THE REHABILITATION OF PROPHECY:
ON DANTE’S THREE BEASTS
Paul Piehler
Out o f
the range o f
le a r n e d commentary h e l p f u l i n the u n d e r s ta n d in g
o f D a n t e 's a l l e g o r y I s e l e c t ,
as a n ot e n t i r e l y a r b it r a r y s t a r t i n g p o i n t ,
Joseph M a z z e o 's w id e- ra ng in g e x p l o r a t i o n o f a l l e g o r i c a l e x e g e s i s ,
"A lle g o r ic a l
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n and H i s t o r y ." ^
en titled
T his a r t i c l e , p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 7 8 ,
is n o t a b le f o r the u n u su a lly c l e a r a nd firm d i s t i n c t i o n i t draws betw een
a l l e g o r i c a l in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
t e x t s , n orm ally sa c r e d t e x t s , n o t a c t u a l l y
d e s ig n e d to be rea d a l l e g o r i c a l l y ,
a l l e g o r y ,"
that i s ,
and w hat M azzeo terms "c o n s t r u c t e d
"T he works o f o u r l i t e r a r y
t r a d it i o n w h ic h demand to be
u n d ersto o d as a lle g o r y r a t h e r than sim p ly a l l o w i n g a l l e g o r i c a l in t e r p r e t a t i o n
.
.
♦"
(p .
1 7 ).
d is tin c t io n ,
A fter cla rify in g
t h is e s s e n t i a l b u t a l l
too o f t e n o bsc u red
M azzeo goes on to p o i n t o ut that c o n s t r u c te d a l l e g o r y
g e n e r a l ly be un d ersto o d as fo llo w in g
t y p o lo g ic a l p a t te r n s r a t h e r than the
more a b s t r a c t and u n h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n s o f a l l e g o r i c a l e x e g e s i s . "
ic a l"
a lle g o r y he d e f i n e s
as a l l e g o r y t h at "assumes
W h ile M a z z e o 's
D a n t e 's
Comedy,
e s p e c i a l l y as
c a t io n ,
.
.
."
(p .
"T y p o l o g ­
the e x is t e n c e o f a
c e n t r a l p a r a d ig m a tic s t o r y , o f a s a c r e d o r n ear- sacred c h a r a c t e r ,
p a s t and assumed to be h i s t o r i c a l
"s h o u l d
s e t i n the
1 7 ).
c o n c lu s io n s are by no means s p e c i f i c a l l y d i r e c t e d tow ards
they do seem to be p a r t i c u l a r l y r e le v a n t to t h a t w o rk,
they form a v a lu a b le c o r r e c t i v e , o r p erm it a n e c e s s a r y m o d i f i ­
to the in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Dantean a lle g o r y p u t fo rw ard by John
H o l l a n d e r in h i s
f u l l s c a le monograph on t h is t o p i c , A l l e g o r y i n
D a n t e 's
"C o m m e d ia ".
a llego ry o f
it
A c c o rd in g to H o l l a n d e r ,
the t h e o l o g i a n s ,
received it s
s ig n ific a tio n
d e m o n st ra t e ,
p r a c t ic e ,
that was D a n t e 's m odel.
He w r i t e s ,
f i r s t and p erhap s s o l e use as the c e n t r a l
in a f i c t i o n a l i n v e n t i o n "
h o w ev er,
the r e s u l t s
a p p o in tin g ,
i t was the e x e g e t i c a l m ethod,
(p .
2 4 ).
"W it h Dante
tec h n iq u e o f
When H o l l a n d e r attem pts to
how such an e x e g e s is o f D a n t e 's
t e x t w o uld work in
are somewhat r e d u c t i o n i s t i c and i n
as H o l l a n d e r h im s e l f sug g e sts
the
fact a l it t l e d i s ­
in h i s own chosen exam ple o f
fo ur­
fo ld in te rp re t a tio n :
Take C ia c c o the g lu t t o n
character w i l l
Dante s a y s ,
(I n f . V I ) , f o r i n s t a n c e .
se rv e as w e l l . )
(Any o t h e r
The l i t e r a l sen se shows u s ,
the s t a t e o f t h is m a n 's s o u l a f t e r h i s
death.
as
The
a l l e g o r i c a l se n s e makes e v id e n t the c o n n ec tio n betw een h is p r e s e n t
life
in
the C i r c l e o f G lutto n y and i t s p a s t cau ses in F l o r e n c e .
The m oral se n s e w arns us a g a in s t t h is p a r t i c u l a r s i n .
i c a l sen se a s s e r t s
sin n e r s .
D a n t e 's
It
is,
G o d 's
I 'm
i t w o u ld b e a g r e a t bore
o b s e rv a tio n s,
d iv i n e p l a n , w h ic h in c l u d e s p unishm ent fo r
a fraid,
sim p le theory i s
The anagog-
as sim p le as t h a t .
c o n c ern ed ,
And,
i n s o f a r as
I co u ld end t h is book h e r e ,
for
to move through the poem m aking s im i l a r
the o nly p o i n t o f w h ic h i s
to a s s e r t t h a t there is
a
v a l i d c o n s t r u c t iv e approach to the poem w h ich accords w it h the p r a c ­
t i c e and theo ry o f m ed iev al e x e g e s i s .
t h is
is
W hat we a pp ea r to n e e d i s
a nd H o l l a n d e r and r e n d e r in g
in
that i t
As the m ath em aticians s a y ,
a tru e b u t n o t an i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t .
ju stifie s,
a n a l y s i s a nd a ls o
{p .
