C
3D
3E
3F
856-893
4.24
5.06
5.76
4.18
1.43
0.48
518-813
961-1018
874-1070
289-360
495-801
1.26
1.81
0.62
3.23
1.71
6.07
4.24
5.71
0.88
4.50
6.11
5.75
6.03
3.55
6.09
5.25
4.04
4.80
1.09
3.90
1.02
0.88
1.56
0.27
0.52
3177-4561
2.29
4.24
5.41
3.71
0.95
3G
3H
3I
3J
3K
3L
0.22
0.18
0.26
0.20
0.67
0.19
0.27
1.11
0.31
0.86
1.14
0.08
0.08
0.04
0.07
0.09
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.09
0.04
0.18
0.47
0.40
0.36
0.51
0.02
0.00
0.05
0.09
0.08
0.16
0.43
0.12
1.41
2.11
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.17
0.37
0.72
0.10
0.08
0.37
0.08
0.86
0.12
Key N1: Number of respondents 9.3: 3A: % Sorghum; 3B: % Rice; 3C: % Tea, Sugared drinks; 3D: %
Cooking Oil; 3E: % Cultivated Vegetables; 3F: % Beans; 3G: % Chicken; 3H: % Beef; 3I: % Goat Meat;
3J: % Eggs; 3K: % Fresh Milk; 3L: % Processed Milk
In general, children ate most of the foods less often than the other age-sex groups and adult
women more likely than the other age-sex groups; the exception was for milk (see below).
Rice, tea and cooking oil had each been taken on between 3.5 and 6.2 of the previous 7 days in
each of the sites, except in Gedo where rice had been eaten and cooking oil used on only about 1
day per week. Sorgum had been overall eaten between 2.0 and 2.3 days a week but with wide
variations between about 0.5 days in Sanaag and over 3.0 days in Maroodi Jeex and Gedo. Milk
(fresh or processed) had separately been consumed by children under 5 between 2 and 4 days per
week in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), South Mudug, Gedo and Galgaduud, but for less than
1.0 days in the other two sites. Milk consumption was lower for the other age-sex groups but
boy and girls between 5 and 14 drank milk between 1.2 days and 2.7 days in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed), Gedo and Galgaduud but for less than 0.5 days in the other three sites; adult
women and adult men followed a similar pattern although for a slightly fewer number of days.
Cultivated vegetables had been eaten between 0.9 days and 1 day a week for each of the age-sex
groups overall, but varying between less than 0.3 days in Gedo and between 1.4 days and 1.65
days in Sanaag and Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed). Beans had been eaten by each of the
76
different age-sex groups on about 0.7 days, with those in South Mudug, Gedo and Galgaduud
eating beans on about 1 day whilst those in the other three sites between 0.2 and 0.6 days. Goat
meat had been eaten overall on nearly 0.4 days, slightly more in Maroodi Jeex, South Mudug and
Galgaduud (around 0.5 days), but less in Togdheer (less than 0.2 days in each age-sex group.
Other protein foods (beef, chicken, or eggs) had each been eaten less than 0.15 days overall and
Page | 77 by no more than 0.35 days by any of the ag-sex groups in any of the sites in the previous week.
There was no systematic variation by income tercile as defined by reported income.
About 36% of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) reported that they had enough
food to survive for more than a week, compared to less than 15% of households in the other
three sites who had just enough for a week with the situation particularly worrying in Gedo
where only 4% had just enough food for a week. Unsurprisingly, over three quarters (78%) of
respondents saw the situation as worse than the previous two years, varying between 41% in
Galgaduud and more than 90% in Togdheer and Sanaag.
8.1.3 Child Undernutrition
Middle Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) measurements were taken of children under 5.
Overall, 36% were under-nourished, with 12% severely under-nourished. There were wide
vfariations between the sites with 56% under-nourished in Gedo and 18% severely undernourished, but only 13% in Maroodi Jeex (W. Galbeed) and 5% severely iundernourished.
Table 8.3:
MUAC_cats * site_id Crosstabulation
Severely undernourished < 11.5
Moderately undernourished
between 11.5 and 12.5
Not undernourished > 12.5
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
5.0%
South Mudug
5.5%
Sanaag
13.3%
Gedo
18.4%
Galgaduud
5.8%
8.3%
13.1%
10.2%
37.8%
26.1%
24.0%
86.8%
81.4%
76.5%
43.8%
68.1%
64.3%
302
381
264
868
310
2126
All
11.7%
Note: MUAC measurements were only taken on one child in Togdheer so that site has been ignored
8.1.4 Have households changed food consumption in the last week?
The results for how households have changed their food consumption during the last week are
shown in Table 8.4.
Reduced Meals: Overall 58% of households, varying between 29% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) and 77% in Gedo, had reduced the number of meals during the last week; those
households had reduced the number of meals on an average of 2.0 days overall, varying between
1.5 in Galgaduud and 3.9 days in Sanaag.
Skipped Days: Overall, 38% had skipped entire days without eating, varying between 12% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 58% in Gedo. On average, those households had skipped
just under two entire days without eating, varying between 1.6 in Galgaduud and 2.4 days in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Togdheer.
77
Borrowed Food: Seventy percent of households overall had borrowed food during the last week,
varying between 42% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 84% in Galgaduud. Those
households had borrowed food for an average overall of 3 days, varying between 2.5 days in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 3.7 days in Togdheer.
Page | 78 Table 8.4 What was done to cope with food shortages in the last week?
Food in house
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgadud
Strategies for Coping with Food Shortages / N times last
week
N3
5
6
7
8
9
10 11
12
Whether sent
elsewhere
N4
13R 13N
N2
4A
4B
998
36.1
70.2
980-1000
29
2.2
12
2.36
42
2.46
6
2.29
57
70
23
839
1077
1077
1416
989
14.5
13.8
15.6
3.9
12.9
90.5
77.5
93.3
89.0
40.6
825-852
1064-1077
1053-1075
1042-1109
852-982
52
61
66
77
53
1.9
1.8
3.0
1.9
1.5
24
44
25
58
16
2.38
1.81
2.06
1.88
1.55
66
69
64
81
84
3.67
3.14
2.61
2.98
2.85
14
28
13
53
8
2.65
1.95
2.56
2.01
1.84
113
298
139
761
72
77
82
71
84
65
19
56
83
20
31
ALL
6389 84.6 77.7
2.1 32 1.94
70 2.97 22 1.98
1440
80
5403-6423 58
Key N2: Number respondents for 9.4A and 9.4B; 4A: % Enough food for a week or more; 4B: Comparison over last
two years (% saying worse); N3: Number respondents for questions 5 to 12; 5: % Reduced number of meals eaten
per day; 6: How many days reduced number of meals per day; 7: % Skipped days without eating; 8: How many days
skipped eating; 9: % Borrowed food to eat; 10: How many days borrowed; 11: % Sent household members to eat
elsewhere; 12: How many days household members sent elsewhere; N4: Number of respondents to 13; 13R: % Sent
to relatives; 13N: % Sent to neighbours; 13F: % Sent to friends;.13P: % Sent to feeding programme
28
Sent to Stay with Relatives: The proportion of households that had sent household members to
eat elsewhere during the last week was 23% overall, varying between 6% in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 54% in Gedo. Those households had sent household members away for
an average of 2.4 days, varying between just under 2 in South Mudug and over 2.6 days in
Togdheer.
Stayed with Whom? Of those who had sent family members away, 80% had sent them to
relatives, varying between 64% in Galgaduud and 84% in Gedo. Overall. 28% had sent family
members away to neighbours, varying between 7% in Sanaag and 56% in South Mudug.
8.2
Household Coping Strategies in the Last Three Months
The data collected from this section of the questionnaire (Section X) on coping strategies can be
considered as independent of the problems reported in response to the questions in Section 9
above and are the percentages presented in Table 8.5A and 8.5B below. However, the previous
section provides another set of reasons for needing to cope that include whether or not the
household had reduced the number of meals eaten per day, skipped days without eating,
borrowed food, or sent some members of the household to stay with relatives. The percentages
based on the numbers „needing-to-cope‟ for those reasons have been calculated and labelled as
„needed-to-cope‟ and the text gives a commentary about the differences.
8.2.1 Coping Strategies over the last three months
1. Ate less/Reduced quantity of food eaten Two-thirds of households overall have tended to
reduce the amount of the food they ate at each meal over the last three months, varying between
78
50% in Galgaduud to 78% in Gedo, with those percentages and those for Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) and South Mudug significantly different from the overall average. The
percentages were about 8% higher when using the „needed-to-cope‟ reasons as a basis.
Page | 79 Table 8.5 Percentages adopting different strategies Part A
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
CISP
N1
378-605
Coping Strategies
10.1
10.2
10.3
29
51
47
70
77
29
11
4
6
4
43
4
10.5
10.6
10.7
5
0
0
2
11
1
5
9
23
8
41
2
5
3
1
3
25
1
27
8
46
8
39
2
10.8
10.9
47
4
38
5
30
16
47
7
55
35
55
2
????
ALL
4727-5827
67
54
14
3
17
7
23
37
14
Key N1: Range of numbers for answers to questions 10.1 to 10.9; 10.1: % Ate less food/Reduce quantity; 10.2. %
Reduced the number of meals per day; 10.3; % Collected firewood to sell; 10.4: % Collected bush products to eat;
10.5: % Relied on help from relatives and neighbors; 10.6: % Family members migrated to find work (not normal
practice); 10.7: % Borrowed food or cash; 10.8: % Reduced spending on non-food items; 10.9: % Sent children to
stay with relatives.
530-754
772-1027
952-1066
1007-1400
971-1015
54
67
74
70
78
50
10.4
2. Reduced the number of meals per day Overall, over half (54%) of households had reduced
the number of meals eaten per day over the last three months, varying between 29% in
Galgaduud and 77% in Gedo, with the percentages for each site except Togdheer significantly
different from the overall average. The percentages were about 10% higher when using the
„needed-to-cope‟ basis for calculating the percentages.
3. Collected firewood to sell Fourteen percent (14%) overall of households have collected
firewood to sell over the last three months, varying between 4% in Togdheer, Sanaag and
Galgaduud and an astonishing 43% in Gedo, with the percentages for all sites except Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) significantly different from the overall average. The percentages were
only a little higher when using „needed to cope,‟ and lower in W. Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed).
4. Collected bush products to eat Very few (3%) households overall, varying between none in
Togdheer and South Mudug and 11% in Gedo had collected bush products to eat over the last
three months and only the latter percentage was significantly different from the overall average.
The percentages were about the same when using „needed-to-cope‟.
5. Relied on help from relatives and neighbours: Overall 17% of households had relied on help
from relatives or neighbor to eat over the last three months, varying between under 10% in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), Togdheer, Sanaag and Galgaduud (with the lowest being 2%
in the latter) and 23% in Sanaag and 41% in Gedo, with the percentages for all sites significantly
different from the overall average. The percentages were about 6% higher when using „needed to
cope.‟
6. Family members migrated to find work (not normal practice) Overall 7% of households had
migrated to find work exceptionally in the last three months, but the percentages were 5% or less
79
in all sites - and one percent South Mudug and Galgaduud – except in Gedo where the
percentage was 25%; and the percentages for those therees sites were all significantly different
from the overall average. The percentages were about 3% higher when using needed to cope.
Page | 80
7. Borrowed food or cash Overall 23% of households had borrowed food or cash, but there was
a sharpo divide between 8% or less in Togdheer, Sanaag and Galgaduud (with the lowest value
being 2% in the latter) and 27% or more in the other three sites with the highest being 46% in
South Mudug; and all the percentages were significantly different from the overall average.
8: Reduced spending on non-food items Overall 37% of households had reduced spending on
non-food items in the last three months, varying between 30% in South Mudug and 55% in Gedo
and Galgaduud, with all percentages except for Togdheer being significantly different from the
overall average.
