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The Backbone of History
Health and Nutrition in the
Western Hemisphere
Edited by
RICHARD H. STECKEL
Ohio State University
JEROME C. ROSE
University of Arkansas
iii
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published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
cambridge university press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa
http://www.cambridge.org
C Cambridge University Press 2002
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2002
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Typeface Minion 10.25/12 pt.
System LATEX 2ε [TB]
A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Steckel, Richard H. (Richard Hall), 1944–
The backbone of history : health and nutrition in the Western Hemisphere / Richard H.
Steckel, Jerome C. Rose.
p.
cm.
Revised papers from a second conference sponsored by the National Science
Foundation (SBR-9423435) and held March 7–10, 1996 at Ohio State University, Columbus.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-521-80167-2 (hardback)
1. Indians – Food – History – Congresses. 2. Indians – Health and
hygiene – History – Congresses. 3. European Americans – Health and hygiene –
History – Congresses. 4. African Americans – Health and hygiene – History – Congresses.
5. Human remains (Archaeology) – America – Congresses.
6. America – Antiquities – Congresses. I. Rose, Jerome Carl. II. Title.
E59.F63 S74 2002
614.4 27 – dc21
2001037965
ISBN 0 521 80167 2 hardback
iv
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Contents
Preface
List of Contributors
page xi
xv
part i
1 Introduction
Richard H. Steckel and Jerome C. Rose
part ii
3
methodology
2 Reconstructing Health Profiles from Skeletal Remains
Alan H. Goodman and Debra L. Martin
3 A Health Index from Skeletal Remains
Richard H. Steckel, Paul W. Sciulli, and Jerome C. Rose
4 Paleodemography of the Americas: From Ancient Times to
Colonialism and Beyond
Robert McCaa
part iii
11
61
94
euro-americans and african-americans
in north america
Introduction
5 The Health of the Middle Class: The St. Thomas’ Anglican Church
Cemetery Project
Shelley R. Saunders, Ann Herring, Larry Sawchuk, Gerry Boyce,
Rob Hoppa, and Susan Klepp
6 The Poor in the Mid-Nineteenth-Century Northeastern United
States: Evidence from the Monroe County Almshouse, Rochester,
New York
Rosanne L. Higgins, Michael R. Haines, Lorena Walsh, and
Joyce E. Sirianni
vii
127
130
162
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Contents
7 The Effects of Nineteenth-Century Military Service on Health
Paul S. Sledzik and Lars G. Sandberg
8 The Health of Slaves and Free Blacks in the East
Ted A. Rathbun and Richard H. Steckel
9 The Quality of African-American Life in the Old Southwest near
the Turn of the Twentieth Century
James M. Davidson, Jerome C. Rose, Myron P. Gutmann,
Michael R. Haines, Keith Condon, and Cindy Condon
part iv
14
15
16
17
18
226
281
283
307
native americans and euro-americans
in south america
Introduction
12 Patterns of Health and Nutrition in Prehistoric and
Historic Ecuador
Douglas H. Ubelaker and Linda A. Newson
13 Economy, Nutrition, and Disease in Prehistoric Coastal Brazil:
A Case Study from the State of Santa Catarina
Walter Alves Neves and Verônica Wesolowski
part vi
208
native americans in central america
Introduction
10 Social Disruption and the Maya Civilization of Mesoamerica:
A Study of Health and Economy of the Last Thousand Years
Rebecca Storey, Lourdes Marquez Morfin, and Vernon Smith
11 Health and Nutrition in Pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica
Lourdes Marquez Morfin, Robert McCaa, Rebecca Storey, and
Andres Del Angel
part v
185
341
343
376
native americans in north america
Introduction
A Biohistory of Health and Behavior in the Georgia Bight: The
Agricultural Transition and the Impact of European Contact
C. S. Larsen, A. W. Crosby, et al.
Native Americans in Eastern North America: The Southern Great
Lakes and Upper Ohio Valley
Paul W. Sciulli and James Oberly
Cultural Longevity and Biological Stress in the American Southwest
Ann L. W. Stodder, Debra L. Martin, Alan H. Goodman, and
Daniel T. Reff
Health, Nutrition, and Demographic Change in Native California
Phillip L. Walker and Russell Thornton
Welfare History on the Great Plains: Mortality and Skeletal Health,
1650 to 1900
S. Ryan Johansson and Douglas Owsley
403
406
440
481
506
524
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Contents
ix
part vii
19 Patterns of Health in the Western Hemisphere
Richard H. Steckel and Jerome C. Rose
563
part viii
20 Conclusions
Richard H. Steckel and Jerome C. Rose
part ix
583
epilogue
21 The Body as Evidence; The Body of Evidence
George J. Armelagos and Peter J. Brown
22 Overspecialization and Remedies
Philip D. Curtin
Index
593
603
609
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Contributors
George J. Armelagos
Anthropology Department
Emory University
Decatur, GA 30322
Gerry Boyce
173 Bridge Street
Belleville, Ontario
Canada K8N 1N3
Peter J. Brown
Anthropology Department
Emory University
Decatur, GA 30322
Cindy Condon
12264 SW 105th Lane
Miami, FL 33186
Keith Condon
12264 SW 105th Lane
Miami, FL 33186
Alfred W. Crosby
67 North Centre Street
Nantucket Island, MA 02554
Philip D. Curtin
42 Windermere Way
Kennett Square, PA 10348
xv
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Contributors
James M. Davidson
Department of Anthropology
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX 78712
Andres Del Angel
Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas
Universidad
Nacional Autonóma de México, Circuito Interior
México, D. F., México
Alan H. Goodman
Social Sciences
Hamsphire College
Amherst, MA 01002