51)
a way o f r e c o n c i l i n g the p o s i t i o n s o f M azzeo
the r e s u l t n o t o n ly
or a t le a s t e x p la in s ,
" t r u e ” b u t a ls o
"in t e r e s t in g "
the very f l a t r e s u l t s o f H o l l a n d e r 's
to some d e g r e e acco u nts f o r the u n d e n ia b le and in d e e d o v e r ­
w helm ing l i t e r a r y p ow er o f
key may be fo un d in t h is
t h is most p o w e r fu l o f l i t e r a r y
very c o ncep t o f ty p o lo g y ,
a llego ries.
The
in the un iq u e and p erh ap s
un d e r e s tim a t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p between a l l e g o r i s t and p a r a d ig m a t ic sto r y in
the
Commedia.
H o l l a n d e r 's
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is la r g e l y b a s e d on C h a r le s S i n g l e t o n 's
"Two K in d s o f A l l e g o r y ," '* and to t h is we s h o u ld f i r s t t u r n .
fo r S in g leto n a ls o ,
of p oets.
is
essay,
The Commedia,
an a l l e g o r y o f t h e o lo g ia n s r a t h e r than an a l l e g o r y
I n s p it e o f the e v id e n c e o f C o n v iv io 2 . 1 . 2 ,
no " b e l l a m e n zo g n a ," b e a u t i f u l
lie ,
but h is t o r ic a l ,
D a n t e 's
Commedia is
to be j u s t i f i e d as a
h i s t o r y w it h v a r y in g a l l e g o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e r a t h e r than as an a l l e g o r y o f
p o ets
i n w h ic h a l l
Thus V e r g i l ,
d e t a i l s h a ve to be j u s t i f i e d by a l l e g o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .
fo r i n s t a n c e ,
is
n eve r to b e in t e r p r e t e d as sim p ly " R e a s o n ."
W h ile
l a r g e l y in a cc o rd w it h S i n g l e t o n 's e lo q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ,
b e l i e v e we are in n eed o f f u r t h e r response
"O n what c o n c e p tu a l b a s is
m eaning is
n ot a
is
I
to h is c h a l l e n g e to M ic h e le B a r b i :
an a l l e g o r y g iv e n in a poem in w h ic h the f i r s t
’ b e l l a m en zo gn a '
(p .
9 7 ).
G rant the fo rce o f S i n g l e t o n 's
argument and we have to r e c o g n iz e Dante as the f i r s t p o et to em ulate the
i n s p i r e d w r it e r s o f
p r o s e o r rhyme.
the s c r ip t u r e
Dante in
them selves -- task unattem pted then in
fa c t c r e a te d an a lle g o r y
fo r t h e o l o g ia n s
than an a lle g o r y o f t h e o lo g ia n s o r an in sta n c e o f e x e g e s i s ,
as I
am a tt em p t in g to show h e r e ,
r a th e r
o r more p r e c i s e l y ,
a s c r ip t u r e in w h ic h he u n iq u e ly combines
the r o les o f p r o p h e t and e x e g e t e .
I t seem s,
th erefo re,
t h a t the whole q u e s t io n o f the mode o f Dantean
a lle g o r y has h a r d ly b een s e t t l e d by the s c h o l a r s , even a f t e r d ec ad es o f d e b a t e .
I t is
in
f a c t t h is
very d isag reem e n t th at p erm its one to focus on the m ajor
q u e s t io n a lso l e f t u n ex p lo re d by M azzeo ,
that i s ,
the p r e c is e c h a r a c t e r o f
the r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een c o n s t r u c te d a lle g o r y
(r e f e r r e d to h ere as " a l l e g o r y " )
and a l l e g o r i c a l
"e x e g e s is ").
e x e g e s is
t h is r e l a t i o n s h i p l i e s
we may term "m y th " —
(r e f e r r e d to here as
in the r e l a t i o n o f both th ese
The e s s e n c e o f
forms to w h a t ,
lo osely ,
r e p r e s e n te d h e r e , p r im a r ily b u t by no means e x c l u s i v e l y ,
by the s a c r e d books w hic h b o th e x e g e s is and a lle g o r y u l t im a t e l y d epend upon
and must ackno w ledge as s o u r c e .
