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Chapter 16: Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Europe
What made the seventeenth century an "age of crisis"?
Partially due to climate changes; but more about religious divides, increased gov't
pressures, and war.
Peasant Life in the Midst of Economic Crisis
Seventeenth century was marked by small rural, peasant villages centered on a church and a 'manor'; small number of peasant land owners in each village
who owned enough land to keep the community working, eating and living.
Peasant communities were on the verge of subsistence but were constantly
threatened by scarcity and famine; bread was the primary staple of European diets.
Europe goes through a "little ice age" which shortened growing seasons and resulted in population declines.
Harsh life led to a struggle in industry as well; particularly woolen textiles.
The Return of Serfdom in the East
Western Europe saw the breakdown of serfdom as peasants gained land after the Black Death.
Eastern Europe saw labor shortages that were dealt with by restricting peasant opportunities: lords would own land and force peasants to work.
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The Thirty Years' War (1618­1648)
Holy Roman Empire was a confederation of areas drawn together loosely under
one elected emperor.
Catholics and Protestants were still trying to maintain their power and subsequent
land and formed leagues: Protestant Union (1608), Catholic League (1609)
to protect their territories.
War was probably the most destructive event for central European economy
and society prior to the two world wars. One­third of urban residents and
two­fifths of the rural populations died.
Traditionally divided into four phases:
First: Bohemian Phase (1618­1625) Characterized by war in Bohemia between P. Union and C. League. Catholics defeat Protestants at
the battle of White Mountain.
Second: Danish Phase (1625­1629) Saw the leadership of Charles IV of Denmark diminish as a result of more Catholic victories.
Third: Swedish Phase (1630­1635) Came with the arrival of Gustavus Adolphus and his army into Germany to support Protestants but
was met by the French under Cardinal Richelieu. Adolphus won
two important battles but is killed in combat.
Fourth: French Phase (1635­1648) Richelieu was worried about Habsburg
power in Europe and declared war on Spain.
Peace of Westphalia (1648) was a series of treaties that concluded the Thirty
Years' War and recognized the independent authority of more than 300
German princes reaffirming the emperor's limited authority. Peace of Augsburg (1555) (earlier agreement to cease fighting) is upheld
permanently which allowed the princes to the religions for their areas.
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Achievements in State­Building
Historians distinguish between the 'absolutist' gov'ts of France, Spain, Central
Europe and Russia to the 'constitutional' gov'ts of England and the Dutch
Republic.
Absolutist monarchs gathered all of the power under their personal control; nothing is more important than their power or the state.
Constitutional rulers were obliged to respect laws passed by representative institutions.
Common ideas were to protect and expand their frontiers, raise new
taxes, consolidate central control, and compete for colonies opening up in the New and Old worlds.
Problems:
Rulers faced many obstacles: information was not easily transmitted, lack of information about their holdings (making policing and
taxing difficult), local bodies of gov't held power (nobles, churches,
provincial and national assemblies, town councils, guilds and others) which was not easily taken away.
Focused on four areas:
Greater taxation
Growth in armed forces
Larger and more efficient bureaucracies
Increased ability to compel obedience from subjects
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Warfare and the Growth of Army Size
Driving force of state­building was warfare; dramatic changes in size and style
of armies.
New techniques meant rise in professional standards.
Explosive growth of the size of armies: ex. France went from 125,000 soldiers
to 340,000 at the end of the Thirty Years' War.
Popular Political Action
Increased taxes and larger armies led to popular protests. The limitations of royal authorities in some areas gave an advantage to rebels, allowing them
to gain local power.
By the beginning of the eighteenth century, these protests became less effective
as the local gov't structures were supported by prompt military support.
Why did France rise and Spain fall in this period?
Absolutist power: 'divine right'­ God alone granted exclusive power to rulers to make and enforce laws, denying any other institution of authority to 'check'
their power.
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The Foundation of Absolutism
1660­1789 Known as the 'Age of Absolutism'
­political period that encouraged rulers to claim complete sovereignty; make
laws, dispense justice, create/direct bureaucracy, declare wars and tax
without approval.
­Also the 'Age of Empire': Portuguese, English, French, Dutch and Spanish
­Other political gov't growth: Prussia, Russia, Ottomans and England.
The Appeal: 1. Stability, prosperity and order
2. Strong command: armed forces, legal system, right to collect/spend
financial resources
3. Create efficient/centralized bureaucracy that has allegiance to monarch
4. Ability to weaken special interest: independent minded representative
assemblies (parliaments, diets, estates­generals)
France: culture, manners and language donned society. French diplomacy and
wars shaped political affairs of west/central Europe.