9. Sent children to stay with relatives Overall, 14% of households had sent family members to
stay with relatives with a divide between less than 7% of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed), Togdheer, Sanaag and Galgaduud, with the lowest in the latter, but 35% of households
in Gedo, sent children to stay with relatives over the last three months; and the percentages in
each of the sites except South Mudug were significantly different from the overall average. The
percentages were between 5%-8% higher when using „needed to cope.‟
10.& 11. Rented out or sold land to buy basic items Less than 4% of households overall had
rented out or sold land to buy basic items over the last three months, but whilst nearly all the
percentages were 2% or less, 8% and 12% of households in Gedo had rented or sold land
respectively; and only the latter percentages for Gedo are significantly different from the overall
average. Further breakdowns by income levels produced no relevant outcomes.
12. Sold livestock to buy basic items Thirty percent (30%) overall had sold livestock to buy basic
items, varying between 1% in South Mudug and 61% in Gedo with the percentages for all sites
being significantly different from the overall average.
13. &14. Took children out of school or sent children to work Three percent 3% overall of
households had taken their children out of school and 2% of households had sent them out to
work in the last three months. The percentages were less than 3% and less than 1% respectively
in each of the sites except in Gedo where 9% and 10% of households had taken their chidxren
out of school or sent their children out to work respectively; and only the percentages for Gedo
are significantly different from the overall average.
Table 8.5 Percentages adopting different strategies, Part B
N2
378-605
Strategies for coping over last 3 months
10.10 10.11
10.12
10.13 10.14 10.15
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
CISP
530-754
772-1027
952-1066
1007-1400
971-1015
1
0
1
0
8
0
7
1
1
2
12
1
37
15
1
25
61
22
3
1
0
2
9
1
1
0
0
1
10
0
12
1
0
1
11
1
ALL
4727-5827
2
4
30
3
2
4
80
Other Support
N3
10.2C
477
3
477
36
390
22
848
35
16
6
5816
19
10.2F
10.2O
1
2
26
56
30
1
37
29
17
15
5
12
25
11
Key N2: Range of number of respondents to questions 10.10 to 10.15; 10.10: % Rented out land to buy basic items;
10.11: % Sold land to buy basic items; 10.12: % Sold livestock to buy basic items; 10.13: % Took children out of
school; 10.14: % Sent children to work; 10.15: % Consumed seed stock; N3: Number of responses to question 2
about other support; 10.2C: % Received cash transfers; 10.2F: % Received food handouts.
Page | 81
15. Consumed seed stock Four percent (4%) of households overall had consumed seed stock in
the last three months with 12% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 11% in Gedo, but
negligible percentages in the other four sites, with only the latter percentages significantly
different from the overall average.
Given that the percentages for items 4, 6, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15 are below 7%, and that the numbers
involved are reduced by including a further layer of tabulation, there will not be any significant
differences. Further for items 3 and 9, although the overall averages are 14%, that has arisen
mostly because of the high percentages for Gedo (43% and 35% respectively). The only items
where it is therefore worth looking for a gradient are items 1 (ate less food/ reduced quantity), 2
(reduced number of meals per day), 5 (relied on help from relatives and neighbours), 7
(borrowed food or cash), 8 (reduced spending on non-food items) and 12 (sold livestock).
By Household Livelihood Activity: For items 1, 2 and 7, there are no obvious patterns. For items
5, 8 and 12, it does appear that households with mixed pastoralist and agriculture livelihoods are
those more likely to have adopted these strategies and especially in Galbed and Galgaduud.
Specifically, those with mixed livelihoods are 23% more likely overall to have sold livestock
(item 12) and there are similar effects, although not as large in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)
and Gedo.
By Income: For items 1, 7, 8 and 12, although it does appear that the richer households were less
likely to have to adopt these strategies in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and especially in
Gedo, there are opposite gradients in other regions so that there is no overall gradient. For the
other two items:
2: there is a small increase of 8% between the poor and the rich in reducing the number of meals
per day, but it is noticeable that there are similar gradients in every site, with relatively steep
increases of 29% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 16% in Togdheer, except in
Galgaduud.
5: there is a small increase of 10% overall, hardly any gradient in every site except Gedo where
there is a 36% increase between poor and rich households in the extent to which they relied on
help from relatives and neighbours.
8.2.2 Other Support
Cash transfers Nineteen percent of households overall, varying between 3% of households in
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 36% in Togdheer had received cash transfers over the last
three months; and both of those together with the percentages in South Mudug and Gagaduud are
significantly different from the overall average.
Food assistance: Overall a quarter of households had received food assistance over the last three
months, varying between 1% in Gedo and 2% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) to 56% in
South Mudug; and the percentages for each site, except for Togdheer and Sanaag, are
significantly different from the overall average.
81
Any other assistance: Eleven percent (11%) overall of households had received some other form
of assistance varying between 1% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 29% of households
in Togdheer; and the percentages for each site, except for Sanaag and Galgaduud, are
significantly different from the overall average.
Page | 82
8.2.3 Pastoralist Perspectives
Coping Strategies
Somalis have very strong family bonds and well off relatives or those in diaspora are compelled
to help their relatives who are in need at times of hardship. Households living near urban centres
may resort to other income generating activities such as collection and sale of firewood and
charcoal burning. Other coping strategies in hard times include:




Enforced sales of livestock
Food aid and other forms of assistance from international and non governmental
organization
Removal of children from school
Sending children to go and live with relatives elsewhere
Provision of Milk
Provision of milk to children during drought is a challenge in all the regions. All the leaders
interviewed said that those with money purchase powdered milk for the children, but due to
poverty most children have to do without milk during drought.
Acceptability of Nutrition Services
Regarding nutrition services, the leaders stated they have not seen people coming specifically as
nutritionists, but in some locations they have seen organizations coming to distribute foods like
biscuits to the children. In some areas that have certain NGO activities occurring, some leaders
report that some of them talk about nutrition. In Gedo, they confirmed seeing a number of people
coming to talk about child nutrition, though those people do not give any specific aid in relation
to nutritional advice.
8.3
Breastfeeding and Other Infant Feeding
This section is based on section XIX of the household questionnaire.
8.3.1 Breastfeeding
Overall, 93% of mothers started breastfeeding immediately after birth, with the lowest rate of
12% in South Mudug; and the latter percentage is significantly different. Overall 80% of
mothers have or intend to feed for at least 6 months, varying between 69% in South Mudug and
87% in Gedo and Gagaduud. In the last 24 hours, overall 70% of mothers had breastfed, with
82
63% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), Togdheer and Galgaduud and 79% in Gedo. For those
who had breastfed in the last 24 hours, overall the number of times was 5.6. with much larger
variations between 3.2 in South Mudug and 8.9 in Gedo.
8.3.2 Other Infant Feeding in last 24 hours
Page | 83
The data on breastfeeding and infant feeding are given in Table 8.6A and B.
Liquids: In the last 24 hours, 86% of mothers overall had given plain water to their infant. This
varied between 77% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and 92% in South Mudug. Overall
50% of mothers, varying between 43% in Gedo and 70% in South Mudug, had given tinned,
processed or fresh milk to their infant. Overall 33% of mothers had given their infant tea or
other sugared drinks, but only 19% in South Mudug and 49% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed).
Vegetables: Overall 18% of mothers) had given grains, roots or tubers to their infant, but this
varied between 8% in Galgaduud and 39% in Gedo; and those percentages were significantly
different from the overall average. Overall 7% of mothers, with little variation between the sites
(between 2% in Galgaduud and 11% in Gedo), had given legumes or nuts to their infant. Dairy
products were given to infants in the last 24 hours by 39% of mothers overall, varying between
18% in Togdheer and 58% in Gedo; and those percentages were significantly different from the
overall average.
Fruits: Overall 4% of mothers had given Vitamin A rich fruits to their infant, varying between
1% in Togdheer and 7% in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Gedo; overall 3% of mothers
had given other fruits to their infant, varying between 0% in Togdheer and 6% in Gedo; and, in
neither case, were the percentages significantly different from the overall average.
Table 8.6 Breastfeeding and Other Infant Feeding: part A
When
started/
How long
19.1
19.2
94
76
Breastfed
in last 24
hours
19.3 19.4
63
3.8
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi
Galbeed)
Togdheer
N1
335-451
230-352
97
72
63
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
CISP
332-614
218-326
652-841
187-243
88
97
91
93
69
82
87
87
69
65
79
63
In last 24 hours, has child been given any of the following
foods
N2
352-360
19.5
77
19.6
53
19.7
49
19.8
24
19.9
7
19.10
15
7.7
347-354
81
46
44
17
5
3
3.2
4.5
8.9
5.3
326-329
326-328
769-774
240-242
92
87
91
82
70
48
43
53
19
40
26
29
13
20
39
8
5
7
11
2
7
2
9
8
ALL
2352-2440
93
80
70
5.6
2369-2379
86
50
33
24
7
8
Key N1: Range of N for breastfeeding questions 19.1-19.4; 19.1: % Started breastfeeding from birth; 19.2: %
Breastfed/ will breastfeed for more than 6 months; 19.3: % Breastfed in last 24 hours; 19.4: Number of times
breastfed in last 24 hours ; N2: Range of N for questions 19.5-19.11; 19.5: % Plain water; 19.6: % Tinned, powdered
or fresh milk; 19.7: %Sweetened or flavoured water, soft drink, soup or tea; 19.8: % Food made from grains (cereals),
roots, or tubers e.g. maize, sorghum, rice, millet, wheat, potatoes, sweet potatoes; 19.9: % Food made from roots, or
tubers e.g. maize, sorghum, rice, millet, wheat, potatoes, sweet potatoes?legumes or nuts e.g. peas, groundnuts,
beans, soya beans, pulses, etc.; 19.10: % Food made from legumes or nuts e.g. peas, groundnuts, beans, soya
beans, pulses, etc.; 19.11: Food made from dairy products e.g. milk;
83
19.11
41
18
24
20
58
49
39
Meat, Eggs and Oils: Overall 4% of mothers had given flesh foods, with little variation between
sites, to their infant. With little variation between the sites, 3% of mothers overall had given
eggs to their infant; Cooking oil or fats were given to their infant by 13% of the mothers overall,
Page | 84 varying between 7% in Galgaduud and 23% in Togdheer; and those percentages were
significantly different from the overall average.
Any mushy or solid foods for how many times: Overall 17% of mothers, varying between 6% in
South Mudug and 29% in Gedo had given mushy foods to their infant; and those percentages
were significantly different from the overall average. On average, those who had given mushy
foods to their infant had given them 2.4 times with little variation (between 2.1 in Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi Galbeed) and Togdheer and 2.9 times in Galogaduud) in the last 24 hours. Overall,
27% of mothers had given solid foods to their infant in the last 24 hours, varying between 5% in
South Mudug households and 45% of mothers in Gedo households; and those percentages were
significantly different from the overall average. Feeding of solid foods in a 24 hour period
occurred less than once in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) and South Mudug and more than
2.5 times in Togdheer and Sanaag.
