School of History
Style Guide
2014/2015
www2.le.ac.uk/departments/history
SCHOOL OF HISTORY STYLE GUIDE (full version) 2014 -15
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Table of Contents
Style Guide (Summary Version) ..................................................................................................................................1
Style and Structure .....................................................................................................................................................2
Page Layout ................................................................................................................................................................2
Spelling .......................................................................................................................................................................2
Grammar.....................................................................................................................................................................2
Initials, Abbreviations, Contractions and Colloquialisms ...........................................................................................3
Use of ‘ed.’ and ‘eds’ ..................................................................................................................................................3
Dates, Names and Numbers .......................................................................................................................................4
Capital Letters .............................................................................................................................................................4
Italics, Underlining and Asides....................................................................................................................................5
Quotations ..................................................................................................................................................................5
Quotation Marks.........................................................................................................................................................6
Foreign Words and Quotations ..................................................................................................................................6
Tables, Charts, Maps and Illustrations .......................................................................................................................6
References – Footnotes ..............................................................................................................................................7
References to Books ................................................................................................................................................................8
References to Essays in Edited Books ....................................................................................................................................10
References to Journal Articles ...............................................................................................................................................10
References to Book Reviews ..................................................................................................................................................10
References to Newspaper Articles .........................................................................................................................................11
References to Quotes from Sources When You Have Not Seen the Original ........................................................................11
References to Online Material ...............................................................................................................................................12
References to Visual and Audio Media ..................................................................................................................................12
References to Unpublished Secondary Material ...................................................................................................................13
References to Early Printed Books .........................................................................................................................................13
References to Documents in Published Collections ..............................................................................................................14
References to Published Official Documents and Pamphlets ................................................................................................15
References to Original (Manuscript) Documents ..................................................................................................................15
Subsequent References: Using the ‘Short Title’ System ........................................................................................................16
Bibliography ..............................................................................................................................................................17
NOTE: throughout this Guide, the term ‘dissertation’ should be taken to include BA and MA dissertations and
theses for research degrees, unless otherwise specifically stated.
Style Guide (Summary Version)
A summary version of this guide has been placed on the Blackboard sites of all undergraduate taught modules. If
you are in doubt on any point, follow the instructions and examples given in this full guide; if you are still unsure,
consult your module tutor or dissertation supervisor for advice.
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Style and Structure
Style is partly a matter of personal preference, but there are accepted conventions of grammar and presentation
which will make your work clear and effective. You should aim to achieve the best professional standards of
historical writing both in content and in presentation at all times. The aim when planning the structure of your
work is to ensure clarity of exposition and argument. This is assisted by a sensible division of the text into
suitable paragraphs (and, in a dissertation, the grouping of these paragraphs into chapters). However, too many
sub-divisions can interrupt the chain of argument and make the work appear disjointed.
The essential principles to bear in mind are clarity, readability and ease of reference. In stylistic terms, this
means the use of good written English. There is no particular merit in long and cumbersome sentences. Aim
instead for a writing style that remains clear and concise, and is expressive through using a sophisticated
vocabulary. Care should be taken over grammar and punctuation.
Page Layout
All work must be word-processed in justified text using Times New Roman font in 12 point type, with double or
1.5 line spacing. The top, bottom, left and right margins should be not less than 25mm (except that in
dissertations and theses, the left-hand margin must be not less than 40mm). Each page must be clearly
numbered, using the header. All coursework must be printed A4 size paper, using only one side of each sheet.
All coursework assignments and undergraduate dissertations: these must be a header on each page containing
your student number (which you will find located directly below your name on your ID card), the module and
assignment number, and the total word count (all of which should be positioned at the left-hand margin), and
the page number (which should be placed at the top right-hand corner). These and only these identifiers should
be in the page headers: DO NOT PUT YOUR NAME ON YOUR WORK. For essays, the full title of the question that
you have tackled should be placed at the top of the first page.
MA dissertations and theses for higher degrees: these are submitted bound with the title and author
identification on the first page, and so each page needs only its number (placed at the top right-hand corner).