For p urp o ses o f d em o n st rat io n ,
most famous o f a l l
o f images
t h at c h a r a c t e r iz e s
p o in t o f re fe re n c e ,
h a s te n s
towards
ascent w il l
tio n
(c o n st ru c t e d )
a stab le
D a n t e 's
to the o p en in g canto o f th is
O u t o f the
dark wood,
land m ark,
t h is d i l e t t o s o m onte,
there
f e a r f u l c o n fu s io n
fin a lly
the s u n l i t h i l l .
em erges a c l e a r
The v i s io n a r y p o et
c o n f i d e n t , we u n d e r s t a n d ,
that it s
remedy the e x t r a o r d i n a r y s ta t e o f e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l d i s l o c a ­
in w hich he h a s i n e x p l i c a b l y
found h i m s e l f .
hopes o f a s w i f t r e s o l u t io n o f h is
menaces o f t h r e e h o s t i l e b e a s t s ,
f r ig h t e n him o f f down the h i l l ,
w h ic h he has
l e t us turn
a llego ries.
But,
as we r e c o l l e c t ,
h is
dem entia are th w arted by the p r o g r e é s iv e
a le o p a r d , a l i o n ,
and a s h e- w o lf, w h ic h
back in to the d ark and d ead ly v a l l e y
from
j u s t em erged.
In M a z z e o 's w o r d s , m ed ia eva l a lle g o r y im p lie s
s to ry as r e fe r e n c e s y stem "
(p .
" a c e n t r a l p a r a d ig m a t ic
1 9 ) , and e d it o r s have n o t been slo w to p o in t
o u t the r e fe r e n c e here to the B i b l i c a l p aradigm o f Jerem iah 5 : 6 ,
m enacing p ro p h e c y ,
o f w hic h the V ulg ate v e r s io n r u n s :
I d c i r c o p e r c u s s i t eos le o de s i l v a ,
Lupus ad vesperam v a s t a v i t e o s ;
a cryp tic a lly
Pardu s v i g i l a n s
s u p er c i v i t a t e s eorum:
Omnis q u i e g r e s s u s
fu e r it ex eis
c a p ie t u r ,
Q u ia m u l t i p l i c a t a e s u n t p r a e v a r i c a t io n e s
eorum,
C o n fo rta e s u n t a v e r s io n e s eorum.
T h is might be t r a n s l a t e d :
W h e re fo re the L io n o u t o f
The W o l f o f
W ith
the fo r e s t s has str u c k them down,
the t w i l i g h t has l a i d w aste t h e i r l a n d s ,
the L eo p ard u n c e a s in g ly w a tc h in g t h e ir c i t i e s .
They t h a t go o u t from thence s h a l l by no means es c a p e
t h e ir f a n g s ,
For they have m u l t i p l i e d t h e i r acts o f d e c e it
A nd turn ed e v e r f u r t h e r from the true w ay.
B e fo r e
J e re m ia h ,
c o n s i d e r i n g e x a c t l y w hat Dante has done w it h
let
c o n fro n ted w it h
b east s
c r y p t ic p r o p h e c y .
Jerom e,
f o r ex am p le,
in te rp rets
the
to the three m onarchies o f B a b y l o n , P e r s i a , and A l e x a n d r i a
4
c h a s t is e r s o f the w ic k ed n ess o f I s r a e l .
C e r t a in e d it o r s o f
d o u b t le s s
r e fe r e n c e h e re
Ita lia n
t h is
as r e f e r r i n g
as s u c c e s s iv e
D a n te,
t h is p a s s a g e from
us lo o k a t the t e c h n iq u e s o f the a l l e g o r i c a l ex e g e te when
to F l o r e n c e ,
un ity .
a c r e d ib le
fo l l o w in g t h is l i n e o f in t e r p r e t a t i o n , have seen a p o l i t i c a l
France,
and the Pa pa l S e e ,
as im pedim ents
B u t w h il e J e r o m e 's p o l i t i c a l in t e r p r e t a t io n
(thou gh h a r d l y p l a u s i b l e )
Jerem ian p r o p h e c y ,
to
can b e c o n s id e r e d
e x e g e s is o f the c r y p t i c ,
open e n d e d ,
the p a r a l l e l r e fe r e n c e to the enem ies o f I t a l y h e r e seems
a q u it e i n a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f D a n t e 's p e r s o n a l a n g u ish in h i s
effo rts
to f i n d a way o u t o f t h is
t e r r ify in g s p ir it u a l w ild e r n e s s .
L e t us take a look a t a more r e le v a n t in s t a n c e o f e x e g e s i s .
o f St V ic to r ,
By the term " b e a s t " i s meant the i r r a t i o n a l m in d,
throu gh M oses:
"If
be s to n e d to d e a t h "
beast sets
(Exodus 1 9 : 1 2 ) .