Table 8.6: Infant Feeding Part B: Items 19.12-19.18
Item #
Maroodi Jeex
(Wooqoyi
Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
CISP
In last 24 hours, has child been given
N3 19.12 19.13 19.14 19.15
350-358
7
4
3
4
19.16
8
N4
290-363
19.17A
8
19.17B
2.1
19.18A
14
19.18B
2.1
23
8
14
13
7
204-354
281-327
187-328
620-774
174-242
13
6
11
29
21
2.1
2.2
2.5
2.5
2.9
32
5
34
45
10
2.5
2.1
29
2.5
2.8
ALL
2372-2380
4
3
4
3
13
1756-2387
17
2.4
27
Key N3: N reporting on #19.12-19.18; 19.12:% Any vitamin A rich fruits and vegetables, e.g. pawpaw, green leafy
vegetables (spinach), carrots, mango; 19.13: % Any other fruits and vegetables, e.g., bananas, apples, avocado,
pear, tomatoes; 19.14:% Any flesh foods, e.g. meat, poultry, fish; 19.15: % Any eggs; 19.16: % Any foods made with
oil, fat or butter; 19.17A: % Gave infant mushy foods; 19.7B How many times mushy foods; 19.18A: % Gave infant
solid foods in last 24 hours; 19.18B: How many times gave infant solid foods in last 24 hours
2.5
8.4
353-354
329-330
328
768-770
242
1
3
2
7
2
0
3
2
6
1
1
3
3
6
4
1
2
3
5
1
Findings and Discussion
In the last 24 hours, overall 3.1% of households said that had not eaten, with the lowest
proportions (about 0.5%) in the North Western regions (the first surveyed in April), and the
highest 5.8% in the South Western region of Gedo (surveyed in June).
In general, adult women eat more meals per day (on average about 2.5 meals) than the children
under 5, boys or girls between 5 and 14 or adult men (all three groups on average about 2.0
meals). The eating patterns over the immediately previous week of 7 days were more or less
consistent for all 5 age groups, within types of household within each site.
84
Rice, tea and cooking oil had each been taken on between 4 and 6 of the previous 7 days, except
in Gedo where rice was eaten on less than 2.5 days and oil used on less than 1.5 days. Sorgum
had been eaten between 1.5 and 1.8 days a week but with wide variations between about 0.5 days
in Sanaag and over 3.5 days in Gedo. Milk (fresh or processed) had separately been consumed
by children under 5 between 2 and 3 days per week in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), South
Page | 85 Mudug and Galgaduud, more than 1.5 days in Gedo but for less than 0.5 days in the other two
sites. Beans, eggs, beef, chicken or goat meat had been eaten on less than 1 day during the last
week. Cultivated vegetables had been eaten just under 1 day a week but varying between about
0.5 days in Gedo and Galgaduud and over 1.5 days in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed).
About 36% of households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) had enough food to survive for
more than a week, compared to less than 15% of households in the other three sites who had just
enough for a week with the situation particularly worrying in Gedo where only 4% had just
enough food for a week.
Overall 58% of households (and 77%) in Gedo) had reduced the number of meals per day during
the last week; 38% of households (and 58%) had skipped entire days without eating; 70% of
households (84% in Galgaduud) had borrowed food; and 23% of households (54% in Gedo) had
sent family members away ti stay with relatives.
Over the last three months, two-thirds of households overall (78% in Gedo) have tended to
reduce the amount of the food they ate at each meal; over half (54%) of households (77% in
Gedo) had reduced the number of meals per day; 14% overall of households (43% in Gedo) have
collected firewood to sell over the last three months; only 3% of households (but 11% in Gedo)
had collected bush products; 17% of households (but 41% in Gedo); there were 7% of
households (but 25% in Gedo) where family members had migrated to find work; 23% of
households (but 46% in South Mudug) had borrowed food or cash; 37% of households (but 55%
in Gedo) had reduced spending on non-food items; 14% of households (but 35% in Gedo) had
sent children to stay with relatives; less than 4% of households overall had rented out or sold
land (but 8% and 12% in Gedo) to buy basic items over the last three months; 30% overall (but
61%) had sold livestock to buy basic items; 3% overall of households (9% in Gedo) had taken
their children out of school and 2% of households (10% in Gedo) had sent them out to work in
the last three months; 4%) of households overall (11% in Gedo) had consumed seed stock.
The overwhelming impression from these findings is that households in Gedo are reporting
significantly increased levels of under-nutrition and resort to negative coping mechanisms.
In this survey, 36% were under-nourished including 12% severely undernourished, based on
MUAC measurements of children under 5. The MICS 2006 survey used measurements of
height, waist and weight; and that survey found that at least one in three (36%) Somali children
under five years of age that are underweight, 38% stunted (short for their age) and 11% wasted
(thin for their height). They also showed that in general rural children and children of
uneducated mothers are more likely to be · underweight, stunted or wasted than other children.
In this survey, overall, 93% of mothers started breastfeeding immediately after birth; in MICS
2006, three out of five children are breastfed within one day of being born.
85
Annex to Chapter 8: Detailed Tables on Nutrition
Table 8.2A How many days in the last week were different foods eaten?; A: Sorghum and Rice
Question #
Maroodi Jeex
Page | 86 (W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
N1
Sorghum
3a3
3a4
3a1
3a2
619-656
386-617
2.85
1.03
3.50
3.85
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
CISP
497-576
617-780
1005-1268
256-535
1.24
0.33
3.43
1.11
1.18
1.77
0.55
3.44
1.53
1.21
1.66
0.48
3.34
1.54
ALL
3446-4395
1.98
2.19
2.19
Rice
3b2
3b3
3b4
3b5
4.48
4.7
5.06
5.03
3.95
5.53
0.88
3.77
6.15
3.92
5.79
0.87
3.85
6.12
4.08
5.81
0.83
3.75
6.07
4.24
5.71
0.88
4.5
6.01
4.09
5.74
0.89
4.17
3.68
3.93
3.97
4.24
4.15
3a5
3b1
4.24
4.13
1.26
1.81
0.62
3.23
1.71
1.29
1.83
0.65
3.17
1.73
3.84
5.90
2.29
2.29
Key N1: Number of respondents 9.3: 3A: % Sorghum; 3B: % Rice; 3C: % Tea, Sugared drinks; 3D: %
Cooking Oil; 3E: % Cultivated Vegetables; 3F: % Beans; 3G: % Chicken; 3H: % Beef; 3I: % Goat Meat;
3J: % Eggs; 3K: % Fresh Milk; 3L: % Processed Milk
Table 8.2B How many days in the last week were different foods eaten?; B: Tea and Cooking Oil
Question #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
CISP
N1
3c1
Tea, sugared drinks
3c2
3c3
3c4
3c5
3d1
Cooking Oil
3d2
3d3
619-656
386-617
497-576
617-780
1005-1268
256-535
4.84
5.99
5.35
5.59
3.74
5.60
5.52
6.13
5.50
5.79
3.74
5.74
5.58
6.09
5.54
5.79
3.61
5.82
5.76
6.11
5.75
6.03
3.55
6.09
5.89
6.08
5.66
6.00
3.52
6.04
3.80
5.31
3.97
4.79
1.09
3.94
3.94
5.44
3.83
4.82
1.03
3.55
ALL
3446-4395
4.98
5.19
5.19
5.41
5.39
3.49
3.5
3d4
3d5
3.98
5.4
3.93
4.86
1.06
3.60
4.18
5.25
4.04
4.80
1.09
3.90
4
5.17
3.81
4.74
1.06
3.83
3.54
3.71
3.6
Key N1: Number of respondents 9.3: 3A: % Sorghum; 3B: % Rice; 3C: % Tea, Sugared drinks; 3D: %
Cooking Oil; 3E: % Cultivated Vegetables; 3F: % Beans; 3G: % Chicken; 3H: % Beef; 3I: % Goat Meat;
3J: % Eggs; 3K: % Fresh Milk; 3L: % Processed Milk
Table 8.2C How many days in the last week were different foods eaten?; C: Cultivated Vegetables
and Beans
Question #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
619-656
386-617
1.65
1.05
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
CISP
497-576
617-780
1005-1268
256-535
ALL
3446-4395
N1
3e1
Cultivated Vegetables
3e2 3e3 3e4 3e5
1.60
1.44
1.43
1.26
0.84
1.41
0.27
1.16
1.01
0.87
1.56
0.24
0.76
1.00
0.80
1.50
0.24
0.70
1.02
0.88
1.56
0.27
0.52
1.05
0.86
1.52
0.27
0.5
0.98
0.97
0.92
0.95
0.91
3f1
0.54
0.38
3f2
Beans
3f3
3f4
3f5
0.59
0.59
0.48
0.47
0.86
0.24
0.89
1.10
0.34
1.11
0.28
0.90
1.10
0.30
1.18
0.27
0.88
1.12
0.27
1.11
0.31
0.86
1.14
0.29
1.14
0.31
0.82
1.15
.67
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.71
Key N1: Number of respondents 9.3: 3A: % Sorghum; 3B: % Rice; 3C: % Tea, Sugared drinks; 3D: %
Cooking Oil; 3E: % Cultivated Vegetables; 3F: % Beans; 3G: % Chicken; 3H: % Beef; 3I: % Goat Meat;
3J: % Eggs; 3K: % Fresh Milk; 3L: % Processed Milk
86
Table 8.2D How many days in the last week were different foods?; D: Chicken and Beef
Question #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
N1
3g1
619-656
386-617
.35
.12
Sanaag
Gedo
CISP
497-576
617-780
1005-1268
256-535
ALL
3446-4395
Page | 87 South Mudug
Chicken
3g3 3g4
3g2
3g5
0.31
0.3
0.22
0.21
.18
.05
.08
.13
0.11
0.15
0.04
0.09
0.1
0.1
0.12
0.04
0.08
0.11
0.08
0.09
0.04
0.07
0.09
0.1
0.09
0.04
0.07
0.10
.15
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.10
3h1
.20
.04
3h2
Beef
3h3
3h4
3h5
0.20
0.20
0.18
0.16
.06
.03
.11
.09
0.03
0.07
0.04
0.11
0.06
0.03
0.07
0.04
0.09
0.05
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.09
0.04
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.09
0.12
.09
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.08
Key N1: Number of respondents 9.3: 3A: % Sorghum; 3B: % Rice; 3C: % Tea, Sugared drinks; 3D: %
Cooking Oil; 3E: % Cultivated Vegetables; 3F: % Beans; 3G: % Chicken; 3H: % Beef; 3I: % Goat Meat;
3J: % Eggs; 3K: % Fresh Milk; 3L: % Processed Milk
Table 8.2E How many days in the last week were different foods?; E: Goat Meat and Eggs
Question #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
619-656
386-617
0.24
0.16
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
497-576
617-780
1005-1268
256-535
ALL
3446-4395
N1
3i1
3i2
Goat Meat
3i3
3i4
3i5
3j1
.31
.04
0.74
0.81
0.26
0.32
0.56
0.27
0.39
0.59
0.18
0.43
0.33
0.37
0.52
0.17
0.51
0.39
0.36
0.50
0.18
0.47
0.4
0.36
0.51
0.19
0.44
0.4
0.34
0.51
0.36
0.37
0.39
0.37
0.37
3j2
Eggs
3j3
3j4
3j5
0.28
0.19
0.20
0.19
.05
.06
.12
.10
0.02
0.01
0.05
0.11
0.09
0.02
0.01
0.06
0.11
0.12
0.02
0
0.05
0.09
0.08
0.02
0.01
0.05
0.08
0.08
.12
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.08
Key N1: Number of respondents 9.3: 3A: % Sorghum; 3B: % Rice; 3C: % Tea, Sugared drinks; 3D: %
Cooking Oil; 3E: % Cultivated Vegetables; 3F: % Beans; 3G: % Chicken; 3H: % Beef; 3I: % Goat Meat;
3J: % Eggs; 3K: % Fresh Milk; 3L: % Processed Milk
Table 8.2F How many days in the last week were different foods eaten? F: Fresh and Processed
Milk
Question #
Maroodi Jeex
(W. Galbeed)
Togdheer
Fresh Milk
3k3
3k4
3k1
3k2
619-656
386-617
2.29
0.71
1.04
0.87
South Mudug
Sanaag
Gedo
Galgaduud
497-576
617-780
1005-1268
256-535
3.10
0.64
1.88
3.47
0.22
0.50
0.20
1.76
2.33
0.17
0.45
0.18
1.64
2.37
ALL
3446-4395
1.95
1.09
1.02
N1
3k5
3l1
0.67
0.69
0.16
0.43
0.12
1.41
2.11
0.15
0.44
0.11
1.42
2.12
0.22
0.07
0.86
0.87
Processed Milk
3l2
3l3
3l4
3l5
0.20
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.01
0.04
0.27
0.46
0.06
0
0.04
0.25
0.33
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.23
0.38
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.17
0.37
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.16
0.37
0.17
0.15
0.15
0.12
0.13
Key N1: Number of respondents 9.3: 3A: % Sorghum; 3B: % Rice; 3C: % Tea, Sugared drinks; 3D: %
Cooking Oil; 3E: % Cultivated Vegetables; 3F: % Beans; 3G: % Chicken; 3H: % Beef; 3I: % Goat Meat;
3J: % Eggs; 3K: % Fresh Milk; 3L: % Processed Milk
87
CHAPTER 9: REGIONAL/ SITE DIFFERENCES
Note for Understanding Text and Tables
Page | 88
The regional results for all of the items have been compared with the overall average in all of the
6 sites and the tables below show which regions are statistically significantly higher or lower
than the overall average, using a 99.9% confidence interval. The high value confidence interval
is because several thousand comparisons are made. In this chapter alone, about 4,000
comparisons have been implicitly made; if the more usual 95% interval had been used then one
would expect 80 of them to be significant by chance. Regions are in parentheses when the
regional values are not significantly different from the overall average, even though they are the
highest (or lowest) of the six. Abbreviations are MJ = Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed), TD =
Togdheer, SM =South Mudug, SN = Sanaag, GO = Gedo, GD = Galgaduud.