In all cases, the first paragraph of an essay, and of each chapter in a dissertation, should start at the left-hand
margin. The beginning of each subsequent paragraph must be clearly indicated, either by inserting a blank line
or by indenting its first word by at least 20mm.
Spelling
All word-processing programmes include a spell-check facility. Whilst it is a good idea to use it, you need to
remember its limitations. The ‘spell check’ will not recognise many of the names of persons and places which
you use and, consequently, it is easy to mistake these; for example, to put ‘Atlee’ throughout your essay when
the name is actually ‘Attlee’. The default setting of most spell-checkers is ‘United States English’, and you may
need to reset it to ‘United Kingdom English’ in order to avoid creating errors. Remember also that the ‘spell
check’ does not know your intention, so that if you typed ‘hear’ when you meant ‘here’, it will not detect the
error. For this reason, there is no substitute for reading carefully through a printed copy of your essay or
dissertation on a number of occasions while you are developing it. It is also important to undertake a thorough
proof reading prior to submission.
Grammar
A good essay should read well. It should flow and not be marred by bad grammar, punctuation, spelling or style.
These are basic skills of written English and you will be penalised for carelessness in this regard. Above all, your
writing should be clear. Divide your text into paragraphs, each of which makes its own distinct point.
One of the commonest and most fundamental errors in students’ work is the misuse of the comma where
stronger punctuation is required (usually a full stop, or a semi-colon).
Wrong: He went to the door, there was no one there.
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Right: He went to the door. There was no one there.
He went to the door; there was no one there.
Also very common is misuse or neglect of the apostrophe. The apostrophe has two uses:
(1) to denote the omission of letters in a contraction (as in can’t), and
(2) to denote a possessive.
The general rule is that a possessive is formed by adding ’s to a word (the conflict’s origin, Asquith’s policy,
women’s rights), except where the word concerned is a plural that itself ends in s, in which case an apostrophe
alone is added (students’ union, the Joneses’ house).
A particular pitfall is presented by its and it’s since here the possessive does not follow the normal rule. The
apostrophe in it’s always signifies the contraction of it is, and the correct possessive form is simply its. Thus,
while you might properly say One’s got to do one’s best, you cannot say It’s not in it’s place. Instead, the correct
form is It’s not in its place.
The word-processing programme can assist you by highlighting some issues of grammar. However, as with
spelling, the programme is not aware of your intent. A particular problem arises from the programme’s
preference for an active as opposed to a passive tense. There are various guides to grammar and English
expression, such as Lynne Truss, Eats, Shoots & Leaves (2003). In addition, the Careers Service has an excellent
range of short explanatory sheets about various aspects of punctuation as well as broader issues of style, essay
planning, etc.
You may find that reading your work out loud will help you to improve your grammar and style. This can be
especially helpful for the correct placing of commas: where you would naturally pause for a beat when speaking,
it is likely that there should be a comma in a written text.
Initials, Abbreviations, Contractions and Colloquialisms
Commonly used and well known initials and acronyms can be used in your text (such as BBC, NATO, MP, UN,
etc.), but the name should be given in full at the first mention and immediately followed by the initials in
brackets:
... original charter of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was granted in ...
In other cases, you should not replace names with initials in the text; it should always read ‘the Prime Minister’
and not ‘the PM’, ‘the Foreign Office’ and not ‘the FO’. Always put ‘First World War’ and ‘Second World War’ in
full, and do not use ‘WW2’ or ‘WWII’, etc. In all cases, clarity is more important than brevity.
Abbreviations, contractions and colloquialisms (such as: e.g. didn’t, the bottom line), should be avoided. It is
permissible to use abbreviations in footnotes, but they should always be readily understandable. Any
abbreviations used should be explained on their first occurrence in the text, and in a dissertation they should
also be included in a reference list placed after the contents page. The only exceptions to this are abbreviations
which are standard conventions used in references, as follows:
p.
page (e.g. p. 147)
pp.
pages (e.g. pp. 147-9)
MS
manuscript (plural: MSS)
Ibid.