Mark C. Griffin
Anthropology Department
San Francisco State University
San Francisco, CA 94132
Myron P. Gutmann
ICPSR
Institute for Social Research
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI 48106
Michael R. Haines
Economics Department
Colgate University
Hamilton, NY 13346
Ann Herring
Department of Anthropology
McMaster University
Hamilton, Ontario
Canada L8S 4L9
Rosanne L. Higgins
Health Sciences Department
Cleveland State University
Cleveland, OH 44115
Rob Hoppa
Department of Anthropology
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Canada R3T 2N
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Contributors
Dale L. Hutchinson
Anthropology Department
East Carolina University
Greenville, NC 27858
S. Ryan Johansson
Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure
27 Trumpington Street
Cambridge CB2 1QA
United Kingdom
Susan Klepp
History Department
Temple University
Philadelphia, PA 19122
Clark Spencer Larsen
Anthropology Department
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210
Lourdes Marquez Morfin
Escuela Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historı́a, México
Périferico Sur y Zapote s/n. Col. Isidro Fabela
14030 México, D. F., México
Debra L. Martin
Social Sciences
Hampshire College
Amherst, MA 01002
Robert McCaa
History Department
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
Walter Alves Neves
Laboratório de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos
Departamento de Biologia
Instituto de Biociências
Universidade de São Paulo
São Paulo, Brazil
Linda A. Newson
Geography Department
King’s College London
Strand
London WC2R 2LS
United Kingdom
xvii
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Contributors
James Oberly
History Department
University of Wisconsin
Eau Claire, WI 54701
Douglas Owsley
Anthropology Department
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC 20560
Ted A. Rathbun
Anthropology Department
University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC 29208
Daniel T. Reff
Division of Comparative Studies
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210
Jerome C. Rose
Anthropology Department
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, AK 72701
Christopher B. Ruff
Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy
Johns Hopkins University Medical School
725 North Wolfe Street
Baltimore, MD 21205
Katherine F. Russell
Department of Biology
University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth
Dartmouth, MA 24740
Lars G. Sandberg
Economics Department
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210
Shelley R. Saunders
Anthropology Department
McMaster University
Hamilton, Ontario
Canada L8S 4L9
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Contributors
Larry Sawchuk
Department of Anthropology
Scarborough College
University of Toronto
Scarborough, Ontario
Canada M1C 1A4
Margaret J. Schoeninger
Anthropology Department
University of California
San Diego, CA 92093
Paul W. Sciulli
Anthropology Department
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210
Leslie E. Sering
Museum of Anthropology
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI 48109
Scott W. Simpson
Department of Anatomy
Case Western Reserve University
Cleveland, OH 44106
Joyce E. Sirianni
Anthropology Department
University of Buffalo
Buffalo, NY 14261
Paul S. Sledzik
National Museum of Health and Medicine
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology
Washington, DC 20306
Vernon Smith
Interdisciplinary Center for Economic Science
George Mason University
Fairfax, VA 22030
Richard H. Steckel
Economics & Anthropology Departments
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210
xix
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Contributors
Ann L. W. Stodder
Department of Anthropology
The Field Museum
1400 S. Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605
Rebecca Storey
Anthropology Department
University of Houston
Houston, TX 77204
Jeffry L. Takács
Anthropology Department
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, NC 27599
Mark F. Teaford
Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy
Johns Hopkins University Medical School
Baltimore, MD 21205
Russell Thornton
Anthropology Department
University of California, Los Angeles
Los Angeles CA 90095
Douglas H. Ubelaker
Anthropology Department
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC 20560
Phillip L. Walker
Anthropology Department
University of California, Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara, CA 93106
Lorena Walsh
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
Williamsburg, VA 23187
Verônica Wesolowski
Laboratório de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos
Departamento de Biologia
Instituto de Biociências
Universidade de São Paulo
São Paulo, Brazil
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chapter one
Introduction
Richard H. Steckel and Jerome C. Rose
Human biologists, historians, and other social scientists have expressed enduring
interest in the evolution of human health over the past several millennia. The search
for knowledge is propelled in part by intellectual curiosity. For the same reasons
that explorers of the early twentieth century strove to reach the poles and the highest
peaks, and their modern counterparts journey to outer space or deep into the oceans,
most humans are inquisitive about their past. They want to understand how they
evolved and how they shaped and adapted to their environments. They want to
visualize or imagine the contours of the human experience – the peaks of adaptive
success that led to human growth, expansion, and flowering of civilization, and the
valleys of despair in which human presence ebbed and retreated.