Education and Learning
The comparisons for Education and Learning are shown in Tables 9.1. Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi
Galbeed) households had a high rate of participation of adult men and of boys and girls in formal
schooling and a low percentage who gave any of the proffered reasons for not sending their
children to formal school. They also shared the lowest percentages reporting that other adults
went to Qu‟ranic school or lacked money to pay for alternative possibilities, reporting that any of
their children had been sent to Qu‟aranic school or that they preferred Qu‟ranic school. Their
households had the highest percentage of having textbooks in home and children using them.
Their households have the lowest rates of men and women listening regularly and an average
rate of listening to different kinds of programmes. Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households
have the lowest rates of learning about education, health sanitation and shelter either a
community meeting or government representative; they also have low rates of learning about
education and shelter from the radio or notice board, the lowest rates of learning about health
issues from radio and the lowest rates of learning about sanitation from a notice board. Maroodi
Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) shares the highest rate of respondents knowing how to protect
themselves from the HIV virus and knowing that it can be transmitted during delivery, but the
highest rates believing that the virus is transmitted by mosquitos and sharing foods. Overall,
households in Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) relatively have embraced formal schooling and
are self-sufficient in terms of learning about issues.
Togdheer households have the highest rates of participation of adults in formal schooling (both
men and women) and of their children in formal school, and they thought that schooling was
very useful even though the time distance to school was one of the longest. Other adults in their
households had the lowest rates of going to Qu‟ranic school, but they also had the highest rates
of those reporting that they had been offered opportunities to participate in alternative
possibilities but had been unable to take them up with livelihood activities being one of the main
impediments. Togdheer households share the highest rate of having textbooks in the home and
the children using them, having a radio, and men; women and children listening regularly to the
radio. Togdheer households are also one of the most likely to learn about education from the
radio, health and sanitation from a government representative. Togdheer shares the highest
percentages believing in supernatural causes of HIV and believing that the virus could be
88
transmitted by mosquitos. Overall, Togdheer households have also embraced formal schooling
but are very isolated from learning opportunities.
Table 9.1: Regional High and Low Rates for Education and Learning
EDUCATION AND LEARNING
1.3M
Men’s schooling (Grid)
Page | 89 1.3W
Women’s Schooling (Grid)
Numeric Average Grade
2.5
2.2a
Respondent’s schooling
2.2c
Respondent to Qu’ran
2.4a
Other adults to school
2.4c
Other adults to Qu’ran
High
TD,MJ
TD
GO
TD,GO
GO,SN
SN
SM
Low
SM
GD,SM
SM
SM,GD
MJ,SM
SM,GD
MJ,TD
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
3.1
Textbooks in home
3.2
Children use Textbooks
3.3
Have radio
3.4
Of those Have Batteries
3.5m
Men listen regularly
3.5w
Women listen regularly
3.5c
Children listen regularly
3.6am
Men listen to news
3.6aw
Women listen to news
3.6bm
Men listen discussion
3.6bw
Women listen discussion
3.6cm
Men listen announcements
3.6cw
Women listen
announcements
3.6dm
Men listen sports
3.6dw
Women listen sports
3.6em
Men listen Family Life
3.6ew
Women listen Family Life
3.6fm
Men listen Agriculture
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
High
TD,MJ
TD,MJ
TD,GO
SN
SM,TD
GO,TD
TD
(GO)
(GO)
GO
GO
GO
GO
Low
GD,GO
GD,GO
SM,GD
(GO)
MJ
MJ,GD
SM
(SM)
GD
SM
SM,GD
SM,GD
(GD),SM
GO
GO
GO
GO
GO
SN
SM,(GD)
SM
SN
SM
12.6a1
12.6a8
12.6a10
12.6a13
12.6b1
12.6b8
12.6b10
12.6b13
12.6c1
12.6c8
12.6c10
12.6c13
12.6d1
Education: Radio
Education: Notice Board
Education: Village Meeting
Education: Gvt. Rep.
Health: Radio
Health: Notice Board
Health: Village Meeting
Health: Gvt. Rep.
Sanitation: Radio
Sanitation: Notice Board
Sanitation: Village Meeting
Sanitation: Gvt. Rep.
Shelter: Radio
GO,TD
SN,GD
GD,GO
GD
GO
SN
GO
GD,TD
GO,SN
SN
GO
GD,TD
GO,SN
MJ,SM
MJ
MJ
MJ,TD
SM,MJ
SM
MJ
MJ
SM
MJ
MJ
MJ,SM
SM,MJ
12.6d8
12.6d10
12.6d13
Shelter: Notice Board
Shelter: Village Meeting
Shelter: from Gvt. Rep.
SN
GO
GD,SN
MJ
MJ
MJ???
Heard of HIV/AIDS
Supernatural Causes
Sexual transmission poss.
Know how to protect
Transmitted mosquitos
SN
TD
(SM)
MJ
TD,MJ
SM
GD,SM
(GD)
GO,GD
GD,GO
Sharing Foods
Healthy looking person
Transmitted mother2baby
Transmitted pregnancy
Transmitted delivery
Transmitted breastfeeding
MJ
(MJ)
(SN)
(MJ,SM)
MJ,SM
SN
GO
(GD)
GD
GO
GO
GO
2.9
2.10a
2.10b
2.10c
2.10d
Ever offered opportunity
Livelihood activities
Lacked money to pay
Constant Migration
No benefit
TD
TD
SM
GO,GD,SN
GO
GD
SM
MJ, GO
SM,
(GD)
2.13b
2.13g
2.14b
2.14a
Boys’ schooling (Grid)
Girl’s schooling (grid)
Boarding
Numeric Average Grade
MJ,TD
TD,MJ
(GO)
GD
GD,SM
GD,SM
(SM,GD)
SM
2.19
2.20
2.211
2.212
2.213
2.214
Time to School
Schooling Very Useful
Schools not available
Lack of Money
Constant Migration
Little or No benefits
SN,TD
TD,MJ
SN.GO
SN,SM
SN
GO???
GD,SM
GO,GD
SM,MJ
MJ,GD
MJ,SM
MJ???
2.22c
2.22e
2.23
2.22b
2.22d
2.24
2.25a
2.25b
2.25c
2.25d
Child to Qu’ranic School
Child to IQS
Alternatives Very Useful
Prefer Mobile School
Prefer Qu’ranic School
Ever Offered Alternatives
Livelihood Activities
Lack of money
Constant Migration
Little or No benefits
SM,GO
TD
GD
GO,GD
GO,GD
TD
(SN)
(SN)
(SN)
(GO)
MJ,GD
(SM)
GO
SM
SM,MJ
GO
SM
MJ
SM
(SM,SN)
(GO,GD
(GD),SN
SM
GO,SM
(GO),SN
(MJ)
MJ
(GD)
(MJ)
MJ
GO
GO
GO
(SM)
SM
SN,(SM)
HIV/AIDS
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
GO
GO
GO
GO
GO
GD
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM,SN
SN
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13a
4.13b
4.13c
US$: Registration Fees
US$: Annual Fees
US$: Educational Materials
US$: MeaLs
Us$: Total
LISTEN RADIO
3.6fw
Women listen Agriculture
3.6gm
Men listen Home Economic
3.6gw
Women listen Home
Economic
3.6hm
Men listen Health
3.6hw
Women listen Health
3.6im
Men listen Religion
3.6iw
Women listen Religion
3.6jm
Men listen Music/Enter.
3.6jw
Women listen Music/Enter.
2.26a
2.26b
2.26c
2.26d
89
South Mudug household had the lowest rates of participation of adults (both men and women) in
formal schooling and in the average grade, the lowest rate of boys and girls going to formal
school and sharing the lowest average grade and he shortest time to school. South Mudug
respondents also shared the lowest percentage of respondents saying that they had been to formal
Page | 90 school or to a Qu‟ranic school and the lowest rates of other adults going to formal school but the
highest rates of other adults to Qu‟ranic schools. Their households reported the lowest
percentage of adults citing livelihood activities or contant migration but the highest rate citing
lacking money to pay as a reason for not taking up opportunities. South Mudug households also
had the lowest percentages of preferring mobile school or Quaranic school for their children, but
the lowest percentages of parents citing livelihood activities and constant migration as a reason
for not taking up these alternative possibilities. South Mudug shares the highest rate of men but
the lowest rates of children listening regularly, men and women listening to discussion
programmes, announcements, health, religion programmes, men listening to family life,
agriculture home economics, music/ entertainment programmes. South Mudug also have the
lowest rates of learning about education, health, sanitation or shelter issues from the radio; health
issues from a notice board and sanitation from a government representative. South Mudug
households had the lowest rates of having heard of HIV/AIDS and believing in supernatural
causes. Overall, South Mudug households present the archetypal picture of pastoralist
communities alienated from education and learning opportunities.
Sanaag households had average rates of participation in formal school for both adults and
children, reported the longest time to school and the highest proportion saying that schools not
available, lack of money and constant migration were reasons for not sending their children to
school. Sanaag respondents also reported higher rates of other adults to formal school and going
to Qu‟ran school; and shared the highest percentages saying that constant migration was a reason
why they had not taken up any of these possibilities. Sanaag has the highest rate of those having
batteries; shares the lowest rate for men listening to sports and music/entertainment programmes;
and shares the lowest rates for women listening to family life, home economics and music/
entertainment programmes. Sanaag also shares the highest rate for those learning about
sanitation and shelter from the radio; education, health sanitation and shelter from a notice board;
and shelter from a government representative. Sanaag had the highest rate of having heard of
HIV/AIDS and knowing that the virus could be transmitted during breastfeeding. Overall,
Sanaag households were enthusiastic about education and learning but their circumstances were
difficult.