Ibidem (meaning ‘in the same place’: see examples in the ‘Subsequent References’ section)
vol.
Volume (plural: vols)
Use of ‘ed.’ and ‘eds’
When following a person’s name or multiple names, ‘ed.’ and ‘eds’ mean ‘editor’ and ‘editors’, respectively. In
this context, ‘ed.’ has a full stop and ‘eds’ does not. This is because ‘ed.’ is an abbreviation (a shortened version
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of a word, created by deleting the end part of the word), and ‘eds’ is a contraction (a word created by omitting
one or more letters from within it).
For example:
1. M. S. Edmonson (ed.), Sixteenth Century Mexico: the Work of Sahagún (Albuquerque, 1974).
2. C. Cook and J. Ramsden (eds), By-elections in British Politics (London, 1973).
3. Chronicles of London, ed. C. L. Kingsford (Oxford, 1925).
4. J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, trans. and ed. J. E. Mangan (Durham, 2002).
When following the title of book and before the name(s), ‘ed.’ means ‘edited by’ and refers to a single editor or
multiple editors.
The Codex Mendoza, ed. F .F. Berdan and P. R. Anawalt (California, 1992).
Dates, Names and Numbers
Dates should be given in a consistent pattern of the number of the day, then the name of the month, and then
year, as follows: 24 August 1931. The day should be given as a plain numeral, and not followed by ‘st’, ‘rd’ or ‘th’.
The format 24/08/31 is not acceptable in either text or references. Dates of years should always be given in full
as numbers, e.g. ‘1789’. Decades do not take the possessive case, i.e. they should appear as 1580s, not 1580’s. If
referring to a century, this should be given in word form, e.g., ‘the seventeenth century’. When a century is used
as an adjective then it should be hyphenated but not otherwise, e.g. ‘seventeenth-century women’, but ‘women
of the seventeenth century’.
Names should also follow a consistent pattern. The full name and title should be given at the first mention of a
person in the text, after which all further mentions refer to that individual by her/his surname (except for
monarchs and popes, who are referred to by their forename and number or distinguishing appellation, e.g.
Henry VIII, Innocent IV, Frederick the Great). However, if more than one person with the same surname is
mentioned in the text, an identifying forename or title will need to be given, either at all mentions if both occur
persons frequently (e.g., Austen Chamberlain and Neville Chamberlain, or the 14th Earl of Derby and the 15th
Earl), or where one person appears rarely, only for that person (e.g. in an essay on Margaret Thatcher, where
she is just ‘Thatcher’ but the one or two mentions of her husband are indicated by the use of ‘Denis Thatcher’).
It is permissible to give a full name and title on the first mention and subsequently refer to that individual by
her/his surname or title (e.g. Wellington) on all following occasions.
Numbers up to ten should be written as a word; for larger numbers use figures: one, ten, 11, 167, etc. Commas
make large numbers more comprehensible, so 1,256 and 245,000. It is permissible to use the abbreviations m.
for million(s) and bn. for billion(s). Fractions and decimals should be given as 1½, 1.37, but otherwise use an
expression, such as ‘half of the empire’ etc. When referring to percentages in the text, use ‘per cent’ not ‘%’.
Capital Letters
When writing prose (as opposed to a bibliographic list), capital letters should only be used for proper nouns: the
names of people, places, institutions and specific items such as an act of parliament. For example:
Martin Luther, the Duke of Wellington, Mount Fuji, Foreign Office, Socialism, Reform Act of 1918
However, capital letters are not used where the term is generic, or a common noun, such as ‘foreign policy’ or
‘general election’. Examples of both forms are: ‘Pope Benedict issued a bull’, but ‘many popes lived in the
Vatican’; ‘King Henry VIII’, but ‘Henry VIII, king of England’ and ‘the powers of the king of England’; ‘the Cabinet’
but ‘cabinet ministers’.
Capitals should usually be used for all of the words in the titles of books, periodicals and newspapers.
