Managing Antarctic tourism
by
Phillip John Tracey, BAppSc(Hons)
Submitted in fulfihnent of the requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
•
r -
I
Institute of Antarctic and Sdhlthem Ocean Studies
University of Tasmania
April 2001
'' 1
'»t
;.;•»
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by
the University or any other institution, except by way of background information and
duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of my knowledge and belief no
material previously published or written by another person except where due
acknowledgment is made in the text of the thesis.
This thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying in accordance with
the Copyright Act 1968.
/o/^/o/
Phillip Tracey
Date
111
Abstract
Antarctic tourism began before the Antarctic Treaty was signed, and is now a substantial
industry exhibiting rapid growth. Concern has been expressed about the effects of tourism
on scientific, environmental and other important Antarctic values. The Protocol on
Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty forms the main mechanism for managing
Antarctic tourism within the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS). This thesis argues that despite
the framework provided by the Protocol, the tourism management system is inadequate, and
that the management systems governing similar forms of tourism in other natural areas
provide a superior model.
The research included a comprehensive analysis of the industry and its development.
Physical, environmental, operational and geographical aspects of Antarctic tourism were
analysed. An examination of site use and the spatial development of tourism shows that
concern about high use levels is justified for a small proportion of sites, and identifies trends
in the geographic spread of tourism activity. The impacts of tourism on Antarctic values
were reviewed, with the main concerns identified as low-risk, high-magnitude impacts, and
cumulative impacts. Social, economic, and industrial aspects of tourism were analysed.
The economic analysis shows the market economic value of the industry to be
approximately fifty five million US dollars for the 1996/97 season. A forecast of the
development of Antarctic tourism predicts continued growth, increasing diversification, and
development of substantial new markets.
The management of Antarctic tourism was examined in detail. The system includes tourism
management within the ATS, measures imposed from outside the ATS, and industry self
regulation. An analysis of the legislative and administrative approaches of different nations
shows that there is considerable variation in the way that tourism management provisions of
the Protocol are interpreted and applied.
Detailed case studies were conducted on the management of tourism at southern oceanic
islands and northern polar locations. The case studies show that cruise tourism is managed
very differently in these areas than in the Antarctic, with management planning regarded as
the most appropriate model for management. Management measures specific to cruise
tourism in high latitude locations were identified.
It is argued that there are significant shortcomings in the tourism management system, based
on analysis of the existing system, the characteristics of the industry and the Antarctic
environment, management planning theory, and the standards set by management of similar
activities in the case study areas.
An alternative model for the management of Antarctic tourism using a management
planning approach is proposed, taking into account the case studies, industry analysis and
forecast, and the stmcture and implementation of the present system. The thesis argues that
this alternative is suitable for application within the framework of the ATS, and that it
would overcome the shortcomings identified in the existing management system.
IV
Acknowledgments
I am very grateful to Bmce Davis, Marcus Haward and Rosemary Sandford for advice,
insight, support and patience as supervisors.
The financial support of an Austrahan Postgraduate Award, and an Antarctic Cooperative
Research Centre top-up scholarship is gratefully acknowledged. My employers over the
period of my candidature have my appreciation for their understanding. I am indebted to the
students and staff of the Institute of Antarctic and Southern Ocean Studies, University of
Tasmania, and the Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre for the supportive and stimulating
academic environment in which I studied. Thanks are due to my office colleagues,
especially Ilse, Siobhan, Edmund and Caroline.
I would like to thank the following for kind and generous assistance, comment on the
research, responses to requests for assistance, research materials, case study material, or
other assistance: Tom Maggs, Martin Belts, Ewan Mclvor, Lome Kriwoken, Joe
Montgomery, J. Brady, Michael Hall, Margaret Johnston, Peter Timonin, Gary Gauthier,
Geoff Copston, Ruth Davis, Gorden Cessford, Paul Dingwall, Greg Mortimer, Darrel
Schoeling, Kelvin Michael, Bill Fox, Lynn Peplinski, Marc Maguet, Clay Anderson, Toril
Bakken, Svein Halvorsen, and many others. Important information was supplied by the
following organisations among others: WWF Arctic Programme, Ministry of Environment
(Norway); US NPS-Sitka National Historic Park; US NPS-Glacier Bay National Park and
Preserve; US Environment Protection Agency; US NPS-Kenai Fjords National Park;
Marine Section, Prairie and Northern Region, Transport Canada; Northern Region Canadian
Coast Guard; Australian Antarctic Division; the UTAS Library Document Delivery Service;
and Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service.