But more practical considerations also lead the quest for knowledge. Not only
a basic ingredient in the quality of life, health is intertwined with demographic,
social, economic, and political change and with the outcomes of wars and other
conflicts. Length of life and other aspects of health affect work capacity and the
incentives to invest in skills that contribute to economic growth. Basic indicators
of the standard of living, such as the human development index proposed by the
United Nations, have a substantial health component (UNDP, 1990). Historians and
political scientists have identified inequality, not only in income or wealth, but also in
the form of disparities in health and nutrition, as a driving force in social, political,
and economic change. Thus, health has played a central role in human history,
both as an agent of change and as an outcome measure indicating the quality of life.
Skeletal measures of health, which are the central focus of this book, furnish the best
and, in many cases, the only picture available of human health over the millennia.
Study of skeletal remains for insights into health in the past creates valuable
long-term perspective on several modern social problems. Virtually all researchers
are aware, at some level, of the significant processes of evolution that gave rise to
modern societies over the past several millennia. They understand that many modern problems have roots reaching very deep into the human past, and that current
conditions were often created by complex interdependent processes that unfolded
3
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Richard H. Steckel and Jerome C. Rose
over very long periods of time. In evaluating the results of their research, most social
and medical scientists would like to have access to very long-term historical studies
that would, for example, place in perspective the prevalence of trauma and violence,
urbanization and health, child health, aging and health, and biological inequality.
Research on prehistoric and historic skeletons will also contribute to understanding the evolution of modern medical problems. Numerous modern diseases
evolved with humans adapting to humans living in proximity to one another and
to animals in a wide variety of ecological environments. Recent advances in the
extraction of DNA from pathogens found on skeletons now make it possible to
study the coevolution of humans with many diseases. Important first steps in the
research agenda are to describe the evolution of human health and to understand
its change in response to varying ecological environments.
Despite widespread interest and the general importance of health to human
change over the past several thousand years, relatively little is known about the
subject. Raw data on population size by age and on deaths by age are virtually unavailable prior to the nineteenth century, and thus, investigators cannot tabulate
traditional measures of health, such as life expectancy at birth. Average height, a
measure of health long known to human biologists and now familiar to some social
scientists, is available in quantity from military muster rolls and other sources as
far back as the eighteenth century, but height data are very sparse for earlier eras
(Steckel, 1995). Thus, the story of very long-term trends in health cannot be told
with traditional evidence, or even with newly developed sources of information,
such as average height.
In the 1980s, the fields of history, economics, and physical anthropology began
to develop some common interests and methodologies. Since the mid-1970s, economic historians have been applying average human stature, which measures a
population’s history of net nutrition, to issues in slavery, mortality, inequality, and
health during industrialization (Steckel, 1998). They have used a measure familiar to physical anthropologists, but applied it to a broad range of well-established
historical problems.
Similarly, by the early 1980s, physical anthropologists were mounting substantial
efforts to study long-term trends (in health), the traditional domain of historians.
Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture, edited by Mark Cohen and George
Armelagos, was the first significant publication of this type. Contributors to the
book assembled skeletal evidence of disease patterns that compared the health of
hunter-gatherer societies with that of settled agriculturalists. This transition has
been long celebrated by social scientists as a major advance in civilization, but to
the surprise of those outside physical anthropology, the book reported that health
deteriorated during the changeover.