But i t
is
the n i n e t e e n t h
For the m ountain is
really
the
The
t h e n , when the m ind s u b j e c t to
s e t s o u t to s c a l e the h e ig h t s o f c o n t e m p la t io n .
s t r u c k down by s t o n e s ,
i t p e r is h e s
is declared
and the b e a s t the i r r a t i o n a l m in d.
fo o t on the m o un ta in ,
ir r a t io n a l d e sire s
as i t
a b e a s t s h o u ld s e t f o o t on the m o u n ta in , he must
l o f t i n e s s o f c o n t e m p la t io n ,
In
G arnerus
i n an i n t e r e s t i n g comment on the term " b e s t i a e , " w r o t e :
in th at,
un a ble to g a in
the sum m it,
through these blows o f c e l e s t i a l p o w e r .^
chapter o f Exodus,
Moses had been commanded by Jeh o vah
f o r b i d any p r o fa n e man to approach the s a c r e d m ountain o f S i n a i ,
to
a se n sib le
precau tion ,
sin c e,
i t w ould seem ,
s u f f i c i e n t s p i r i t u a l m atu rity
w it h
the n um in o us.
b e a rs a l l
But a p r o h i b i t i o n a g a in s t b e a s t s
the marks o f i r r a t i o n a l
the b e a s t s ,
in g
no I s r a e l i t e o t h e r than Moses o r A aron had
to w it h s t a n d the shock o f suc h a c lo s e en c o un ter
t ab oo .
r ed u c in g them to m ental fo r c e s ,
the taboo in t o som ething q u i t e
age.
The ex e g e te
None the l e s s ,
a p p r o ac h in g the m ountain
t h e r e fo r e i n t e r n a l i z e s
" i r r a t i o n a l d e s i r e s , ” tra n s fo r m ­
a c c e p t a b le to the thought p a t t e r n s o f the
the m ythic symbolism and i t s p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r moral
in t e r p r e t a t i o n are e x p r e s s e d in q u i t e s e p a r a te s ta t e m e n ts , how ever e f f e c t i v e
the i n s i g h t and in t e r p r e t iv e
How does
t h is
s a c r e d m o un tain "
s k i l l o f the e x eg ete
compare w ith D a n t e 's
topos?
The most obv io u s d i f f e r e n c e
t io n o f the b e a s t as the i r r a t i o n a l mind w i l l
"c o n s t r u c t e d "
is
in
allego ry .
lin k in g
treatm ent o f t h is
is
them t o g e t h e r .
"b e a s t s on the
t h at the in t e r p r e t a ­
appear very d i f f e r e n t l y
r e c a p t u re d and in d e e d en han ced r a t h e r than b e in g r en d e r ed r e l a t i v e l y in e r t
by e x e g e t i c a l
analysis.
Thus as Dante attem pts
to clim b the m ountain the
i r r a t i o n a l i t i e s o f h is mind a pp ea r as a c t iv e e x t e r n a l im p ed im en ts,
him d o w n h ill a g a i n .
in
in a
The d ram atic fo rce o f the o r i g i n a l m ythic s i t u a t i o n
In a lle g o r y
f o r c in g
the powers o f the psyche m a n if e s t them selves
the form o f co rresp o n d in g r e a l i t i e s w i t h i n
the e x t e r n a l w o r l d .
Dante has
p lu n g e d us in to the seem ing ly a r b it r a r y p r o c e e d in g s o f a dream e x p e r ie n c e .
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the ev en ts w i l l
As in r e a l l i f e ,
M ore ov er,
t h at has s e t
r e c e iv e no imm ediate e x e g e s i s ,
the n o t io n o f a crowd o f a n c ie n t Hebrews s t o n in g an anim al
fo o t on a s a c r e d m ountain is
r a t h e r too b i z a r r e
m e d ia ev a l c o n s t r u c t iv e a l l e g o r i s t to f e e l c o m fo rta ble w i t h .
e m p h a siz e s ,
and,
a lle g o r y
concerns
one might a d d , i t
s p i r i t u a l e x p e r ie n c e
tends
the " l i f e
an e v e n t fo r a
As M azzeo
o f everyman in an i n d i v i d u a l mode” ^
( P r u d e n t i u s 1 Psychom achia a p a r t)
to p r e s e n t
to us from the p o i n t o f view o f a hero whose adv entures
are o f f e r e d fo r o u r im a g in a t iv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
a prim e a r c h e ty p a l o r m ythic s i t u a t i o n :
m onsters o f
Thus Dante takes us back to
the en c o u n ter o f
the h e r o w it h
the
the f o r e s t . ^
B u t in
t h is p a s s a g e ,
s in c e we are no lo n g e r a t an e v o l u t io n a r y s ta g e
when monsters m a n ife s t them selves under the o bscu re n ig h tm a r is h
G r e n d e ls o r "c him e ra s d i r e , "
are
h o w ev er.
we have to w a i t fo r the an s w er.
the le s s
fe a rfu l.
forms o f
they are i d e n t i f i e d w ith named b e a s t s ,
and as such
For by the fo u rt e e n th cen tu ry w es ter n man h ad suc c ee ded
i n s e p a r a t i n g zoology from n ig h tm a r e , and Dante was o f a l l men not l a c k i n g in
a sen se o f
the e v o lu t io n o f im a g e s.
Ind eed ,
a ll e g o r y is
i t s e l f one o f the
p r o c e sse s by w h ic h w estern man le a r n e d to c o n t r o l n ig h tm a r e ,
f u n c t io n s
essen tially
through a n a l y s i s ,
in t h a t i t
s e p a r a t i n g o u t the r a t i o n a l
from the
ir r a t io n a l
elem ents o f m ythic e x p e r ie n c e ,
and thus e n a b l in g
the m ind to
comprehend and c o n t r o l events o th e r w ise u n a s s im il a b l e by the r e a s o n .