Many thanks are also due to my friends and family.
My warmest gratimde and heartfelt appreciation goes to Jenn for her understanding and
support.
Contents
ABSTRACT
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
v
CONTENTS
vi
FIGURES, TABLES, AND MAPS
xiii
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
xv
INTRODUCTION
i. 1
MANAGING ANTARCTIC TOURISM
i.2
i.3
i.4
DEFlNrriONS AND KEY TERMS
INTRODUCTION TO ANTARCTIC TOURISM
xvii
xvii
xviii
xix
xxiv
xxiv
xxv
xxvi
XXvi
^^^^^^
xxviii
xxix
XXxi
RESEARCH AIMS AND METHODOLOGY
i.4.1 Aims and objectives
i.4.2 Justification for the research
i.4.3 Limitations of the research
i.5
THE RESEARCH APPROACH
i.5.1 Case study design
i.5.2 Choosing the case studies
i.5.3 Units of aruxlysis
i.6
THE STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
CHAPTER 1: MANAGEMENT LITERATURE AND ANTARCTIC VALUES
1.1
ISSUES FROM THE ANTARCTIC TOURISM MANAGEMENT LITERATURE
1.1 .a Legal issues: sovereignty, jurisdiction and third parties
1.1.b Enforcement
1.1.c Growth of tourism
1.1.d ATS responses
1.1 .e Protected areas and ASTIs
1.1.f Status of Recommendations
1.1.g Enabling legislation
1.1 .h Role of states and national law
1.1 .i Need for tourism research, monitoring and evaluation
1.1 .j Vessel safety, liability, and insurance
1.1.1
Problems with the existing system
1.1.2
Debate over the need for change
1.1.3
Suggested management options
1.1.3.a Comprehensive approaches
1.1.3.b Summary of proposed management solutions
1.1.4
Recent and ongoing tourism research
1.1.5
Summary of the management literature
1.2 ANTARCTIC VALUES
1.2.1
Use values
1.2.2
Non-use values
1.2.3
Non-economic values
1.2.4
Public preference values
1.2.5
Wilderness and aesthetic values
1.2.6
Physical, chemical and biological systems values
1.2.7
Tourism related values
1.2.8
Summary
VI
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38
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL, ENVIRONMENTAL, OPERATIONAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
ASPECTS OF ANTARCTIC TOURISM
41
2.1
PHYSICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2
Physical resource
Biological resource
Cultural resource
TOURISM HISTORY AND GROWTH
2.3
42
42
45
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47
SHIP BASED TOURISM OPERATIONS
50
2.3.1
The ships
2.3.2
Ship and ship to shore operations
l.'i.l.z
Ice navigation
2.3.2.b
Ship to shore operations
2.3.3
Management of voyages and landings
2.3.3.a
Crew and passenger briefings
2.3.3.b
Landing management
2.3.4
Environmental aspects of operations
2.3.4.a
Prevention of oil pollution
2.3.4.b
Waste management
2.3.4.C
Preventing the introduction of alien species
2.3.5
Incidents arul accidents
2.3.6
Operations outside the Peninsula region
2.4
AIRBORNE TOURISM
2.4.1
Operations landing tourists
2.4.2
Adventure Network Intematiorml
l.A.l.d. Development of ANI
2.4.2.b
Land based facilities
2.4.2.C
Safety and Environmental Policy
2.4.2.d
ANI tourist experience
2.4.2.e
Incidents
2.4.3
Overflights
2.4.4
Potential developments in airborne tourism
2.4.4.a
Airfield availability
2.4.4.b
Summary and implications
51
54
54
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56
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60
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. 66
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2.5
COMMERCIAL YACHT OPERATIONS
72
2.6
SITE USE
72
2.6.1
Site selection and itinerary planning
2.6.2
Peninsula Region
2.6.2.a
Frequency of site use across seasons
2.6.2.b
Frequency of landings across seasons
2.6.2.C
Visitor numbers to sites
2.6.2.d
Summary of landing site use
IRB cruising and helicopter overflights
2.6.2.e
2.6.2.f
Change in site use over time
2.6.2.g
Seasonal site use mapping