This book brings together 18 essays that study long-term trends in health in the
Western Hemisphere using evidence of chronic disease or biological stress measurable from skeletal remains. Basic information on the geographic, ethnic, and temporal distribution of the database for the project is listed in Table 1.1. Nearly 80 percent
of the 12,520 individuals were Native Americans, with the remainder almost evenly
split between Euro-Americans and African-Americans. About two-thirds of the
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Introduction
5
Table 1.1: Distribution of Skeletons in the Database
Native American
Period
North
Middle
South
America America America
Euro-American African-American
1750+
1500–1749
1000–1499
1 ad–999
1000 bc–ad 0
Before 1000 bc
627
2580
888
1642
250
485
0
0
236
594
0
343
0
39
1095
382
247
418
1201
113
0
0
0
0
1380
0
0
0
0
0
total
6472
1173
2181
1314
1380
Grand total = 12,520.
Native Americans resided in what is now the United States (noted as North America
in the table and in parts of the text), as opposed to Middle America (11.9 percent)
or South America (22.2 percent). Slightly more than one-half (52.6 percent) lived
in the Western Hemisphere prior to the arrival of Columbus, and nearly 14 percent
lived prior to the birth of Christ (ages of individual sites are reported in years bp,
that is, before present, taken as 1950).
Developed in recent decades by physical anthropologists, these data are unfamiliar to most social scientists, but they are likely to be the best single source available
to scholars for measuring and analyzing very long-term trends in health. Therefore,
the first section of the book formulates the methodology, and remaining sections
examine applications to Native Americans, Euro-Americans, and African-American
populations in North America, Mesoamerica, and South America.
The essays are the culmination of over a decade of intense interdisciplinary activity inspired by these two movements – the acceptance and use by economists
and historians of measures traditional in human biology and physical anthropology
(especially average height), and the study of long-term trends in health by physical
anthropologists. Our efforts depart from and contribute to these movements, and
draw attention to the advantages of collaboration. Historians, economists, and other
social scientists gain by acquiring measures of health available to study long-term
trends and differences in health. Similarly, physical anthropologists acquire a fresh
reservoir of research questions and methodologies that are found beyond their traditional, localized spheres of interest. It is our hope that all groups go forward in
this collaboration with renewed energy and purpose.
The essays take Cohen and Armelagos as their starting point, but go beyond their
book in several important respects. First, the data assembled in Paleopathology at
the Origins of Agriculture were not truly comparable because contributors utilized
varying coding schemes for individual records. Researchers included the frequency
of common variables, such as degenerative joint disease, skeletal infections, and
linear enamel hypoplasias, but the specific measures were not reported using the
same scale, which complicated comparisons. The essays herein utilize a common
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Richard H. Steckel and Jerome C. Rose
data-reporting format. Second, the size and diversity in our data resources by region,
time period, and ethnic group exceed that studied in Cohen and Armelagos. We
assemble over 12,500 observations on individuals who lived in the Western Hemisphere from over 4000 bc to the early 1900s, which is by far the largest comparable
data set of this type ever created. Third, this project explicitly and extensively incorporates interdisciplinary perspectives. We do not claim this is necessarily desirable
in itself, but the book is innovative in its collaborative strategy of using physical anthropologists, historians, and economists, who jointly headed most research teams
producing essays. This approach broadens the range of questions typically asked
of skeletal data to include widespread comparative study and brings new methodologies to their analysis. Prominent among the latter are the concept of a health
index and measures of assessing inequality in health. Fourth, the range of questions asked of the data exceeds that in Cohen and Armelagos. Paleopathology at the
Origins of Agriculture focused mainly on health during the transition, whereas this
project considers issues over a broader time span, including the dynamics of preColumbian health, the consequences of contact, and the fates of Euro-Americans
and African-Americans up to the early twentieth century.
The first chapter in the methodology section discusses something fundamental
to the remaining chapters – indicators of skeletal disease. Bones are living tissue that
respond or adapt to biological stress, which may be caused by numerous persistent
conditions, such as a deficient diet, various infections that penetrate soft tissue, and
arduous work or physical effort. With the help of a few necessary photographs, Alan
Goodman and Debra Martin articulate these indicators of stress and disease and
explain what they mean and show how they may be interpreted.