The r o le o f a l l e g o r i s t as a n a l y s t o f
ad v en tu re is
in
the human psyche and o f s p i r i t u a l
f a c t somewhat more complex than that o f the e x e g e t e .
f i r s t p l a c e we s h o u ld n ot f a i l
among the a l l e g o r i s t 's
B eatrice,
8
to n o t ic e
own dra m a tis p e r s o n a e .
Thus in the Commedia V e r g i l ,
and a h o s t o f o th e r c h ara c te r s a c t as i n t e r p r e t e r s o f the
ly o b s c u re s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the v i s io n a r y
alm o st a l l m e d ia ev a l a lle g o r y
I n the
the fr e q u e n t p re s e n c e o f ex eg ete s
la n d s c a p e s .
frequent­
A nd we f i n d in d e e d in
(o u t s id e the psychom ach ia)
an e s s e n t i a l elem ent
o f d ia lo g u e betw een v i s io n a r y and ex e g e te to sup p ly a n a l y t i c in t e r p r e t a t i o n
of
the e x p e r ie n c e s
Yet is
it
d ep icted .
rea lly
fa ir,
i t may be q u e s t io n e d ,
to c a l l
these s tr a n g e
fig u re s,
who i n t e r p r e t the very v i s io n s in w h ic h they app ea r as c h a r a c t e r s , by the name
o f e x e g e te ?
I n one s e n s e , o f c o u r s e ,
t h a t o f the humble b i b l i c a l
au th orities,
shadows o f
t h e i r ro le seems very d i f f e r e n t from
c r i t i c a t y o ur e lb o w .
For th ese m ighty s p i r i t u a l
fo rg o tten a n c e s t o r s l i k e D a n t e 's
V e rg il or a lle g o r ic a l
d e s c e n d e n ts o f a n c i e n t goddesses such as B o e t h i u s ' Lady P h i l o s o p h y , h o l d f o r
the dream er the key s o f heaven and h e l l .
may h in g e
the s p i r i t u a l
fa te o f the dream er;
etern al death.
Thus
in g elsew h e re.
I n v i s io n a r y a l l e g o r y ,
ex eg e s is ,
h is
t h e ir e x e g e t i c a c t i v i t i e s
ch o ice o f s a l v a t i o n or
a c q u ir e a dra m a tic fo rce l a c k ­
the gap is
e x p e r ie n c e and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
G r if f i t h s ’ phrase,
On the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r a id
c l o s e d betw een t e x t and
myth and h i s t o r y .
I n Dom Bede
the way is open fo r a "r e t u r n to the c e n t r e ."
9
B u t t h is e q u a t io n o f the ex e g e te w it h the s p i r i t u a l g u id e s o f the dream
v i s i o n m ig ht be c h a lle n g e d on o t h e r g ro u n d s .
d e n t o f D a n t e ’ s e n c o u n te r w it h
we a c t u a l l y
f i n d in the Commedia,
c a t io n on the p a r t o f
8 2 - 8 3 ).
i t may be a s k e d ,
the v a r io u s
a s s u r e d , a nd r ea so n a b ly c l e a r
beasts,
do
I t is
tru e
t h at
( " a s s a i c h ia r o ")
c a t e g o r ie s o f s i n in the I n f e r n o ,
The three m ain d i v i s i o n s he d i s t i n g u i s h e s ,
and m a l i c e , have i n
in c i­
any a u t h o r i t a t i v e e x p l i ­
these a l l e g e d v i s io n a r y ex e g e te s ?
V e r g i l makes a th o ro u g h ,
a nalysis o f
R e turn in g to the c r y p t ic
the three b e a s t s , on the s u n l i t m o u n ta in ,
(Canto X I ,
e sp e c ia lly
in c o n t in e n c e , b e s t i a l i t y ,
f a c t b een a s s o c i a t e d by some commentators w it h the three
b u t V e r g i l does n ot make t h is c o n n ec tio n h i m s e l f .
10
The s p ar s e
a c t u a l r e fe r e n c e s to the b e a s t s e n c o u n tere d l a t e r in the Commedia are them­
selv es
c r y p t i c and h a r d ly e n l i g h t e n i n g .
a v a r ic e
exegetes
in
are s t i l l
m en tio n s as
Infern o
The she- w olf i s
a s s o c i a t e d w it h
a ters e a s i d e by Dante h im s e l f i n P u r g a to r io 2 0 . 1 0 ,
w h il e modern
a r g u in g o v e r the p r e c is e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the co rd Dante
the in stru m en t w it h w hich he once t r i e d to sn are the l e o p a r d ,
1 6 .1 0 6 .
B u t these e x p l i c i t
r e fe r e n c e s are s u r e l y l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t
in
than the e lu c id a t o r y p a r a l l e l s
w ood.