2.6.3
Continental sites
2.6.4
Summary
2.7
IMPACTS OF TOURISM
111
2.7.7
Types of impact
2.7.1.a
Impacts on science
2.7.1 .b Impacts on the environment
2.7.1 .c
Impacts on cultural heritage
2.7.1 .d
Impacts on wilderness and other values
2.7.l.e
Positive impacts
2.7.2
Identified or postulated impacts
2.7.3
Measuring arui monitoring impacts
2.7.4
Summary
2.8
74
74
75
75
76
78
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79
80
102
HI
CONCLUSIONS
113
113
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^^3
124
VII
CHAPTER 3: S O C R L , ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRY ASPECTS OF ANTARCTIC
TOURISM
3.1
DEMOGRAPHIC AND ATTITUDINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ANTARCTIC TOURISTS
3.1.1
Gender, age, work status, occupation and previous visits
3.1.2
Nationality of visitors
3.1.3
Attitudes, behaviour and ethics
3.1.4
Satisfaction, highlights and desire to return
3.1.5
Passenger education
3.2
TOURIST MOTIVATION
3.2.1
Motivations arui expectations
3.2.2
Motivational summary
3.3
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
T H E TOURISM EXPERIENCE
5.5.7
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.6
144
145
146
ANTARCTIC TOURISM IN THE BROADER TOURISM INDUSTRY
147
Antarctica as a tourism destination
Antarctica in the destination life-cycle
Antarctic tourism as ecotourism
Global tourism and cruise tourism
Expedition cruising
STAKEHOLDERS
148
151
151
153
155
156
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR ANTARCTIC TOURISM
5.5.7
3.8.2
3.8.3
3.8.4
3.8.5
3.8.6
3.8.7
3.9
132
133
134
135
136
136
136
136
137
138
139
139
139
140
141
141
143
5.7.7
Non-governmental conservation organisations
3.7.1.a
Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition
3.7.1 .b
Other NGOs with Antarctic policies
3.7.l.c
World Conservation Union
3.7. l.d
Oceanites foundation
3.7.2
Non-governmental industry organisations
3.7.2.a
International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators
3.7.2.b
Other bodies
5.7.3
Science and science support organisations
3.7.4
Government agencies
3.7.5
Domestic stakeholders
3.7.6
Other uses of Antarctica
3.8
126
127
128
128
129
129
130
131
Tourism attractions and the tourism experience
Education as part of the tourism experience
Other activities
5.6.7
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.6.4
3.6.5
3.7
126
132
3.3.1
Literature on Antarctic tourism economics
3.3.2
Tourism and economic issues
3.3.3
Antarctica as a common property resource
3.4 A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF ANTARCTIC TOURISM ECONOMICS
3.4.1
Methodology
3.4.1 .a
Calculation of airborne tourism estimate
3.4.1.b
Calculation of overflight estimate
3.4.1 .c
Calculation of minimum estimate for shipbome tourism
3.4.1.d
Calculation of enhanced revenue for shipbome tourism
3.4.1 .e
Assumptions and limitations of shipbome tourism calculations
3.4.2
Results
3.4.2.a
Results for airbome tourism component
3.4.2.b
Results for overflights
3.4.2.C
Results for shipbome tourism
3.4.2.d
Enhanced revenue results
3.4.3
Summary of results and conclusions
3.5
125
Growth and change in shipbome tourism
Growth and change in airbome tourism
Factors limiting growth
Changes in tourism products, experiences and markets
Use of larger vessels
Geographic change
Land based tourism
SUMMARY
156
157
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160
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j ^
755
755
755
167
757
76S
170
7 77
172
174
174
176
Vlll
CHAPTER 4: THE ANTARCTIC TOURISM MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
179
4.1 TOURISM-SPECmC ATS MEASURES
4.1.1
From concern to grudging acceptance: 1966-1970
4.1.2
The beginning of regulation: 1972-1979
4.1.3