Gedo households had average rates of participation in formal schooling for both adults and
children, one of the highest average grades of adults, one of the highest rates of parents saying
that schools were not available for their children, but one of the lowest rates of saying that school
was very useful. Their households had one of the highest rates of adult participation in Qu‟ranic
schools, and of reporting that constant migration and lack of perceived benefits had been the
main problems mitigating against taking up alternative possibilities. Gedo households also had
the highest rates of children going to Qu‟ranic schools, and that they preferred mobile and
Qu‟ranic schools, that these alternatives were very useful and the lowest rate of ever being
offered alternatives and unable to take them up. Gedo has the lowest rates of having textbooks in
the home and children using textbooks, but shares the highest rate of having a radio, women
90
listening regularly, men and women listening to discussion, announcements, sports, family life,
agriculture, home economics, health, religion and music entertainment programmes;. Gedo
shares highest rates of learning about education, health, sanitation and shelter from radio and
community meeting. Gedo households had the lowest percentages knowing how to protect
themselves and knowing that it could be transmitted through pregnancy or during breastfeeding,
Page | 91 but also the lowest percentages believing that the virus is transmitted by mosquitos or through
sharing foods. Overall, Gedo households were ambivalent/suspicious? about the formal delivery
of education, preferring more traditional vehicles.
Galgaduud respondents report the lowest rates for participation of women in school, share the
lowest rates of participation for both boys and girls in formal schooling, but the highest average
grade for their children when in school, have one of the shortest time distance to school, but one
of the lowest rates thinking that schooling is very useful. They give lack of money as one of the
reasons for not sending their children to school. The respondents reported one of the lowest rates
of themselves and other adults going to formal school, of ever being offered the opportunity to
take up one of these alternative possibilities, although they were one of the highest in citing
constant migration as a reason. Although the households had one of he lowest rates of sending
one of their children to Qu‟ranic school, the parents also thought that these kinds of alternatives
were very useful. Galgaduud households share the lowest rates of having textbooks at home and
the children learning from textbooks, having a radio, women listening regularly to news and
discussion programmes; men listening to announcements. They shared the highest rates of
learning about education from a notice board and a government representative; and about health,
sanitation and shelter from a government representative. Galgaduud households had the lowest
rates of knowing how to protect themselves but also the lowest rates of believing that the virus
could be transmitted by mosquitos or transmitted from mother to baby. Overall, Galgaduud
households were ambivalent/suspicious? about the formal delivery of education, preferring more
traditional vehicles.
Health and Wash
The comparisons for health and WASH sections are shown in Table 9.2.
Childhood Mortality and Illness
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) household shared the highest rate of children who had died,
and the lowest average numbers of boys and girls who had died. They shared the highest rates of
BCG and DPD vaccinations, being born at home with a TBA; and the lowest rates for giving
home-made fluid for a child with diarrhea. They also had the lowest rates reporting fever and
seeking advice from a Village Health Worker, and given anti-malarial drugs, and having antipolio drops in the first two weeks. Overall, they were much healthier and attune with Western
health care.
Togdheer households shared the highest rate of children who had died, and the highest average
numbers of boys born, and of boys and girls who had died. They shared the highest rate of
giving home-made fluid for their children with diarrhea, having gone nowhere when their child
had a cough, and the lowest rates of visiting private pharmacists, or being given medicine for a
91
cough; reporting that the child had had fever, having sought advice and given medicine for a
fever. They also shared the lowest rates of their children having been give anti-polio drops in the
first two weeks. Overall, their children were at risk and less healthy and the adults seem to
avoid, or cannot access, modern health care.
Page | 92
Table 9.2: Regional Highs and Lows for Child Mortality and Illness
CHILD MORTALITY
16.1
Ever given birth
16.2
Ever had child who died
High
(SM)
MJ,TD
16.3b N of boys born
16.3c N of girls born
16.4b N of boys died
16.4g N of girls died
CHILDHOOD ILLNESS
17.1
Had diarrhea last 14 days
17,2a Given pre-packaged ORS
TD
(TD)
TD,SN
SN,TD
Low
(MJ)
GD,
SM,SN
SM
(GD)
SM,MJ
SM,MJ
(GD)
SM
17.2b
17.3
17.4h
17.4n
17.5
17.6a
17.6b
SN,TD
(TD)
GD,MJ
TD,SM
GO
GD,SM
????
Given home-made fluid
Had cough last 14 days
Visited private pharmacist
Went nowhere
Given any medicine
Given pill
Given syrup
CHILDHOOD ILLNESS
17.7
Had fever last 14 days
17.8
Sought advice
High
GO,GD
GD,SM
Low
MJ,TD,SN
SN,TD
(MJ)
GD
17.9d
17.9h
17.10
17,11a
17.11b
17.12
17.13a
Village Health Worker
Private pharmacist
Given medicine
Given anti-malarial
Given painkiller
Vaccination Card
BCG vaccination
SM
GD
SM,GO
GO
SM,SN,GD
GO
GO,MJ
MJ
(SM)
TD
GO,SM
SN,TD,SM
GO
???
17.13b
17.13ca
17.13cb
17.13d
17.13e
17.14a
17.14b
Anti polio drops
Drops in first 2 weeks
N of times drops given
DPT vaccination
GO
GO
MJ,GD
GO
SN,TD
SM,SN,GD,MJ
GO
GD,SM,SN
GD,
SM,SN
SM,GD,SN
GD,SM,MJ,TD
GO,MJ
GD,SN,SM
Born in facility
Born at home with TBA
GO
MJ,TD
GD,SN
SN,GD
South Mudug shared the lowest rate of children who had died, the lowest average number of
girls born and the lowest average number of boys and girls who have died. Their households had
the highest rate of giving pre-packaged ORS fluid, the lowest rates of having gone nowhere
when their child had a cough and therefore the lowest rates of being given any medicine
(although the highest rates of being giving a pill when they were given medicine). They had the
highest rate of seeking advice for a child who had fever, from a village health worker and given
medicine for fever which was a painkiller but the lowest rate of being given ant-malarial for a
fever. They had the lowest rate of having a vaccination card for the child, and the lowest rates of
having a BCG or a DPT vaccination. Overall, South Mudug households were healthy and taking
health care advice but there appeared to be a problem of vaccination.
Sanaag shared the lowest rate of any children who had died, but higher numbers of boys and girls
who had died. Sanaag households/parents shared the highest rate of giving home-made fluid
when their child had diarrhea, but the lowest rates of being given any medicine when they child
had a cough. They reported the lowest rates of their child having fever, seeking advice and being
given an anti-malarial. They also shared the lowest rates of having a vaccination card or their
child having been given a BCG or a DPT vaccination. Overall, Sanaag households appeared to
be alienated from modern medicine and prevention.
Gedo households had average rates of children dying. Their households had the lowest rates of
saying they went nowhere when their child had a cough, but among those who went to see
someone, the highest rate of being given medicine, but the lowest percentage who were given a
pill. Their households reported the highest rates of fever and being given medicine which was
anti-malarial, but the lowest rate of going to a pharmacist or being given a painkiller. Their
households had the highest rates of having a vaccination card, and a BCG or DPT vaccination or
92
a DPT vaccination, and having the birth in a facility. Overall, Gedo households appeared to be
positive about receiving preventive vaccination and had low or average child mortality.
Galgaduud households shared the lowest rate of children who had died. Galgaduud households
shared the lowest rate of giving their child a pre-packaged fluid when they had diarrhea; but,
Page | 93 when the child had a cough, the highest rate of taking their child to a private pharmacist and had
been given a pill. They also reported the highest rates of children having had a fever, had sought
advice, but had the lowest rates of being given an anti-malarial drug. Their households had the
lowest rates of having a vaccination card and having a BCG or a DPT vaccination. Overall,
Galgadud households are not connected to Western health care.
Access to health care for adults and antenatal care for women
The results for access to health care an experience of antenatalcare are shown in Table 9.3.
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households had the shortest distance to a health care facility
but the lowest rates of visiting a modern health care facility and the lowest rates of visiting a
modern health care facility within the last three months, as well as the lowest rates of going to a
traditional practitioner Their mothers had the highest rates of seeing a doctor for antenatal care,
having a TBA at their birth and knowing how to register the birth; but the lowest rates for seeing
a TBA for their antenatal care, and shared the lowest rates for having a vaccination card and
having a tetanus vaccination. Overall, Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) had good access to
health care but probably needed it least; but rather puzzling that they had low vaccination rates.
Togdheer households share the highest rates of saying that they have access to a „Western‟ health
care facility, but that the last time that they had visited a modern health care facility was more
than a year ago (and correspondingly the lowest rate of saying that they had visited within the
last three months), and that they had gone to a pharmacist. Togdheer mothers had the lowest
rates of seeing anyone for antenatal care but among hose who saw someone, the highest rates of
seeing a doctor for antenatal care. These households had the lowest rates of having a birth
certificate. Overall, Togdheer households appear to choose not to seek out „modern‟ health care.
Table 9.3: Regional Highs and Lows in Acess to Health Care and Antenatal Care
ACCESS TO HEALTH CARE
4.1
Access health care facility
High
GO,SN,TD
Low
GD,SM
ANTENATAL CARE (continued)
18.4
Own vaccination card
High
GO
MJ
MJ
SM
MJ
TD,SN,
MJ
GO
18.5a
18.5b
18.6
18.7
18.8a
Tetanus vaccination
N of tetanus vaccinations
Anti-tetanus
N of times anti-tetanus
Doctor, nurse or auxiliary
GO
Low
GD,GO,
SM,MJ
SN,GD,MJ,SM
GO
GD.SN,SM,MJ
GO
GD,SN
18.8b
18.9
18.10a
Traditional Birth Attendant
Registered birth
Birth certificate
GD,MJ,
(MJ)
GO
SN
(SM)
TD,SN
18.10b
18.11
No birth certificate
Know how to register birth
TD,SN
MJ
GO
(GD)
4.2
4.31
4.32
4.33
4.4a
Numeric: Distance facility
Went to modern facility
Went to pharmacist
Went to traditional pract.
Within last 3 months
SN
GO,SN
TD
SN,GD
GO
4.4b
More than a year
TD
18.1
Saw anyone for ANC
GO
18.2a
18.2b
18.2c
Saw Doctor
Saw Nurses
Saw Traditional Birth
Attendant
N of times saw someone
MJ,TD
(GO)
GD,SN
18.3
SM,SN,
GD,TD
GD,GO
(GD)
MJ
93
South Mudug households had the lowest rates for an access to a health care facility and saying
that they typically went to a private pharmacist. The mothers in these households shared the
lowest rates of seeing anyone for antenatal care, having their own vaccination card, or having an
anti-tetanus vaccination. Overall, South Mudug households also seem reticent to seek out
modern health care.
Page | 94
Sanaag shared the highest rates having gone to a modern facility, the longest distance to a health
care facility and of going to a traditional practitioner, but also the lowest rates of having gone
within the last three months. Sanaag had the highest rates of seeing a TBA for their antenatal
care, and not having a birth certificate; but shared the lowest rates of seeing anyone for antenatal
care, having an anti-tetanus vaccination; and being delivered by either a health professional or a
TBA or having a birth certificate. Overall, Sanaag households seem to have recently lost the
ability to access or use modern health care.
Gedo households shared the highest rates of saying that they had access to a health care facility,
went to a modern facility and within the last three months (and correspondingly, the lowest rates
saying that they had not visited for more than a year). Gedo households had the highest rate of
seeing anyone for antenatal care having their own vaccination card, having an anti-tetanus
vaccination, being delivered by a health professional and having a birth certificate; and shared
the lowest rates for seeing a doctor and for not having a birth certificate. Overall, Gedo
households seem to have access to and use modern health care.
Galgaduud households shared the lowest rates having access to a health care facility, but the
highest rate of those who had gone to a traditional practitioner. They also shared the lowest rates
of seeing anyone for ANC, seeing a doctor and the highest rates for seeing a TBA both at
antenatal care and delivery. Their households have the lowest rate for having their own
vaccination card and for having an anti-tetanus vaccination; and the lowest rate for being
delivered by a health professional. Overall Galgaduud households appeared to rely more on
traditional practitioners than on „Western‟ health care
Sanitation
The comparisons for sanitation are shown in Table 9.4. Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) had
the lowest rate of sharing facilities, shared the highest rates of those using protected wells,
rainwater, surface water, tanker truck and reservoir; and the highest rates of those having
detergent or soap in the household and using soap to wash their hands but the lowest rates of
having shampoo in the household and using water only to wash hands. They shared the highest
rate of saying that they did something to treat water. Overall, Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed)
households were likely to use modern sanitation methods, but had varied water sources.