I n the I n f e r n o ,
t h a t Dante draws
fo r i n s t a n c e ,
to h is s i t u a t i o n in the dark
the b e a s t s r ea p p ea r as th e dogs
("c a g n e ")
who hunt down the w retc hed inm ates o f the som bre, bleac h ed - o ut wood o f
su ic id e s
wood in
(C anto 1 3 ) .
t h e ir most v i o l e n t form ,
altho ug h in the h a r s h c l a r i t y o f H e l l
have l o s t som ething o f the in d e p e n d e n c e ,
They are h u n t in g d o g s ,
A g a in ,
in
the e n e r g ie s
d im e n s io n ,
the " d i v i n e
a s s o c i a t e d w it h
r e f e r r e d to as
form o f
(P u r g a t o r io
alarm o r h o r r i f y ,
still
( 2 9 .9 2 )
r a th e r than " b e s t i a "
2 8 .2 )
in a h ig h e r
the a p o c a l y p t ic a n im a l s ,
and are
the trium p hal car o f the p r o c e s s io n o f the e l d e r s .
"a n i m a l i "
I.
"t h e w i l l o f a n o t h e r ."
f o r e s t " o f the E a r t h ly P a r a d is e
the t r a d i t i o n a l
they
the mystery o f the b e a s t s o f Canto
f u n c t i o n i n g i n a cc o rd an c e w it h
r e p r e s e n te d by these b e a st s m a n ife s t them selves
in
the
They embody the s e l f - d e s t r u c t iv e t e n d e n c ie s o f the dark
T h is
time
they awe r a th e r than
e x p r e s s in g the c h a r a c t e r o f th ese m y sterio us s p i r i t u a l
fo r c es b u t a d m it tin g a g r e a t e r t y p o lo g ic a l p r e c i s i o n in t h e i r m a n i f e s t a t i o n .
B u t why then are these s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l
forest"
V e r g il o r B e a t r ic e ?
the
One can h a r d ly presume t h at such a m aster o f im agery
as Dante w o uld sim ply miss such c o n n e c t io n s .
in a l
in s t a n c e s o f "t h e b e a s t s o f
topos l in k e d by no e x p l i c a t i o n on the p a r t o f D a n t e ’ s e x e g e t e s ,
B e a r in g in m ind t h a t h i s o r i g ­
rea de rs w ere accustom ed n ot o n ly to e x e g e s is o f the B i b l e a nd o th e r
texts b u t a lso o f t h e ir own dreams and ev en t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t w ak in g e x p e r i ­
ences,
the b e s t e x p l a n a t io n w o u ld seem to be t h at the re a d e r h im s e l f is
in t e n d e d to b e ,
in many c r u c ia l
c h a l l e n g e to h i s
p uzzle
t e s t o f in g e n u i t y .
o f e x e g e s is
if
ex eg etical
Dante i s
in d iv id u a l
is
in
in s t a n c e s , h i s own e x e g e t e .
fa cu lties
is
Not t h a t t h is
to be c o n s id e r e d a mere crossword-
The r e a d e r 's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the a c t u a l p r o c e ss
fa c t v i t a l
to the type o f re a d in g the p o et in t e n d e d .
"everym an in an i n d i v i d u a l mode" he is
For
more than any o th e r
the re a d e r h i m s e l f .
In the f i r s t canto o f The I n f e r n o the l e v e l o f statem ent is alm ost p u r e ly
m y th ic:
mystery w it h o u t e x e g e s i s .
s u f f i c ie n t in d ic a t io n
The appearance o f the Jerem ian b e a s t s is
t h at the n a r r a t o r in
the d i s o r i e n t a t i o n o f the dark
wood has r e v e r t e d to a m y th ic , p re - r a t io n a l s t a t e o f c o n s c io u s n e s s .
a prophet,
a m ythm aster, he is
w o l f o u t o f the t w i l i g h t .
sp eaks
in
lo st,
When V e r g il
f i r s t appears i n
the c r y p t ic v o ic e o f the p r o p h e t ;
c e r n in g the greyhound
("V e lt r o ")
L a c k in g
a v ic t im o f the d a r k n e s s , o f J e r e m ia h 's
the w il d e r n e s s he
i n d e e d , h is p r o g n o s t ic a t i o n con­
who w i l l one day subdue the w o l f i s
as
en ig m a t ic as a ny th ing in J e r e m ia h .
And so Dante moves the r e a d e r from myth to a l l e g o r y ,
en lig h t e n m e n t ,
from o b s c u r it y to
sp a r in g us the r a t i o n a l i s t i c in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f the e x e g e t e ,
w h ile h a v in g us p a r t i c i p a t e
in the whole p ro c e ss o f r e a l i z a t i o n
th at culm inates
in
the a c t o f e x e g e s i s ,
to ,
in
n e ss
f a c t c o n s t it u t e s
a jo u rne y which on the p e r c e p t u a l
a d im ension o f ,
t h a t Dante w o u ld have us t r a v e l .
the jo u rn e y i t s e l f ,
o r ie n t a t in g
In
in p o t e n t i a l
form .