Slow progress and the need for review: 1981-1990
4.1.4
Emerging options and a middle path: 1991-1994
4.1.5
The abandoned draft tourism annex to the Protocol—ATOM XVII
4.1.5.a The debate over the draft annex
4.1.6
ATCMXVin, Kyoto 1994
4.1.7
Fine-tuning and regrouping: 1995-1998
4.2
NON-ATS AGREEMENTS
4.2.1
Compliance and re-flagging issues
4.2.2
Agreements applying to Antarctica
4.2.3
Ice navigation-a regime gap
179
180
182
183
184
185
186
187
187
190
190
190
191
4.3
4.4
4.5
193
194
195
RESPONSBELMES OF PARTIES
A T S ALTERNATIVES
ENABLING THE PROTOCOL—LEGISLATION, REGULATIONS, AND PROCEDURES
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
4.5.5
4.5.6
4.5.7
4.5.8
4.5.9
4.5.10
4.5.11
4.6
THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT SYSTEM IN PRACTICE
4.6.1
4.7
4.8
Australia
Chile
Finland
Japan
New Zealand
The Netherlands
Norway
Russia
South Africa
United States
Features of the legislative approaches
impact assessment issues
206
207
PROTECTED AREAS
INSPECTIONS AND OBSERVER PROGRAMS
VOLUNTARY MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS
209
214
4.9
4.9.1
Membership oflAATO
4.9.2
Guidelines and codes of conduct
4.9.2.a The lAATO guidelines
4.9.2.b The ATS guidance documents
4.9.2.C Effectiveness of voluntary guidance documents
4.10 TOURISM AND SCIENCE
4.10.1 Managing tourism visits to stations
4.11 CONCLUSIONS
215
215
216
218
220
221
222
223
224
CHAPTER 5: SOUTHERN OCEANIC ISLANDS TOURISM MANAGEMENT CASE
STUDIES
5.1
SOUTHERN OCEANIC ISLANDS
5.7.7
The case study region
5.1.2
The case studies
5.1.3
Case study presentation
5.1.4
General description of southern oceanic islands
5.2
196
197
197
197
199
200
200
201
202
202
203
TOURISM ON SOUTHERN OCEANIC ISLANDS
227
227
228
228
231
231
232
5.2.7
Tourism on non case study islands
233
5.2.2
Southern oceanic island tourism research
235
5.2.2.a Overview papers
235
5.2.2.b SCAR/IUCN Workshop on protection, research and management of subantarctic islands 236
5.2.2.C Social research
237
5.2.2.d Physical impacts
238
5.3
TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR THE NEW ZEALAND SUBANTARCTIC ISLANDS
5.5.7
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
Physical and environmental resource
Historical use and resources
Tourist visits
Management of tourism
ix
238
238
240
240
241
5.3.4.a
Guidelines for tourism
5.3.4.b Minimum impact code
5.3.4.C Other features
5.3.5
Summary
5.4
243
244
244
244
TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR MACQUARE ISLAND
5.-^.7
Physical and environmental resource
5.4.2
Historical use and resources
5.4.3
Tourist visits
5.4.4
Management of tourism
5.4.4.a
Guidelines for tourism
5.4.4.b Minimum impact code
5.4.5
Summary
5.5
TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR HEARD AND MCDONALD ISLANDS
5.5.7
Physical arui environmental resource
5.5.2
Historical use and resources
5.5.3
Tourist visits
5.5.4
Management of tourism
5.5.4.a Guidelines for tourism
5.5.4.b Code of conduct
5.5.5
Summary
5.6
5.8
WILDLIFE RESERVE
TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR SOUTH GEORGIA
5.S.7
Physical and environmental resource
5.8.2
Historical use and resources
5.8.3
Tourist visits
Marmgement of tourism
5.8.4
5.8.4.a Proposed visitor management policy
5.8.5
Summary
5.9
SUBANTARCTIC TOURISM MANAGEMENT DISCUSSION
5.9.7
5.9.2
5.9.3
5.9.4
5.9.5
5.9.6
Management planning
Policies on tourism
Shore management provisions
Administration
Differences between the southem oceanic islands and the Antarctic
Drawing on other research
5.10 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ANTARCTIC TOURISM
CHAPTER 6: TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR NORTHERN POLAR LOCATIONS
6.1
INTRODUCTION
6.7.7
6.1.2
6.1.3
Rationale and case selection
The northem polar region