Henry IV (r.1589­1610) (married to Marie de' Medici) drew France into a
recovery based on his policies. Issued the Edict of Nantes where Protestants could worship in traditionally Protestant towns throughout France.
Louis XIII (r. 1610­1643) nine years old when he was crowned king after his father (Henry IV) was murdered. Was too young to 'truly' rule so the
power was assumed by Cardinal Richelieu (1585­1642) who became
the first minister of the French crown.
­helped strengthen monarchy/eliminated potential threats
­anti­Habsburg policies
­system of 'intendants': royal officials sent out into the provinces
to execute orders of the centralized gov't. System of spies.
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Louis XIV (r. 1643­1715) assumes the crown when he is only four years old
after his father and Richelieu die within six months of one another.
Anne of Austria (regent of France) shifts power to a second minister;
Cardinal Mazarin (r. 1642­1661)
­Fronde revolts: nobility losing power to central gov't, opposed new taxes that angered citizens.
Louis's reign:
­Cardinal dies when Louis is 23 years old
­he is grand, noble and graceful
­dubbed himself the 'Sun King'; source of light for all of his people
­overlapping authority: local estates, courts, provinces had their own
courts/sets of laws which the king could not easily diminish
Versailles importance
1. Household of the king; grand stature
2. Location of central gov't
3. Powerful subjects came to gain power/office
By controlling the high­nobility in council at Versailles, Louis
centralized the four important factions of gov't
1. foreign policy
2. making war and peace
3. secular power over the crown
4. ability to control finances (levy taxes)
Religious policy: destruction of Huguenot and Protestant churches and
many people were aid to have left France as a result; weakening the economy and tax base.
Financial: Jean Baptiste Colbert (Controller General of France) was responsible for: building Versailles, maintaining the king's court,
general adherence to mercantilism.
­more imports than exports
­better quality French goods
­tax exemptions to people who established new industries
­built roads and canals
­raised tariffs on foreign goods
­created merchant marine to navigate goods/policies.
Problems: ­the more money Colbert was able to raise, the more money Louis
spent
­burden of taxes fell on the lower classes, particularly the peasants.
­only geared toward making the king more powerful.
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Louis XIV's Wars
Secretary of war (Marquis de Louvois) created a professional army to help Louis
to expand France to it's 'natural' borders. He staged four wars to secure these areas; Spanish Netherlands and Flanders, Alsace and Lorraine.
­costly, ineffective
­tax payers suffered, crops failed and there was widespread malnutrition
and death.
Two Objectives: 1. Diminish Habsburg power
2. Increase Louis' dynastic power Began to upset other bordering nations; Spain (which had specifically fought
against France), German States, and the Spanish Netherlands (loosely controlled by Spain.
When Louis XIV died in 1715, France was on the brink of bankruptcy and although many mourned, many were relieved that he would no longer rule.
The Decline of Spain
Most populace empire in the world; South/Central Americas, Asia, Africa
Phillip II and Phillip III both saw Spain into bankruptcy through wars (1596 & 1607)
Phillip IV (1621­1665) decreased power of Cath Church in gov't, reformed central authority and strengthened monarchy but involvement in the
Thirty Years War incited internal revolts and civil wars and destroys Spanish army.
Problems:
­Armed forces out of date
­inefficient gov't
­weak middle class with a suppressed peasant class
­luxury­loving class of nobles
­over supply of priests/monks
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What explains the rise of absolutism in Austria and Prussia?
1680­1720 Ottoman power diminishes and Austro­Hungarian empire of the Habsburgs
becomes dominant power.
The Habsburgs
Austria becomes great cultural/political center after acquiring territory and being buffered from the Ottomans by Hungary.
­becomes a loose confederation of divided territories with different religions,
ethnicity and languages.
­Vienna becomes the political/cultural center of the empire.
Prussia
Hohenzollern family aimed to acquire territory which divided the territories they already owned.
Frederick William 'The Great Elector' (1640­1688)
­Built a strong military power by philosophy of nobles (Junkers) enlisting their
peasants who could move up in rank by merit.
­Persuaded Junkers to accept taxation w/o consent to fund permanent army.
Frederick William I 'The Soldiers' King' (r.1713­1740)
­Eliminated Parliamentary estates and local self­gov't
­transformed Prussia into militaristic state
­army expansion was achieved through conscription 8