The chapter on the health index by Richard Steckel, Paul Sciulli, and Jerome
Rose brings several innovations to the measurement of health using skeletal data.
First, attributes of health, such as stature, infections, and degenerative joint disease,
are scored by severity on a scale of 0 (lowest) to 100 (highest, indicating no visible
impairment). Second, the scores of each attribute are pooled by site, converted to
age-specific rates, and adjusted by the distribution of person-years lived by age in a
reference population. Third, the resulting indexes for each attribute are averaged to
create an overall health index that is comparable across sites. Sites are then ranked,
and their placement within the rankings, by the index and its components, become
an object of comparative study.
Robert McCaa’s chapter tackles the difficult and thorny question of estimating
life tables from skeletal data on deaths by age. Demographers learned long ago
that the age distribution of deaths is more sensitive to variations in fertility rates
than variations in mortality rates. Yet, useful information about life expectancy is
recoverable from the age distribution of deaths if proper allowance is made for
possible fluctuations or differences in fertility rates and for possible biases caused
by selective migration, that is, if the age distribution of deaths is studied in context.
The remaining chapters are organized by sections of ethnic and regional groupings. Each section is introduced by a brief discussion of results on the health index
that raise questions for readers to consider in perusing individual essays. The health
of Euro-Americans and of African-Americans in North America is considered
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Introduction
7
first because many readers are familiar with issues in their health and authors can
readily attach more familiar measures of health to the discussion, all of which helps
newcomers to this work to calibrate the meaning of skeletal data. The groups under
study are diverse with respect to socioeconomic conditions, ranging at the top from
the middle and upper class in Belleville, Ontario, to southern plantation slaves. In
between lie the free blacks in the urban East and in the frontier West, soldiers, and
those who died in Rochester’s poorhouse. The health rankings that emerge confirm
several findings based on other approaches and sources, but they also challenge our
methodology and preconceptions of health in relation to social status.
The remaining chapters, which comprise about one-half of this volume, consider
the health of Native Americans in Central America, South America, and North
America. The chapters on Central America examine the biological stresses endured
by the declining Maya and the pre-Hispanic populations of central Mexico. The
older prehistoric populations examined in Ecuador and Brazil lived in ecological
environments that led to better health. The North American groups under study
were extraordinarily diverse, living under hunter-gatherer or agricultural conditions
and in the pre- and postcontact periods. Thus, some of both the healthiest and least
healthy populations in our database were found among natives in North America.
Considerable scholarly energy has been devoted to formulating models or explanations of long-term changes in health. Although a comprehensive explanation
has been beyond anyone’s reach, various factors thought to have been important, at
least in some contexts, have been identified. Subsistence shifts, climate, population
growth, technological change, and political evolution have all been suggested as active ingredients contributing to changes in health. Although it would be interesting
to investigate all such hypotheses with the data at our command, our ambitions
are more limited. We have acquired evidence and developed new methodologies
that help elucidate a series of microstories, which are enhanced by our comparative perspective using comparable data and the health index. Despite our large
database, we feel that considerably more diverse evidence would be required for
adequate evaluation of broad explanations. Eventually, we hope to acquire considerably more data and a global perspective for this purpose. Nevertheless, the chapter
on “Patterns of Health in the Western Hemisphere” and the “Conclusions” appraise
some hypotheses and draw attention to various patterns in the skeletal evidence.
In the “Epilogue,” prominent physical anthropologists and an historian who are
familiar with the project comment on our methods and results from the perspective
of their disciplines. Although these short essays might be considered the first reviews
of the book, our objective is to initiate a dialogue from which all scholars interested
in very long-term health trends may advance this fascinating and important research
agenda.
For decades, bioarchaeologists have intensively studied skeletons in their microenvironments as learned from burial artifacts and various features of burial
sites. While this type of work is essential for the objectives of this volume, we anticipate this book will also stimulate greater comparative study of skeletal remains in
their historical, economic, ecological, and cultural contexts. In short, we hope our
collective efforts lead to the flowering of macrobioarchaeology.
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references
Cohen, Mark N., and George J. Armelagos, eds. Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture.
New York: Academic Press, 1984.
Steckel, Richard H. “Stature and the Standard of Living.” Journal of Economic Literature
33 (1995): 1903–1940.
“Strategic Ideas in the Rise of the New Anthropometric History and Their Implications
for Interdisciplinary Research.” Journal of Economic History 58 (1998): 803–821.
UNDP. Human Development Report. New York: United Nations Development Programme,
1990.