Regional tourism activity
250
250
251
252
252
^^
'^^^
TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR THE PRINCE EDWARD ISLANDS
5.6.7
Physical and environmental resource
5.6.2
Historical use and resources
5.6.3
Management of tourism
5.6.4
EIA of tourism on Marion Island
5.6.5
Summary
5.7 TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR GouGH ISLAND
5.7.7
Physical and environmental resource
5.7.2
Historical use arui resources
5.7.3
Management of tourism
5.7.4
Summary
245
245
^46
246
247
248
249
250
255
255
256
257
258
259
260
260
261
262
264
264
265
266
266
267
268
269
270
270
275
275
277
278
279
280
283
283
283
285
288
6.2
ARCTIC-WIDE TOURISM PRINCIPLES
289
6.3
TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR SVALBARD
292
6.5.7
Physical and environmental resource
6.3.2
Historical use and resources
6.3.3
Tourism on Svalbard
6.3.4
Cruise tourism
6.3.5
Management of tourism
6.3.5.a Tourism regulations
6.3.5.b Protected areas
292
293
294
295
296
297
6.3.5.C
Tourism management plan zoning
6.3.5.d
Additional elements of the management plan
6.3.6
Summary
6.4 TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR G L A C E R B AY NATIONAL PARK AND PRESERVE, ALASKA
6.4.7
Physical arui environmental resource
6.4.2
Historical and cultural use
6.4.3
Tourism use
6.4.3.a
Cruise vessels
6.4.3.b Tour boats
6.4.3.C
Visitor numbers
6.4.3.d
Tourist characteristics
6.4.4
Management planning
6.4.5
Vessel management plan
6.4.5.a
Daily entry restrictions
6.4.5 .b Seasonal entry restrictions
6.4.5.C
Other regulations
6.4.5.d
Concession system
6.4.5.e
Other management
6.4.6
Summary
6.5 TOURISM MANAGEMENT FOR THE CANADIAN ARCTIC
6.5.1
Physical and environmental resource
6.5.2
Land tenure, ruitional parks and protected areas
6.5.2.a
Nunavut
6.5.2.b
Northwest Territories
6.5.2.C
Yukon
6.5.3
Tourism activity
6.5.3.a
Geographic areas
6.5.3.b
Tourist characteristics
6.5.4
Vessel management and regulation
6.5.5
Additional requirements
6.5.5.a
Federal requirements
6.5.5.b Territory government requirements
6.5.6
Summary
6.6
T H E RUSSIAN ARCTIC AND THE NORTH POLE
6.6.7
6.6.2
USSR cruise activity
Foreign involvement and access
298
299
^QQ
301
302
303
J03
303
304
304
305
305
306
307
307
307
307
308
308
310
311
312
312
313
313
313
314
315
315
319
319
319
320
322
323
325
6.7
CRUISE TOURISM TO OTHER ARCTIC DESTINATIONS
326
6.8
NORTHERN POLAR REGIONS TOURISM MANAGEMENT DISCUSSION
327
6.8.1
General discussion
6.8.2
Destination characteristics and tourism experiences
6.8.3
Management systems and management planning
6.8.3.a
Environmental assessment
6.8.3.b
Visitor experience
6.8.3.C
Limits on tourism
6.8.3.d
Research and monitoring
6.8.3.e
Codes of conduct
6.8.3.f
Management presence
6.8.3.g
Wildlife dismrbance issues
6.8.3.h
Administrative arrangements
6.8.4
Ice navigation
6.9
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ANTARCTIC TOURISM
CHAPTER 7: EVALUATING THE ANTARCTIC TOURISM MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
7.1 ATS GOALS FOR TOURISM MANAGEMENT
7.2 PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLANNING THEORY
7.2.7 A sample planning system
7.2.2
Wilderness management
7.2.3
Visitor management
7.2.3.a
Carrying capacity
7.2.3.b
Recreation Opportunity Spectrum
7.2.3.C
Limits of Acceptable Change
7.2.3.d
Agency specific visitor management models
7.2.4
Summary of protected area management planning
XI
527
328
329
329
330
330
330
330
330
331
331
331
331
333
333
335
335
337
339
339
339
341
342
345
7.3 RESULTS OF CASE STUDY ANALYSES
7.5.7 Southem oceanic island tourism nv2nagement
7.3.2 Tourism managementfor northem polar locations
7.4 EVALUATING THE ANTARCTIC TOURISM MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
7.4.1 Coverage
7.4.2 Adequacy
l.A.l.z.