to b l e s s e d ­
the f i r s t c a n t o , b e fo r e we can b e g in
we have to e n c o u n ter and f in d g u id a n c e
c o n fu s io n o f d i s s o c i a t i n g la n d s c a p e s ,
P ro v o s t has n o t e d ,
le v e l is p a r a l l e l
that jo u rne y from m isery
through the d i s ­
but in a llego ry ,
as F o s te r
each fragm entary image c o n tain s o r im p lie s the t o t a l cosmos
11
A llego ry ,
and the m etaphors o r images o f
as Q u i n t i l i a n p u t i t ,
the d ark wood have
is
c o n t in u e d m etap h o r,
to be c o n t in u e d , in d e e d
ex p a n ded a nd a n a l y z e d , o v e r the w ho le jou rney o f the Commedia b e fo r e we can
attem pt a v a l i d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
As C h arles S i n g l e t o n h a s o b s e r v e d ,
poem is
u n fo ld e d i n
h e n s iv e
view o f these m a t t e r s , we r e a l i z e
In fern o
f i g u r e d and f o r e c a s t ,
u r a t io n o f
" * 3
"When the
fo r a compre­
t h a t the o p e n in g scen e i n Canto I
as w e l l as any scen e m ight d o ,
the jo u rn e y b e y o n d .
e x t e n t to w h ic h
b lo c k s
i t s e n t i r e t y and we may s ta n d b ac k from i t
A nd A ldo S .
the whole c o n f i g ­
Bernado h as commented on "t h e
the p o e t has in t r o d u c e d in t o h is o p e n in g v erses a l l the
14
fo r the e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e ."
Our com parison o f t r a d i t i o n a l m ed ia ev a l e x e g e s is o f t h is
"b e a s t s o f the
m o u n ta in " m o t if w it h D a n t e 's own a l l e g o r i z a t i o n h as attem pted to show t h a t
where
the e x e g e t e d e m y s t if i e s
to make i t
tolerable
Dante seems
and dem ytho lo gizes b i b l i c a l prophecy in o r d e r
to contemporary i n t e l l e c t u a l and e t h i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s ,
to have b een the f i r s t m ed ia eva l v i s io n a r y b o l d enough to employ
the t e c h n iq u e s o f a lle g o r y i n o r d e r to in vo ke and r e h a b i l i t a t e
m y thic and p r o p h e t ic e n e r g i e s ,
e n e r g ie s
the a n c ie n t
w h il e at the same time s u b m it t in g th ese v a s t
to an even more p o w e r fu l a n a l y t i c and s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l .
p ap er then c a l l s
structive
a l l e g o r y as e s s e n t i a l l y a means
o f the e n e r g ie s o f myth as
h arnessing o f
T h is
fo r the r e c o g n it io n o f the r o le o f w hat M azzeo terms con­
those e n e r g ie s
l e v e l s o f c o n s c io u s n e s s .
towards the a n a l y s i s
and c o ntro l
they m a n ife s t i n t h e ir a r c h e ty p a l dram as,
to empower the human s p i r i t
F in a lly ,
as i n the P a r a d i s o ,
and a
to a t t a i n h ig h e r
such e n e r g ie s a llo w
man to become the m a ster r a t h e r than the v ic t im o f th at m y th ic co n s c io u s n e s s
i n w h ic h in n e r and o u t e r w o rlds a t t a i n the awesome u n it y a lr e a d y m a n ife s t e d
15
in the A n t e i n f e r n o .
I n such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a l l e g o r y becomes p r im a r il y
" o t h e r s p e a k i n g " as
the e s s e n t i a l mode by w h ic h phenom enal r e a l i t i e s
represent
t h at p s y c h i c o r s p i r i t u a l w o r ld w hic h l i e s b eyo n d form and phenom ena.
G ra n t t h is
answers
as an e s s e n t i a l
ro le o f Dantean a l l e g o r y ,
and we f i n d d i f f e r e n t
to the c r i t i c a l dilemmas c o n c e r n in g the a l l e g o r i c a l dim en sio n o f the
Commedia.
When H o l l a n d e r f in d s
the f o u r f o l d in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f D a n t e 's
a l l e g o r y v a l i d b u t u n i n t e r e s t i n g , o r where such d i f f e r e n t c r i t i c s
P iran dello
as L u i g i
and E t i e n n e G ils o n deny the e x is t e n c e o f a l l e g o r y a l t o g e t h e r in
the Commedia, we may p o i n t o u t t h a t w hat is m is s in g is in d e e d r e c o g n it io n o f
t h at m ythic d im e n s io n .
d e fin it io n of "a lle g o r y "
alth o ugh i t
c e n t u r y 's
same c o in .
lim ite d
t h a t does n ot r e f l e c t the m ed ia eva l e x p e r i e n c e ,
can p erhap s be j u s t i f i e d as a d e f i n i t i o n o f the eigh teen th -
d e m y t h o lo g ize d a l l e g o r y . ^ " 6
A lle g o r y
e n tirely absen t,
in a s o c i e t y 's
or suppressed.
m ent,
The l a s t two authors b e g in w ith an u n t e n a b ly
Myth and a ll e g o r y are
two s i d e s o f the
c a n , o f c o u r s e , e x i s t w it h the m ythic elem e nt weak o r
and in d e e d
fr e q u e n t ly i t does in er a s when the m y th ic e lem e n t
e x p e r ie n c e is
fo r p r o fo u n d so c io - c u lt u r a l r ea s o n s b e i n g ig n o r e d
Such e r a s , w h i l e o f t e n r e l a t i v e l y weak in c r e a t iv e a c c o m p l is h ­
tend, not s u r p r is in g ly ,
to the p ro d u c t io n o f r a t i o n a l i s t i c a n a l y s i s ,
in c l u d in g r a t i o n a l i s t i c systems o f r h e t o r ic and d e f i n i t i o n s o f a l l e g o r y .