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Italics, Underlining and Asides
Be very sparing in the use of either italics or underlining in order to give emphasis. Do not over-use brackets: an
aside or subsidiary clause is often better surrounded by commas or dashes, or placed in a separate sentence
altogether. Italics should normally only be used for:
-
titles of publications (see the sections below on references)
-
terms or phrases in languages other than English (but not where they are in a quotation)
Quotations
In presenting your argument, you may wish to quote extracts from the secondary or primary sources that you
have been reading. Be careful, as this has many pitfalls. Never insert quotations simply to pad out your text. Only
use a quotation when it is particularly relevant to your line of argument, and show that this is so. Excessive
quotation of sources should be avoided.
It is important to strike a balance between failing to buttress your analysis with evidence and the over-frequent
insertion of quotations, especially those of excessive length. Remember that all quotations are included in the
calculation of the word length of the assignment.
Quotations of up to two lines of typescript should remain within the text of a paragraph, placed between single
quotations marks ‘like this’. Longer extracts should stand separately at the appropriate point in the text: they
should be indented from both margins by not less than 10 mm., set in a smaller font (11 or 10 point) and put in
single-spaced lines. A blank line must be left both above and below each such quotation, so that it stands out
clearly from the surrounding text. For this reason, it is not necessary to place such quotations between
quotation marks. In the case of a longer quote, place the footnote reference number at the end of the quote.
All quotations must correspond exactly with the original in wording, spelling, capitalisation and interior
punctuation; in this respect, they are exempt from the rules given in this guide. Any alterations, omissions or
insertions must be clearly shown, using the following conventions.
You might wish to shorten a quotation. This is an acceptable practice so long as it does not in any way sacrifice
clarity or alter the meaning of the original. It is undertaken by means of an ellipsis, which is represented as three
spaced full-stops at the point where the omission has taken place, regardless of the length of the omission, i.e. …
Common sense should be used when editing quotations in this manner. Too many ellipses within a quotation
should be avoided, and it is not normally worthwhile to make omissions of less than five words. On the other
hand, ellipses should not be used to link material across a very large omission, and extracts which are widely
separated in the original should be given as two distinct quotations. Do not begin or end a quotation with an
ellipsis, even if words have been omitted here (if your quote begins within a sentence, do not change the first
letter in the quote from lower case to upper case.
All quotations should read grammatically so far as it is possible. In order to achieve this (or to make a quotation
clearer), it may be useful to insert information. All such interpolations introduced by you, or by any previous
editor, must be placed in square brackets, i.e. [like this]. This rule applies to both short and long quotations.
Interpolations may be necessary in order to clarify a name, date or place. They may also be required for inserting
a word clearly omitted in error in the original, e.g. ‘the King was of the opinion [that] war should be declared’.
However, it is not necessary to alter minor grammatical points in a quotation, such as the tense.
In some cases, a quotation may be made even less clear by the use of many such interpolations. When this
might occur, alternative conventions can be employed to indicate that your reproduction of the original is not in
error. One alternative is placing the word sic (a Latin word meaning ‘as it is written’) in square brackets after the
appropriate word or phrase. e.g. The document states that ‘Henry VIII wanted to beheed [sic] his wife’.
However, it should not be overused, and it is not necessary to use it repeatedly when quoting from documents
written in medieval or early modern English. A second alternative is the insertion of a question mark, again in
square brackets, after any word where there is some doubt as to the correct reading, e.g. ‘Baldwin spoke to
Greville[?] who said he could [would?] agree...’ .
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All quotations must have a footnote reference giving the precise details of the source – for the correct format of
citation for different types of source material, with examples, see the References section below.
Quotation Marks
Single inverted commas should be used to indicate quotations, except if there is a quotation or words already
placed in inverted commas in the passage which you are quoting. These words or existing quotation should be
indicated by double inverted commas in your text, even if they were in single inverted commas in the original.
For example:
As the government became more unpopular, one cabinet minister noted in his diary that ‘the pressure
to ditch the “poll tax” rises every day’.
Nancy Jay wrote: ‘The moment we say “The celebrants do not and must not comprehend the true role of
the sacrificial act” … we have lost any possibility of gaining any understanding beyond the one we
already had and brought along with us.’