Togdheer had the longest distance to a flush toilet or pit latrine, shared the highest rates of using
a protected well, tanker trucks and reservoir but the lowest rate of using rainwater as a source;
the highest rates for all three hygiene products and for using soap for handwashing; and of
treating water by boiling or chemicals. Overall, whilst Togdheer households are behind in using
modern sanitation methods, they had embraced modern hygiene and water treatment.
94
South Mudug households shared the highest rates for sharing a toilet facility, and the lowest rates
for using bush for sanitation. Their households reported the highest rates for using piped water
or borehole but the lowest rates of using an unprotected well, rainwater or surface water as a
source. They had the highest rate of having shampoo in the household but the lowest rates of
having detergent in the household and of using soap or ash for handwashing. They also had the
Page | 95 lowest rates for doing anything to treat water or for all the different types of water treatment.
Overall South Mudug households seem to be better off with toilet facilities and access to safe
water, but did not seem to be using modern hygiene or water treatment.
Table 9.4: Regional Highs and Lows in Sanitation,Water Sources and Water Treatment
SANITATION, WATER SOURCE
5.1a
Use flush toilet
5.1b
Use pit latrine
5.1c
Use bush
5.2
Distance to facility
5.3
Sharing facility
5.4a
Piped water
5.4b
Borehole
5.4c
Protected well
High
(MJ)
????
????
TD
GD,SM
SM
SM
MJ,TD
Low
(SN,GO)
GO
SM
SN
MJ
GO
GO
GO
HYGIENE, WATER TREATMENT
5.6a
Hygiene Prod.: Detergent
5.6b
Hygiene Products: Soap
5.6c
Hygiene Prod.: Shampoo
5.7a
Hand-washing: Soap
5.7b,
Hand-washing: Ash
5.7c
Hand-washing: Water
High
TD,MJ,SN
MJ,TD
SN,TD,SM
MJ,TD,SN
SN
GD
Low
GD,SM
GD,GO
MJ
GD,SM
GD,SM
MJ,GO
5.9
Anything to treat
MJ,GO
5.4d
5.4e
5.4f
5.4g
Unprotected well
Rainwater
Surface water
Tanker trucks
SM
TD,SM
SM,TD
GO
5.10a
5.10b
5.10c
5.10d
Treatment: Boiling
Treatment: Chemicals
Treatment: Filtration
Treatment: Solar
GO,SN,TD
TD,GO,SN
GO,SN
SN,GO
5.4h
5.1a
Resevoir
Use flush toilet
GO,GD
GO,MJ
GO,MJ
SN,MJ,T
D
TD,MJ
(MJ)
GD,
SM,SN
SM,MJ
SM
SM,MJ
(SM)
GO
(SN,GO)
5.10e
Treatment: Sedimentation
SN,GO
SM
Togdheer had the longest distance to a flush toilet or pit latrine, shared the highest rates of using
a protected well, tanker trucks and reservoir but the lowest rate of using rainwater as a source;
the highest rates for all three hygiene products and for using soap for handwashing; and of
treating water by boiling or chemicals. Overall, whilst Togdheer households are behind in using
modern sanitation methods, they had embraced modern hygiene and water treatment.
South Mudug households shared the highest rates for sharing a toilet facility, and the lowest rates
for using bush for sanitation. Their households reported the highest rates for using piped water
or borehole but the lowest rates of using an unprotected well, rainwater or surface water as a
source. They had the highest rate of having shampoo in the household but the lowest rates of
having detergent in the household and of using soap or ash for handwashing. They also had the
lowest rates for doing anything to treat water or for all the different types of water treatment.
Overall South Mudug households seem to be better off with toilet facilities and access to safe
water, but did not seem to be using modern hygiene or water treatment.
Sanaag households had the lowest distance to a toilet facility. Sanaag households shared the
highest rates for having detergent and soap in the household and of using soap or ash for
handwashing. They had the lowest rate for doing anything to treat water, although those who did
treat water had the highest rates for each type of water treatment. Overall, the sanitation methods
used by Sanaag households range from worst to best, depending on the method.
Gedo households had the lowest rates of using a pit latrine; they shared the highest rates of using
95
unprotected wells, rainwater and surface water the lowest rates using a pit latrine. Their
households had the lowest rates of using piped water, a borehole or a protected well tanker trucks
and reservoir, but the highest rates of using unprotected well and rainwater as a source. They
had the lowest rates of having soap in the household and of using water only for washing their
hands. They also had the highest rates of doing anything to treat water and the highest rates of
Page | 96 different types of water treatment. Overall, Gedo households appeared to have embraced
modern sanitation methods and hygiene but had very little access to infrastructure.
Galgaduud households share the highest rate of sharing a toilet facility. Their households had
the highest rates of using an unprotected well but the lowest rates for using tanker trucks. They
had the lowest rates of having detergent and soap in the household, or of using soap or ash for
hand-washing but the highest rate of using water only for hand-washing. They also had the
lowest rate of doing anything to treat water. Overall, Galgaduud households had considerable
difficulty in accessing hygiene products and sanitation in general.
Livelihoods Income and Expenditure
The comparisons between regions for types of livelihoods, income sources and experniture are
shown in Tables 9.5 and 9.6.
Livelihoods
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households had the highest rates of owning land practising
agriculture and growing sorghum but the lowest rates of growing beans and the lowest
percentages having a hoe, a panga or an axe. They had the lowest percentage saying that the
main problem for farming was lack of water. They had the lowest average number of cattle or
goats. Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households shared the highest percentages saying that
the main problems for livestock were lack of water and lack of pasture but the lowest
percentages saying that the main problems were lack of pasture, lack of water and disease. Their
households had the lowest percentages saying that the animals were not adequate, but of those
the highest percentages saying that farming was one of their responses to livestock not being
adequate for survival but one of the lowest percentages saying that they resorted to manual
labour. Their households shared the highest percentages with someone having a mobile phone.
Overall, Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households were predominantly agro-pastoralists had
few problems with either their farming or their livestock..
Togdheer households had the largest area of land and shared the highest percentage growing
beans. They had the highest percentage saying that the main problem for farming was lack of
rains, and the lowest percentage saying that the main problem was lack of seeds. Togdheer
households shared the highest percentages saying that the main problems for livestock were lack
of water and lack of pasture, and that anyone was trained in animal husbandry in their group.
Their households had the highest percentages saying that petty trading was one of their responses
to livestock not being adequate for survival and the lowest percentages that they resorted to
farming. Their households had the highest percentages saying that they had a watch and a radio,
but the lowest percentage saying that someone in the household has an animal-drawn cart.
Overall, Togdheer households were also agro-pastoralists and reported problems with lack of
96
rains for both agriculture and livestock.
South Mudug households had the lowest percentage saying that they owned land and had the
lowest average land area. They also had the lowest percentages saying that they farrmed and
grew sorghum or maize but the highest percentage saying that they grew beans. They had the
Page | 97 highest number of cattle but the lowest number of camels and goats. South Mudug shared the
highest percentage saying that the main problem for livestock was lack of water. Their
households shared the highest percentages saying that manual labour and petty trading were one
of their responses to livestock not being adequate for survival but the lowest percentage resorting
to farming. Their households had the lowest percentages saying anyone had been trained in
animal husbandry in their group. Their households had the lowest rates of having a radio and a
watch and of someone in the household having a mobile and an animal-drawn cart. Overall
South Mudug households were cattle pastoralists who struggled for water and who sometimes
resorted to manual labour and petty trading for income, with little access to animal husbandry
training or other forms of communication.
Table 9.5: Regional High and Lows of Livelihoods
LIVELIHOODS
6.1
Own Land
High
MJ
6.1
6.3
6.4
6.51
6.52
6.53
6.61
6.62
6.63
Area of Land
Land Ownership
Agriculture
Grow sorghum
Grow maize
Grow beans
Have hoe
Have axe
Have panga
6.7p1a
6.7p1e
6.7p2a
6.7p2b
1 problem is lack of tools
st
1 problem is lack of rains
nd
2 problem is lack of tools
nd
2 problem is lack of
seeds
nd
2 problem is lack of rains
Livestock
N of camels
N of cattle
N of goats
N of sheep
N of chicken
N of donkeys
6.7p2e
6.8
6.9ag
6.9ar
6.9al
6.9adi
6.9ada
st
LIVELIHOODS (CONTINUED)
st
6.10p1w
1 problem is water
TD
MJ
MJ
MJ
(GO)
SM,GO,TD
GO,TD
TD,GO
GO
Low
SM, GD
SN, TD
GD, SM
(SM)
SM, GD
SM,GD
SM, GD
MJ
SN,MJ
SN,MJ
MJ
High
MJ,TD
Low
GO,GD
6.10p1p
6.10p2w
6.10p2p
6.10p2d
6.12
6.14b
6.15d
6.15e
6.15i
1 problem is pasture
nd
2 problem is water
nd
2 problem is pasture
nd
2 problem disease
Anyone trained
Animals not adequate
Manual Labour
Petty trading
Farming
GO,GD
SN,SM
MJ,TD
GO,GD
TD, GO
GO
GO,SM
TD,SM
MJ,GO
Households with radio
Someone has watch
Someone has mobile
Someone has animal
drawn cart
GO,TD
TD
MJ,SN
GO
MJ
MJ,GD
GO
MJ,SN
SM,SN
MJ
MJ,GD
GO,GD
GD,SM,T
D,SN
GD,SM
SM,SN
SM
TD,SM,G
D,SN
(SN)
GO
SN
(GD)
GO
MJ
GO
TD, SN
6.16b
6.17a
6.17b
6.17e
TD
(GD)
GO,
GD,SM
GD,SN
SN
(SM)
(GD)
SM,GD
SN,MJ
MJ,SM
GO
(TD)
(SN)
st
Sanaag households shared the lowest percentages owning land and the lowest saying that they
had a hoe or an axe. Their households had the highest number of goats and sheep but the lowest
number of camels. Sanaag households shared the highest percentage saying that the main
problem for livestock was lack of water and the lowest percentages saying that the main problem
was disease. They also had the lowest percentage of having anyone had been trained in animal
husbandry in their group, and that farming was their response to livestock not being adequate.
Sanaagr households had the highest percentage saying that someone in their household had a
mobile but the lowest percentages having a a radio and a watch and a radio and that someone in
97
the household has an animal-drawn cart. Overall, Sanaag households were shoat pastoralists for
whom lack of rains was the main problem; and had little outside contact except through mobile.
Gedo households shared the highest percentages growing beans, having a hoe or an axe. Their
households had the highest percentage saying that the main problem for farming was lack of
Page | 98 rains and the lowest percentage saying that the main problem was lack of tools. Gedo
households had the highest average number of camels and the lowest number of sheep. Gedo
households shared the highest percentage saying that the main problems for livestock were lack
of pasture and disease, but the lowest percentages saying that the main problems were lack of
water and lack of pasture. Their households also had the highest percentages saying that
someone in the group had been trained in animal husbandry and that their animals were not
adequate for their livelihood. They had the highest percentages saying that manual labour was
their response to livestock not being adequate for their survival, but the lowest percentage saying
petty trading. Their households shared the highest percentages having a radio and that someone
had an animal drawn cart. Overall, Gedo households were camel pastoralists who had benefitted
from animal husbandry training but who were having difficulties because of lack of rains and
said that that the number of animals they had were inadequate for survival.
Galgaduud households shared the lowest percentages owning land and the smallest land area,
and that they farmed grew sorghum or maize and the lowest saying that they had a hoe or an axe.