Thus i t
little
is a ls o n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t c l a s s i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f a l l e g o r y
W h ile b o th e x e g e t i c a l
and c o n s t r u c te d a lle g o r y
fu n c t io n as modes o f
resp o nd in g to the c h a lle n g e o f in t e r p r e t i n g s a c r e d myth a nd p r o p h e c y ,
reaso n t h at the c r e a t iv e
is
form has p ro v ed by fa r the more a b i d i n g
t h a t i t s u c c ee d s i n in c o r p o r a t in g
the
allego ry
c o n s t it u t e s
In
and the symbolisms o f myth in t o a to t a l statem en t on a l l
m ea n in g ,
fact,
a form o f l i t e r a t u r e h a r m o n izin g d i a l o g u e ,
the
and memorable
fu n c tio n o f e x e g e s is w i t h i n
w it h o u t r e l i n q u i s h i n g the energy o f the o r i g i n a l m yth.
In
take
account o f the r o le o f myth.
itse lf,
at its b est,
ex eg esis,
t h es e l e v e l s o f
a form o f com m unication o f u n r i v a l l e d depth and c o m p r e h e n s iv e n e s s .
th is way D a n t e ,
r e p r e s e n t in g m ed ia ev a l a lle g o r y
at i t s
h ig h e s t r e a c h ,
answers the ro m antic demand fo r a l i t e r a t u r e o f pow er as w e l l as c l a s s i c a l
e x p e c t a t io n s o f a l i t e r a t u r e o f o r d e r .
M c G ill U n iv e r s it y
NOTES
T h is p ap er o r i g i n a t e d a t the XlVth A nnual Ottaw a- Carleton M edia e v a l- R e n a is s a n c e
Symposium.
^ Com parative L i t e r a t u r e
2
(P r in c e t o n 1 9 6 9 ) .
30
(1 9 7 8 )
1- 21.
^ D a n t e 's
Commedia: Elem ents o f S t r u c t u r e
(B a ltim o re
1954;
rpt.
1 977)
84- 98.
4
PL 2 4 . 7 1 4 .
5
PL 1 9 3 .1 9 7 .
(A t n .
6
1)
18.
^ W alter A b e ll,
See
The C o l l e c t iv e Dream in Art
a ls o Pa ul P i e h l e r ,
The V is io n a r y Land scap e
(C am b rid ge,
M ass.
1 9 5 7 ).
(London and M ontreal 1 9 7 1 )
72- 74.
A bell
8
9
(a t n .
A R eturn
7)
c h ap .
to the C en tre
E . g . , Dorothy L .
10
C iard i
(London 1977) ♦
S a y e rs in The D iv in e Comedy
i n The D iv in e Comedy
(B lo o m in gto n 1 9 71)
(New York 1 9 7 0 )
6-7 and 93
Foster Provost,
11
10.
6
(London 1 9 4 9 )
75;
John
; Mark Musa i n D a n t e ’ s In f e r n o
ff.
"T reatm en ts o f Themes and A lle g o r y in Twentieth-
Century C r i t i c i s m o f the F a e r ie Q u e e n e , ” i n Contem porary Thought on Edmund
Spenser,
1 975)
R ic h a rd C .
^
In stitu te s,
13
(A t n .
14
23;
ed.
Vondersm ith
(C a r b o n d a le ,
111.
3)
9 .1 2 .4 6 .
5-6.
"T h e Three B e a s t s a n d P e r s p e c t iv e in
se e a l s o
^
c h ap .
F r u s h e ll and B ern ard J .
18.
The V is io n a r y Landscap e
(a t n .
the D i v i n e C om e dy ,” PMLA 78
7)
chap.
S e e Owen B a r f i e l d , S a v i n g the A pp earan ces
20,
^
(London 1 9 5 7 ) , e s p e c ia l l y
"F in a l P a r t i c i p a t i o n ."
S e e E t ie n n e G i l s o n ,
and L u i g i P i r a n d e l l o ,
E ssays,
(1 9 6 3 )
7.
ed.
D an te and P h ilo so p h y
(New York 1 9 6 3 )
73 and 2 9 1 f f . ,
"T h e Po etry o f D a n t e ," i n D a n t e : A C o l l e c t io n o f C r i t i c a l
John F rec c ero
(Englew ood C l i f f s ,
N .J .
1965)
22.