If the passage or words quoted is of only part of a sentence, the closing quote mark is placed before the full stop
at the end of the sentence (as in the first example above). However, if a complete sentence is quoted (even with
some excision within it), then its closing full stop is part of the quotation and should be included within it, before
the full stop (as in the second example above).
Single inverted commas or quotation marks are also used to indicate the titles of items within a publication, such
as the titles of an article in a periodical or newspaper and an essay in an edited book of essays.
Foreign Words and Quotations
Foreign words or phrases embedded in your text should be italicised, e.g. ‘The Reichstag voted for war credits in
August 1914’ and ‘Louis Napoleon staged a coup d’état in December 1851’. However, italics are not needed for
foreign language quotations. Note also that where the English name for a place differs from the native form, the
English version is used in all cases, unless it is a direct quotation.
If you are working with foreign language sources, the question of whether you should quote in the foreign
language or use an English translation is a difficult question which should be discussed with your course tutor or
dissertation supervisor. Languages which do not use the Roman alphabet present special difficulties which your
supervisor can assist you with. It is usual to use English translations or paraphrases unless the original is required
but, whatever you decide, you must be consistent and clear in your reasoning. Any summaries or paraphrases
should be carefully considered to ensure they are accurate, and precise references to the original material must
be given. If you are working from a translation, then a reference to the translated edition is adequate, but you
should consider whether there are any potential pitfalls of using a translation. These are issues which
particularly affect the writing and presentation of dissertations.
Tables, Charts, Maps and Illustrations
Ensure that all such material is clearly set out and that you explain its relevance in the main body of the text.
Tables, graphs and charts should be given a number (figure 1, table 1, etc.) and title, placed above the item;
maps and illustrations should have a caption placed below. The source is given immediately below the table,
graph or chart, or for maps and illustrations, immediately below the caption.
All illustrative materials should have a numbered title (which in the case of a dissertation would be the
combination of the chapter number and the illustration number), followed by its title in italics. In the following
example, the table is table 1 in chapter 3 and so is numbered 3.1. The next table in chapter 3 would be
numbered 3.2. The source of the table is given as a reference immediately below the table (as below), and not as
a footnote to the table heading; the source should be in a smaller font, such as 10 point.
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Table 3.1: Ionian Islands, selected estimated population, 1836.
Island
Population
Corfu
65,057
Cephalonia
63,197
Zante
35,348
Levkas/Santa Maura
17,195
Ithaca and Calamos
9,644
Total
190,441
Source: J. R. McCulloch, Dictionary, Practical, Theoretical, and Historical of Commerce (London, 1837), p. 777.
Normally, illustrations (maps, graphs, pictures, etc.) in a dissertation are listed as separate series, with each
series numbered in the same way by chapter and its place within the chapter series, so illustration 2.1 would be
the first illustration in chapter two. As with charts, diagrams, graphs and tables, the source of an illustration
should be given immediately below it, and not as a footnote to its title or caption.
References – Footnotes
References acknowledge the source of specific quotations or information, and to cite evidence in support of
your analysis. They should take the form of footnotes (placed at the bottom of the page) and are separate from
the bibliography. Do not place references in brackets within the text – this is an unwieldy system which deflects
the reader’s attention away from the content of the essay, and it is unsuitable for references to unpublished
documents.
Footnotes can also be used to clarify or comment upon a point in your discussion, when doing so in the text
would disrupt the flow and effectiveness of your argument. However, think very carefully whether including
such material is really necessary – in most cases, it is not. A general rule is that if something is worth saying, it
should be in the main text and not in a footnote; remember that the references are included in the word limit,
so you do not gain anything by putting commentary in a footnote, and doing so to any extent will use up
valuable space in a less effective way.