They shared the highest average numbers of cattle and goats and the smallest number of camels.
Galgaduud shared the highest percentage saying that the main problems for livestock were lack
of pasture and disease, but the lowest percentages saying that the main problem was lack of
water. Their households had the lowest percentages saying that manual labour, petty trading and
farming were their responses to livestock not being adequate. Their households shared the
lowest percentages saying that the household had a radio or that someone in their household had
an animal draw cart. Overall, Galgaduud households were cattle and shoat pastoralists for whom
the main problem was lack of pasture and they had little means to connect them to the world
outside.
Income and Expenditure
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) respondents had the lowest rate of selling livestock and of the
percentage of their income from livestock sales, they shared the highest percentage selling
livestock products and had the highest percentage of their income from livestock sales, shared
the highest rate of selling agricultural products and had the highest percentage of their income
from sales of agricultural produce;; shared the lowest rates of casual labour and of remittances.
They shared the lowest percentages of having sold livestock at least once to pay for services.
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) respondents had the highest percentage saying that their own
livestock/crops but the lowest percentages saying that buying food and borrowing food was the
first source in general. Their households reported the highest percentages saying that own
livestock and crops and the lowest percentages saying that purchased food, food aid and
borrowed food were primary sources of food over the last three months and the lowest
percentages for the share of purchased food and borrowed food in all food . Their households
had the lowest percentages of expenditure on all items except water where they were the highest;
and the lowest dollar value of money owed and the lowest percentage owing to shop-owners.
98
Overall Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households were self-sufficient for their food, seldom
selling livestock and owing little to anyone.
Table 9.6: Regional Highs and Lows on Income and Expenditure
INCOME
7.1
Average total annual
Page | 99
income
7.21a Selling livestock
7.21b % of income from livestock
7.22a Selling livestock products
7.22b
7.23a
7.23b
7.25a
7.25b
7.26a
7.26b
7.28a
7.28b
% of income from livestock
products
Selling agricultural
products
% of income from
agricultural products
Casual labour
% income from casual
labour
Petty trading
% income from petty
trading
Remittances
% income from remittances
High
Low
SOURCES OF FOOD
8.2ca Own crops as source
High
GO,MJ
Low
TD,SM,SN
GO,SN,GD
GD
GO,MJ
SM,MJ
GO,MJ
SM,SNGD
8.2cb
8.2pa
8.2pb
GD,TD
GO,SN
GD,TD
SM
GD,TD,SM
MJ,SM
MJ
(TD)
8.3fa
Own crops as % all food
Purchase food
Purchased food as % all
food
Food aid
SN,SM
MJ,TD
MJ,GO
8.2fb
Food aid as % all food
TD,GD
(MJ)
MJ,(TD)
SM,GD,TD
,SN
(GO)
8.2ba
Borrow food
SN,SM,TD
MJ
SM,GO
MJ,TD,GD
8.2bb
TD,SN
MJ,GO
GO,SM
8.31a
Borrowed food as % all
food
% expenditure on food
GO
GD
SM
SM
(GO)
GO
8.31b
8.32a
GO
TD,MJ
SM
SM
MJ
GO
8.32b
8.33a
TD,SN
GO
GO
TD,MJ
TD,SN
GO
(GD)
dollar on food
% expenditure on non-food
items
dollar on non-food items
% expenditure on
education fees
dollar on education fees
7.3a1
Sold livestock to buy
foods>= once
GD,GO
SM,TD
8.33b
7.3a3
Sold livestock to buy
foods>=3 times
GD,GO
SM,TD,SN
8.34a
% expenditure on health
care service
GO
SM,MJ,GD
7.3b
Worse than previous 2 yrs
SN,TD,GO
GD
8.34b
GO
Sold livestock to buy nonfood items >=once
Sold livestock to buy nonfood items >=3 times
GO
8.35a
GO
TD,GD,MJ
GO
SM,TD,SN,
MJ
TD
dollar on health care
services
% expenditure on fuel
SN,TD
7.4a1
8.35b
dollar on fuel
SN,TD
GO,SM
7.4b
Worse than 2 previous
years
SN,TD
GD
8.36a
% expenditure on water
MJ,SN
GD,GO
7.5a1
Sold livestock to pay for
services>=once
Sold livestock to buy for
services>=3 times
Worse than 2 previous
years
GO
SM,TD,GD
8.36b
dollar on water
SN,TD
GO,SM
GO
(TD)
8.37a
% expenditure on gifts
TD,SN
MJ,GD
SN,TD
GD
8.37b
dollar on gifts
TD,SN
8.4
Owing money
SN,TD
SM,GO,G
D
GO
Own
livestock
SN,GD,SM
st
1 source
TD,SN,SM
MJ,GO
SM,S
N,TD,
8.6R
dollar owed
SN,TD
MJ,GO
Relatives as % of creditors
Shop-owners as % of
creditors
(TD)
GO,GD
SM
MJ,SM
MJ
SM
MJ
GD
GD,SN,SM
MJ,GO
7.4a3
7.5a3
7.5b
SOU
RCE
8.1a1
S OF
8.1a2
FOO
D
8.1a3
Bought food 1 source
st
Borrowing food 1 source
8.1b1
Own livestock 2
8.1b2
nd
8.1b3
st
Bought food 2
nd
source
source
Borrowing food 2
nd
source
MJ,GO
MJ,GO,GD
8.6S
Togdheer households had the lowest percentages selling agricultural products, casual labour; and
99
whilst they also had the lowest percentages selling livestock to buy food, non-food items and to
pay for services they shared the highest rates of respondents saying that the situation with selling
livestock to buy food and to buy non-food items was worse than the two previous years.
Page | 100
Togdheer also households shared the highest percentage saying that borrowed food was their
first source of food and a primary source of food over the last three months; but shared the
lowest percentage saying that their own livestock/crops was the first source of food and saying
that own livestock/crops, purchased food, and food aid were primary sources of food over the
last three months. They reported the highest percentage shares for own livestock/crops,
purchased food, food aid and borrowed food of all food that they had consumed over the last
three months. Their households shared the highest dollar expenditure on non-food items,
education fees, health care services, fuel, water and gifts and the highest percentage of
expenditure on gifts but the lowest percentages of expenditure on non-food items, education fees
and fuel. They shared the highest percentage owing money and the highest dollar money owed.
Overall, Togdheer households‟ food situation has worsened over the 2 previous years and they
are facing higher household expenditures, driving them into debt.
South Mudug households reported the lowest rates of selling livestock, selling livestock products
but the highest rates of casual labour, petty trading and remittances; and the highest percentages
of income from casual labour and remittances; and, and the lowest percentages of income from
casual labour. They also reported the lowest rates of having sold livestock to buy food, non-food
items and to pay for services. South Mudug had the highest percentages saying that bought and
borrowed food was the first source of food in general but the lowest percentage saying that their
own livestock/crops was the first source of food in general; and that food aid and borrowed food
were primary sources of food over the last three months, but the lowest percentages saying that
own livestock/crops and purchased food were a primary source of food over the last three
months. They said that own livestock and crops and purchased for made the lowest contribution
to their overall food stock. They reported the lowest dollar expenditure on fuel, water and gifts
and had the lowest percentages of expenditure on health care services and gifts. Their
households owed average amounts of money but had the lowest percentages owing money to
relatives and shop owners. Overall, South Mudug have sold the least amount of their animals,
and have had to rely on causal labour, petty trading and livestock for income. Their food is
principally coming from food aid and borrowed food, but they have managed to keep their debts
reasonable.
Sanaag households had the highest rates of selling livestock but the lowest rates of selling
livestock and agricultural products. Their households had the lowest percentages selling
livestock to buy food and non-food items but shared the highest rates of selling livestock to pay
for services; and shared the highest percentages saying that the situation was worse than the
previous two years. Sanaag had the highest percentages saying that bought and borrowed food
was the first source of food in general but the lowest percentage their own livestock/crops was
the first source of food. Their households had the highest percentage saying that purchased food,
food aid and borrowed food but the lowest percentage saying that own livestock/ crops were a
primary source of food over the last three months and the highest percentage share of borrowed
food in all food. The reported the highest dollar expenditures on non-food items, education fees,
health care services, fuel, water and gifts and shared the highest percentage share of expenditure
on water. They also shared the highest percentage owing money and the highest dollar money
100
owed. Overall, Sanaag households are losing self sufficiency by selling their livestock for some
of the highest costs for food and non-food items, as well as sinking into debt.
Gedo households shared the highest rates of selling livestock, selling livestock products, selling
agricultural products and casual labour; but reported the lowest percentage shares represented by
Page | 101 livestock sales, casual labour, petty trading and remittances in their total income. They also
reported the highest percentages selling livestock to buy food items and that this situation was
worse than the previous two years, and selling livestock to buy non-food items and to pay for
services. Gedo households had the highest percentages saying that their own livestock/crops was
the first source of food and, together with purchased food, a primary source of food over the last
three months; but the lowest percentages saying that bought or borrowed food was the first
source of food. Gedo respondents had the lowest dollar expenditure on non-food items,
education fees, health care services; and reported the highest percentage shares of all expenditure
on food, non-food items education fees, health care services and fuel. They also shared the
highest percentage owing money to shop-owners. Overall, Gedo pastoralists are selling their
livestock and livestock products for what appear to be low prices to cover higher prices for nonfood items and services needed, much of which puts them in debt to shops.
Galgaduud respondents shared the highest rate of selling livestock and the lowest rates of selling
livestock products, of selling agricultural products and of casual labour; and they also reported
the highest percentage of their income from selling livestock. Their households shared the
highest percentages selling livestock to buy foods; and the the percentages saying that selling
livestock to buy food non-food items or to pay for services was worse than the previous two
years. Galgaduud households had the highest percentages saying that bought food was the first
source of food but reported the lowest percentage saying that borrowed food was the first source
of food. Galgaduud respondents reported the lowest percentage saying that purchased food was
a primary source; and the highest percentage shares of own crops, purchased food, food aid in all
food over the last three months. Galgaduud respondents reported the lowest expenditure on food,
health care services and water as percentages of all expenditure. They also reported the lowest
percentage owing money and the lowest dollar value of money owed; and shared the highest
percentage owing money to shop-owners. Overall, Galgaduud respondents have earned most of
their income from selling livestock and therefore have managed to remain somewhat self reliant
in feeding themselves, but slowly moving into debt.
Food and Nutrition
The regional comparisons in respect of food consumption are shown in Tables 9.7 and 9.8.
Food Consumption and Coping Strategies
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households had the lowest percentage saying that they had
NOT eaten meals yesterday. They shared the highest number of meals eaten yesterday by girls 514, adult women and men; and the highest number of days when they had eaten sorghum,
cultivated vegetables, chicken, beef and eggs. They had the lowest percentages saying that their
food stock was worse than the previous two years, that they had reduced number of meals per
day, had skipped days without eating, borrowed food or having sent family members elsewhere.
In terms of coping strategies, their households reported the lowest rates of eating less food,
101
reducing the number of meals each day, relying on help from relatives/ neighbours, sent children
to stay elsewhere. Overall, Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households were the best fed.