Lack of a strategic management approach
7.4.2.b
Lack of a mechanism for implementing management measures
7.4.2.C
Unclear distribution of regulatory responsibility
7.4.2.d
Lack of management institiitions
7.4.2.e
The environmental assessment system
7.4.2.f
Binding and non-binding measures
7.4.2.g
The protected area system
7.4.2.h
Neglect of wildemess and aesthetic values
7.4.2.i
Monitoring
7.4.2.J
Site management and management presence
7.4.2.k
Prevention of pollution
7.4.2.1
Safety
7.4.2.m
Self-sufficiency and contingency planning
7.4.2.n
Lack of an ice navigation regime
7.4.2.0
Conservation offloraand fauna
7.4.2.P
Level of impact
7.5
CONCLUSIONS
361
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1
GENERAL DISCUSSION
S.7.7
8.1.2
8.2
EVALUATION OF PROPOSED MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
8.3
Comprehensive management systems
8.4
Antarctic tourism management needs
Management strategies and actions
A way forward
Implementing a system within the ATS
THE ANTARCTIC TREATY SYSTEM
389
389
a7.7.7 The Antarctic Treaty
al.1.2 Functioning of the ATS
al.1.3 Additional components of the ATS
389
391
391
THE PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY
a7.2.7
al.2.2
al.2.3
al.2.4
al.2.5
al.2.6
al.2.7
al.2.8
al.2.9
378
381
383
385
387
APPENDIX 1: ELEMENTS OF THE ANTARCTIC TREATY SYSTEM
al.2
369
376
CONCLUDING COMMENT
al. 1
367
368
372
MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
5.5.7
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4
363
364
Factors influencing and constraining tourism mxinagement
A need for change
8.2.1
346
346
347
348
348
350
350
350
351
352
352
354
354
355
356
357
357
358
358
359
359
360
The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities
The negotiation of the Protocol
The Protocol Articles
Annex I to the Protocol: Environmental impact assessment
Annex II to the Protocol: Conservation of Antarctic fauna and
flora
Annex III to the Protocol: Waste disposal and waste management
Annex IV to the Protocol: Prevention of marine pollution
Annex V to the Protocol: Area protection arui management
The proposed liability annex to the Protocol
393
393
394
394
397
398
399
400
401
402
APPENDIX 2: THE PROPOSED TOURISM ANNEX TO THE PROTOCOL
405
APPENDIX 3: RECOMMENDATION XVIH-l AND RECOMMENDATION Vm-9
407
REFERENCES
417
ANTARCTIC TREATY CONSULTATIVE MEETING DOCUMENTS CITED
435
xii
F i g u r e s , t a b l e s , and maps
FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3:
Figure 3.1:
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 6.1:
Figure 6.2:
Figure 7.1:
Value categories and Antarctic values
Seaborne tourist numbers
Forecast seaborne tourist numbers, lAATO forecast, and line of best fit
based on 1985/86 to 1998/99
figures
Total number of landings over nine seasons at each landing site (Peninsula
region)
Product and destination life cycles
A summary of Rec. XVIII-1
Responsibilities of parties relating to tourism
Code of conduct for Svalbard tourism
Growth in visits on cruise ships and tour boats
Framework for NPS Park Planning and Decision Making
35
48
49
76
150
189
193
300
304
335
TABLES
Table i. 1:
Table 1.1:
Table 2.1:
Table 2.2:
Table 2.3:
Table 2.4:
Table 2.5:
Table 2.6:
Table 2.7:
Table 2.8:
Table 2.9:
Table 2.10:
Table 2.11:
Table 2.12:
Table 2.13:
Table 2.14:
Table 2.15:
Table 2.16:
Table 2.17:
Table 2.18:
Table 2.19:
Table 2.20:
Table 2.21:
Table 3.1:
Table 3.2:
Table 3.3:
Table 3.4:
Table 3.5:
Table 3.6:
Table 3.7:
Table 3.8:
Table 3.9:
Table 4.1:
Timeline of events relating to tourism in the Antarctic
Tourism related values
Potential and actual activities by landform
Number (actual and forecast) of operators, ships, and voyages 1992/93 to
2001/02
Industry structure—ship passenger capacities
Antarctic tourism fleet vessel characterisation (1996/97)
Passengers carried by vessel type 1996/97
ANI and Polar Logistics activities and other use of Patriot Hills
Predicted or potential impacts of ANI activities
Reported ANI client numbers participating in different Patriot Hills
programs over 6 seasons
Number of seasons sites were used (Peninsula region)