Table 9.7: Regional Highs and Lows in Food Consumption
FOOD CONSUMPTION
9.1
Not eating meals yesterday
Page | 102 9.2a
N meals for children<5
9.2b
N meals for boys 5-14
9.2c
N meals for girls 5-14
9.2d
N meals adult women
9.2e
N meals adult men
9.3a
Sorghum
9.3b
Rice
9.3c
Tea/ Sugar
High
GO,SM
GO,SN
SN,TD
SN,MJ,TD
MJ,TD
MJ,TD
MJ,GO
TD,(SN)
(GD)
Low
MJ,TD
SM,GD
SM,GD
SM,GD
GO
GO,SM
SN,TD
GO,SM
GO
9.3C
9.3d
9.3e
9.3f
9.3g
9.3h
9.3i
9.3j
9.3k
Cooking oil
Cultivated vegetables
Beans
Chicken
Beef
Goat meat
Eggs
Milk
Processed milk
High
TD
SN,MJ
GO,SM,GD
MJ
MJ
(GO,GD)
MJ
GD,GO
GO
Low
GO
GD,GO
TD,SN
(SN)
(SM)
TD
(SM)
SN,TD
(TD,SM)
Togdheer households shared the highest number of meals eaten yesterday by boys and girls 5-14,
adult men and women, the highest number of days when rice and cooking oil was eaten, and the
lowest number of days when beans, goat meat and milk were eaten. They shared the highest
percentage saying that their food stock was worse than the previous two years; and the lowest
percentage having sent family members elsewhere to eat. In terms of coping strategies,
Togdheer households shared the lowest rates of collected firewood to sell, borrowing food or
cash, sending children to stay elsewhere. Overall, Togdheer households were also reasonably
well fed although things were worsening.
Table 9.8: Regional Highs and Lows in Food Shortages and Coping Strategies
FOOD SHORTAGES
9.4a
Enough food for a week
9.4b
Worse than last 2 years
9.5
Reduced N meals per day
9.6
N days reduced meals
9.7
Skipped days without
eaten
9.8
N days skipped eating
9.9
Borrowed food to eat
9.10
N days borrowed eat
High
???
SN,TD
GO,SN
Low
???
GD,MJ
MJ
GO,SM
MJ,GD
GD,GO
MJ,SN
9.11
GO
MJ,GD,SN,
TD
9.12
Sent family members to eat
elsewhere
N days sent elsewhere
9.13r
Sent to relatives
(GO)
9.13n
Sent to friends
GD
COPING STRATEGIES
10.1
Ate less food
10.2
Reduced N of meals/day
10.3
Collected firewood to sell
10.4
Collected bush products to eat
10.5
Relied on help from relatives/
neighbours
10.6
Family members migrated
10.7
Borrowed food or cash ????
10.8
Reduced spending on nonfood items
10.9
Sent children to stay
elsewhere
10.10 Rented out land to buy basic
items
10.11 Sold land to buy basic items
High
GO,SM
GO,SN
GO
GO
GO,SM
Low
GD,MJ
MJ,GD
TD,SN,GD
(TD,SM)
GD,MJ
GO
SM,GO
GO,GD
SM,GD
GD,TD,SN
GO
GD,MJ,TD
GO
10.12
GO,
10.13
10.14
Sold livestock to buy basic
items
Took children out of school
Sent children to work
(TD,SN,G
D)
(TD,SM,G
D)
SM,TD
10.15
10.2c
10.2f
Consumed feed stock
Received cash transfers
Receive food handouts
GO
TD,SN
SM,GD
GO
GO
GO
South Mudug households shared the highest percentage NOT eating meals yesterday and shared
the lowest number of meals eaten yesterday by children<5, boys and girls 5-14 and adult men.
They reported the highest number of days when they had eaten beans and the lowest number of
102
(SM)
(TD,SM,G
D)
(SM)
MJ,GD
GO,MJ
days they had eaten rice. They shared the highest percentage having skipped days without eating
in the last week. In terms of coping strategies, South Mudug shared the highest rates of eating
less food at each meal, relying on help from relatives/ neighbours and borrowing food or cash.
Overall, South Mudug households were hungry and heavily dependent on others for their food.
Page | 103
Sanaag households shared the highest number of meals eaten yesterday by boys and girls 5-14,
the highest number of days on which they had eaten cultivated vegetables and beans, and the
lowest number of days when they had eaten beans and milk. They shared the highest percentage
saying that their food stock was worse than the previous two years. Their households had the
lowest percentages saying that they had borrowed food to eat or sent family members elsewhere
to eat. In terms of coping strategies, Sanaag shared the highest rates of reducing the number of
meals each day; and the lowest rates of collecting firewood to sell, borrowing food or cash or
sending children to stay elsewhere. Overall Sanaag households were surviving but probably on
the brink.
Gedo households shared the highest percentage NOT eating meals yesterday, the highest number
of meals for children<5 but reported the lowest number of meals for adult women and men the
previous day. Their households reported had the highest number of days eating beans and
drinking processed milk and the lowest number of days when they had eaten rice, tea/sugared
water, cooking oil or cultivated vegetables in the previous week. Gedo respondents reported the
highest number of days during the last week when they had reduced the number of meals eaten,
they had skipped eating altogether, borrowed food to eat or sent family members elsewhere. In
terms of coping strategies, Gedo households shared the highest rates of eating less food at each
meal, reducing the number of meals each day, collecting firewood to sell, collecting bush
products, relying on help from relatives/ neighbours, family members migrating, borrowing food
or cash, reducing spending on non-food items, sending children to stay elsewhere, renting out
land, selling land, selling livestock to buy basic items, took children out of school, sent children
to work and consuming feed stock. Overall, Gedo households were not only hungry, they were
probably desperate.
Galgaduud respondents shared the lowest number of meals for children<5, boys and girls 5-14;
and reported the highest number of days when they had eaten beans, milk; and; and the lowest
number of days when they had eaten cultivated vegetables. They reported that their food stock
was worse than the previous two years, that they had skipped days without eating or sent family
members elsewhere to eat. In terms of coping strategies, Galgaduud shared the highest rate of
reducing spending on non-food items; and had the lowest rates of eating less food at each meal,
reducing the number of meals each day, collected firewood to sell, relied on help from relatives/
neighbours, family members migrated, borrowed food or cash, sent children to stay elsewhere.
Overall, Galgaduud households, although eating the least number of meals were avoiding other
negative coping mechanisms.
Breastfeeding
The results for the questions about breastfeeding are shown in Table 9.9.
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households had the lowest percentages breastfeeding in the
last 24 hours; and the highest percentage having given sweetened water or tea and legumes,
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beans or pulses to their infant, but the lowest percentage giving mushy or solid foods. Their
infants were seemed to be well-fed, though many are not breastfed.
Togdheer respondents had the lowest percentage saying that they would breastfeed for 6 months
or more. Their respondents had the highest percentages saying they had given sweetened water
Page | 104 or tea, food made with oil; and, and the lowest percentage saying that their infants had been
given dairy products. Their infants were relatively well-fed, but perhaps not breastfed for the
recommended time of 6 months.
South Mudug had the lowest percentage saying that they had breastfed from birth, would
breastfeed for 6 months or more. South Mudug respondents had the highest percentages saying
they had given tinned or powdered milk to their infant; and the lowest percentages saying that
they had given their infants sugared water or tea, grains or cereals or dairy products, mushy or
solid foods. Their infants seem to be hungry.
Sanaag had the lowest percentage saying that they would breastfeed for 6 months or more. Their
households had average percentages for most food items, but the lowest percentage saying that
their infants had been given legumes, beans and pulses. No clear conclusions can be drawn
from these figures for Sanaag.
Table 9.9 : Highs and Lows for Breastfeeding
FOOD CONSUMPTION
19.1
Breastfeeding from birth
19.2
Breastfeeding for 6+ mths
19.3
Breastfed in last 24 hours
19.4
N times breastfed in last 24
hours
19.5
Plain water
19.6
Tinned or powdered milk
19.7
Sweetened water or tea
19.8
Grains, cereals
19.9
Soghum, rice, millet, etc.
High
(TD,SN)
GO,GD
GO
???
Low
SM
SM,TD
MJ,(TD,GD)
(SM)
SM
MJ,TD
GO
(GO)
MJ
GO
SM,GO
GD,SM
(GD)
19.10
19.11
19.12
19.13
Legumes, beans, pulses
Dairy products
Vitamin A rich fruit
Any other fruits/vegetables
High
MJ
GO
(MJ)
(GO)
Low
SN
TD,SM
(TD)
(TD)
19.14
19.15
19.16
19.17a
19.18a
Any flesh foods
Any eggs
Food made with oil etc.
Gave mushy foods
Gave solid foods
(GO)
(GO)
TD
GO
GO
(TD)
(TD)
GD,(MJ,SM)
SM,MJ
SM,GD,MJ
Gedo had the highest percentages saying they had breastfed for 6 or more months and breastfed
in the last 24 hours. Their mothers had the highest percentages saying that they had given grains
or cereals and dairy products in the last 24 hours; and the lowest percentage saying that they had
given tinned or powdered milk and sweetened water or tea. Gedo infants are breastfed longer
than other regions, as well as giving other food items to their infants.
Galgaduud households had the highest percentages saying that they intended to breastfeed for 6
months or more. Their respondents had the lowest percentage saying that they have grains and
cereals, food made with oil and given solid foods. Their infants were feeding almost exclusively
on breastmilk.
Overall Regional Conclusion
Maroodi Jeex (Wooqoyi Galbeed) households were predominantly agro-pastoralists, had few
problems with either their farming or their livestock. Relatively, they have embraced formal
schooling and are self-sufficient in terms of learning about issues. They were much healthier and
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had good access to health care but probably needed it least. They were also likely to use modern
sanitation methods. They were self-sufficient for their food, seldom selling livestock and owing
little to anyone. Their households and their infants were the best fed.
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Togdheer households were also agro-pastoralists and reported problems with lack of rains for
both agriculture and livestock. They have also embraced formal schooling but are very isolated
from learning opportunities. Their children were at risk and less healthy and the adults seem to
avoid, or cannot access, modern health care; and whilst Togdheer households are behind in using
modern sanitation methods, but they had embraced modern hygiene and water treatment. Their
food situation has worsened over the 2 previous years but although they are reasonably well-fed,
they are facing higher household expenditures, driving them into debt.
South Mudug households were cattle pastoralists who struggled for water with little access to
animal husbandry training or other forms of communication. They have sold the least amount of
their animals, and instead relied mainly on causal labour and petty trading for income.
South Mudug households present the archetypal picture of pastoralist communities alienated
from education and learning opportunities. They were healthy and taking some of the health care
advice although there appeared to be a problem of vaccination. South Mudug households also
seem reticent to seek out modern health care. They were better off with toilet facilities and
access to safe water, but did not seem to be using modern hygiene or water treatment. Their food
is principally coming from food aid and borrowed food, but they have managed to keep their
debts reasonable. They were hungry and heavily dependent on others for their food.
Sanaag households were shoat pastoralists for whom lack of rains was the main problem; and
had little outside contact except through mobile. Sanaag households were enthusiastic about
education and learning but their circumstances were difficult. They appeared to be alienated
from modern medicine and prevention; the sanitation methods used by Sanaag households range
from worst to best, depending on the method. Sanaag households are losing self sufficiency by
selling their livestock for some of the highest costs for food and non-food items, as well as
sinking into debt. Overall Sanaag households were surviving but probably on the brink.
Gedo households were camel pastoralists who had benefitted from animal husbandry training but
who were having difficulties because of lack of rains and for whom the number of animals they
had were inadequate for survival. They were ambivalent about the formal delivery of education,
preferring more traditional vehicles. Gedo households had access to and use modern health care
and appeared to be positive about receiving preventive vaccination. They also appeared to have
embraced modern sanitation methods and hygiene but had very little access to infrastructure.
They are selling their livestock and livestock products for what appear to be low prices to cover
higher prices for non-food items and services needed, much of which puts them in debt to shops.
Gedo households were not only hungry, they were probably desperate.
Galgaduud households were cattle and shoat pastoralists for whom the main problem was lack of
pasture and they had little means to connect them to the world outside. They were ambivalent
about the formal delivery of education, preferring more traditional vehicles. They were not
connected to Western health care; and had considerable difficulty in accessing hygiene products
and sanitation in general. They earned most of their income from selling livestock and have
managed to remain somewhat self reliant in feeding themselves, but are slowly moving into debt.
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