Total visits over 9 seasons (Peninsula region)
Average visitor numbers by number of sites (Peninsula region)
Details of sites where average annual visitation is more than 1(X)0
(Peninsula region)
Peninsula sites ranking top 5 most visited for 3 or more of 9 seasons
Regularity of site use for IRB cruising or helicopter overflights (Peninsula
region)
Total visits over 7 seasons for IRB cruising or helicopter overflights
(Peninsula region)
Total landing sites and introduction of new landing sites
Areas used for visit mapping (Peninsula region)
Landing site use seasonal distribution (Continental region)
Average visitor numbers by number of sites (Continental region)
Continental region sites where average annual visitation is more than 150
Summary of predicted and actual tourism impacts
Gender, age, work status and previous visits of Antarctic tourists
Nationalities ofti-avellers1994/95 to 1997/98
Why people visit Antarctica
Total revenue calculation for airbome tourism
Overflight revenue per
flight
Suinmary of minimum vessel / company calculations
Comparison between minimum revenue and enhanced revenue estimates
IndusO^ structure: revenue and passengers by company
Elements of conmmercial tourism experiences
Summary timeline of ATS measures relating to tourism, witii key events
Xlll
xx
38
45
50
52
53
53
64
66
67
75
76
77
77
78
79
79
80
101
102
103
103
121
127
127
131
139
139
140
141
142
145
181
Table 4.2:
Table 4.3:
Table 5.1:
Table 5.2:
Table 5.3:
Table 5.4:
Table 5.5:
Table 5.6:
Table 5.7:
Table 5.8:
Table 5.9:
Table 5.10:
Table 6.1:
Table 6.2:
Table 6.3:
Table 6.4:
Table 6.5:
Table 7.1:
Table 7.2:
Table al.l:
Implementing the Protocol through legislation
Application of Protocol implementing legislation
Southem oceanic islands
Island visits—companies offering visits 1996/97 season
New Zealand subantarctic island visitor characteristics
Visits to New Zealand subantarctic islands
Visits to Macquarie island
Southem oceanic islands—management planning
Southem oceanic islands—shore management provisions
Southern oceanic islands—administrative and other provisions
Southem oceanic islands—conservation characteristics
Tourism management provisions
Protected areas in the Arctic
Sununary of WWF principles for Arctic tourism. Code of Conduct for
operators, and Code of conduct for tourists
Tourism management provisions for Svalbard
Cruise tourism management. Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve
Ship types and Shipping Safety Control Zone entry dates
Relevant lUCN Protected area management categories
Steps in the Limits of Acceptable Change Process
Summary of the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty
198
199
230
234
238
240
247
271
272
273
274
281
287
290
301
310
318
335
343
390
MAPS
Map 2.1:
Map 2.2:
Map 2.3:
Map 2.4:
Map 2.5:
Map 2.6:
Map 2.7:
Map 2.8:
Map 2.9:
Map 2.10:
Map 2.11:
Map 2.12:
Map 2.13:
Map 5.1:
Map 6.1:
Map 6.2:
Inflatable mbber boat (IRB) cmising or overflights - Peninsula Sites
Peninsula site use change series - 89/90 season
Peninsula site use change series - 90/91 season
Peninsula site use change series - 91/92 season
Peninsula site use change series - 92/93 season
Peninsula site use change series - 93/94 season
Peninsula site use change series - 94/95 season
Peninsula site use change series - 95/96 season
Peninsula site use change series - 96/97 season
Peninsula site use change series - 97/98 season
Major features and tourist sites (Ross Sea region, Gates Land and West
Antarctica)
Major features and tourist sites (East Antarctica, Enderby Land to Terre
Adelie)
Major features and tourist sites (Dronning Maud Land, Weddell Region
and western East Antarctica)
Southem oceanic islands
Northem polar regions
Arctic Canada including Shipping Safety Control Zones
XIV
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
105
107
109
229
286
317
Acronyms and abbreviations
AAT
AEPS
AIRSS
AMAP
ANARE
ANI
ANLICA
ASAC
ASMA
ASOC
ASPA
ASPPR
ASTI
ATCM
ATCP
ATP
ATS
BAS
cc
CCAMLR
CCGN
CEE
CEMP
CEP
CITES
CLIA
CMS
COMNAP
CRAMRA
DPWH
EIA
EPA
FACH
GNWT
HRSCERA
lAATO
L^CS
ICAIR
lEE
MO
IP
IRB
lUCN
IWC
LAC
Australian Antarctic Territory
Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy
Arctic Ice Regime Shipping Standards (Canada)
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme
Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions
Adventure Network International
Alaskan National Interest Lands Conservation Act
Antarctic Science Advisory Committee (Australia)
Antarctic Specially Managed Area
Antarctic and Southem Ocean Coalition
Antarctic Specially Protected Area
Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention Regulations
Area of Special Tourist Interest
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Party
Antarctic Treaty Party
Antarctic Treaty System
British Antarctic Survey
Carrying Capacity
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources (also Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic
Marine Living Resources)
Northem Region Canadian Coast Guard
Comprehensive Environmental Evaluation
CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Program
Committee for Environmental Protection (of the ATS)
Convention on Intemational Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Flora and Fauna
Cruise Line Intemational Association
Conservation Management Strategy
Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs
Convention for the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource
Activities
Department of Parks, Wildlife and Heritage (Tasmania)
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Protection Agency, US
Fuerza Aerea de Chile
Government of the Northwest Territories
House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment,
Recreation and the Arts (Australia)
Intemational Association of Antarctica Tour Operators
Intemational Association of Classification Societies
Intemational Centre for Antarctic Information and Research
Initial Environmental Evaluation
Intemational Maritime Organisation
Information Paper (of the ATCM)
Inflatable Rubber Boat
Intemational Union for the Conservation of Nature and Namral
Resources (World Conservation Union)
Intemational Whaling Commission
Limits of Acceptable Change (management system)
XV
MARPOL 73/78
MBO
MPA
NERC
NGO
NMFS
NORDREG
NPI
NPS
NSF
NWT
PAC
PATA
PEE
PERM
Polar Code
Protocol
Rec.
ROS
SCALOP
SCAR
SCUBA
SGSSI
SOLAS
SOPEP
SPA
SPRI
SRA
SSSI
TANGO
TAP
Treaty
UKAHT
UN
UNCLOS
USFWS
VAMP
VERP
VIM
VMP
WCMC
WP
WTO
WWF
The Intemational Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978
Management By Objectives
Multiple-use Planning Area
National Environment Research Council (UK)
Non-governmental Organisation
National Marine Fisheries Service (US)
Arctic Traffic System (Canadian Coast Guard)
Norwegian Polar Institute
National Park Service (US)
National Science Foundation (US)
Northwest Territories
Project Antarctic Conservation
Pacific Asia Travel Association
Preliminary Environmental Evaluation
Preliminary Environmental Review Memorandum
Intemational Code of Safety for Ships in Polar Waters
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
Recommendation (of the ATCM)
Recreation Opportunity Spectrum
Standing Committee on Antarctic Logistics and Operations (of
COMNAP)
Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
Self-contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Intemational Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974
Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan
Specially Protected Area
Scott Polar Research Institute (UK)
Specially Reserved Area
Site of Special Scientific Interest
Tourism and Non-Governmental Operations (working group of
COMNAP)
The Antarctica Project
Antarctic Treaty of 1959
UK Antarctic Heritage Trast
United Nations
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
US Fish and Wildlife Service
Visitor Activity Management Process
Visitor Experience and Resource Protection Framework
Visitor Impact Management process
Vessel Management Plan
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
Working Paper (of the ATCM)
World Tourism Organisation
World Wide Fund for Nature, also known as World Wildlife Fund
xvi