When referencing, your foremost objective must be to give clear and complete information about the sources
that you have used. The first citation of any source, whether secondary or primary, should give its full details. All
subsequent references (in dissertations, this includes all references in later chapters) can use what is called
‘short title’ references. These contain sufficient information about the authorship and title of the work or
document to make it recognisable without difficulty, but otherwise are as concise as possible. A ‘short title’ can
be as brief as a surname and sufficient key words from the title to make sense – which might be as few as one or
two. However, if you have consulted more than one work or document by the same person, you must ensure
that your short titles are not too similar to each other. Further instructions on using ‘short titles’, with examples,
are given below, at the end of the references section.
References should not be over-used. There is no credit for having references simply for their own sake, and an
excessive number will reduce the space available for presenting your analysis. It is certainly not necessary to
have a reference for every sentence, although it would be odd for a whole paragraph to have no references at
all. It is not necessary for all of the works or sources that you have consulted to appear in the references; the
Bibliography at the end of the essay or dissertation provides you with the opportunity to display the
comprehensiveness of your research, and has the advantage of not being included in the word limit.
Footnote markers should be ordinary numbers (do not use Roman numerals), and should be superscripted, i.e.
appear as a small number in the upper half of the line. These numbers should be a single numerical sequence
throughout an essay, starting with the number 1; in BA and MA dissertations, they can be in one sequence
throughout, but higher degree theses should begin again with number 1 in each chapter.
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Normally, a sentence only has one reference which is placed at the end, after the full stop, as the reference is an
appendix to the sentence and is not grammatically a part of it. For example:
Baldwin declared that Conservatism ‘starts from temperament rather than logic’, and so was arrived at
individually.14
The sole exception is where a sentence contains two or more quotations which are from different sources:
Gladstone believed the Ottoman Empire to be ‘beyond reform or value’, 36 but Disraeli considered that it
was ‘a vital national interest’37 that it be maintained as a barrier to Russian expansionism.
The most important principle in reference citations is that you should be consistent. Do not refer to a work or
source in different ways on different occasions; for example, do not in some cases give the forename of the
author, but in others put the initials. A lack of consistency, whether in the text or in the references, is careless as
well as misleading. Remember to give always a precise reference: in the case of a book or article, the citation
should be to the exact page or pages in question, with the abbreviations of either p. (for one page), as in p. 147,
or pp. (for more than one page), as in pp. 147-9. Page numbers should be contracted to the minimum number of
digits necessary to make clear the pages in question. The only exception to contracting the page numbers
specified as those consulted is in the case of pages in the ‘teens’, so put pp. 111-13 and not pp. 111-3. In the
case of documents, the reference should be to the particular item (in long documents, to a specific part) and its
precise location in a published work or an archive.
The text of the footnote must end with a full stop – they are a special form of a sentence. If a reference contains
more than one item, they should be distinguished from one another by placing a semi-colon after each one, and
with a full stop at the end of the whole footnote. It is understood that the item cited first is the source of the
quotation, and you do not need to state this. Thereafter, or if there was not a quotation, items should be listed
either in the alphabetical order by authors’ surnames or by the date of publication or of the document.
References to unpublished primary sources (e.g. letters) reproduced in published collections and published
primary sources in modern editions take the forms given below under ‘primary sources’. The sections below also
include examples of various formats (the examples are in some cases invented for illustrative purposes).
References to Books
The first full reference should follow this pattern:
Name(s) of author(s)/editor(s), with initials (note: in footnotes, the authors’ initials come first, but in the
Bibliography place the surname first – as it the basis of alphabetising – with the initials after.)
Title of work, including sub-title, in italic
Volume number (not in italic) and volume title (in italic) - if relevant
Place, edition (only if it is not the 1st) and year of publication, within brackets and separated by commas (do not
give the name of the publisher; place of publication is always a town/city, not a county or country)
Page(s) referred to – if relevant (they are not needed if you are referring to the whole work)
For example:
1. C. Cook and J. Ramsden (eds), By-elections in British Politics (London, 1973), p. 17.
2. J. D. Chambers, Nottinghamshire in the Eighteenth Century (London, 2nd ed., 1967), pp. 20-4.
3. M. Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, vol. 6, Finest Hour 1939-1941 (London, 1983), pp. 692-705.
4. W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (Oxford, 4th ed., 1906), vol. 2, pp. 16-19.
5. C. Dodds Pennock, Bonds of Blood: Gender, Lifecycle and Sacrifice in Aztec Society (Basingstoke, 2008).
6. M.S. Edmonson (ed.), Sixteenth Century Mexico: the Work of Sahagún (Albuquerque, 1974).
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References to Kindle editions of books follow the same pattern, except that ‘Kindle edition’ should be inserted
in place before where the page number would normally come; if the Kindle edition does not give page numbers,
give the chapter number, as follows:
1. B. Porter, The Lion’s Share: A Short History of Imperialism (Harlow, 4th ed., 2004), Kindle edition, ch. 1.
References to foreign-language works follow the same pattern:
1. P. Vigier, La Monarchie de Juillet (Paris, 5th ed., 1976), pp. 55-6.
2. K. Bosl (ed.), Bayern im Umbruch (Munich, 1969), p. 3.
References to translated works follow the same pattern, but the translator and/or editor’s name follows the
book title:
1. B. Díaz, The Conquest of New Spain, trans. J. M. Cohen (London, 1963).
2. D. Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and the Ancient Calendar, trans. and ed. F. Horcasitas and D.
Heyden (Norman, 1971).
If the publication is part of a numbered series of documents, the details of the series should also be given. There
is usually no need to include details of a named thematic series. So:
1. C. H. Talbot (ed.), Letters from the English Abbots to the Chapter at Citeaux 1442-1521 (Camden Society,
4th ser., 4, 1967), p. 108.
But the following book, which is part of Palgrave Macmillan’s Early Modern History: Society and Culture series,
edited by R. Houston and E. Muir should be listed as any other monograph:
1. R.C. David, Christian Slaves and Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast,
and Italy, 1500-1800 (Basingstoke, 2003).
References to books in a multiple-volume work should be presented according to standard rules, with titles in
italics and volume numbers in standard text.
For example:
1. J.M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire, vol. 2, The Civil War (New York, 1993).
2. M. Nash (ed.), Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 6, Social Anthropology (Austin, 1967).
3. P. Carrasco, ‘Social Organization of Ancient Mexico’, in G.F. Ekholm and I. Bernal (eds), Handbook of
Middle American Indians, vol. 10, Archaeology of Northern Mesoamerica, Part 1 (London, 1977), pp.34975.
References to books with no named author should be presented following standard rules, italicizing the title.
When following the title of book and before the name(s), ‘ed.’ means ‘edited by’ and refers to both a single
editor and multiple editors.
For example:
1. The Codex Mendoza, ed. F.F. Berdan and P.R. Anawalt (California, 1992).
2. The Pentagon Papers: the Defense Department History of United States Decisionmaking on Vietnam, the
Senator Gravel Edition, vol. 3 (Boston, 1971).
Books of the Bible are not italicized. You may use standard abbreviations for books of the Bible if you wish - book
name, chapter number, colon, line number. The same format may be followed for references to other religious
books such as the Qu’ran. If you wish to reference a particular edition of a religious text then the full referencing
system should be followed.
For example:
1. Bible, Genesis 15:24.
6. Bible, 1 Cor. 13:14.
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References to Essays in Edited Books
For an article published in an edited collection of essays, the first full reference should follow this pattern:
Name(s) of author(s) of the essay
Title of essay, between single quotation marks
The name(s) of the editor(s) of the book, followed by ‘ed.’ or ‘eds’; (‘ed.’ has a full stop and ‘eds’ does not)
Title of book in full, in italics
Place, edition (if not the 1st), and year of publication, within brackets and separated by a comma
Pages referred to
For example:
1. P. Addison, ‘Winston Churchill and the working class 1900-1914’, in J. Winter (ed.), The Working Class in
Modern British History (Cambridge, 1983), p. 47.
2. J. Bamberger, ‘The myth of matriarchy: why men rule in primitive society’, in M .Z. Rosaldo and L.
Lamphere (eds), Woman, Culture & Society (Stanford, 1974), pp. 263-80.
References to Journal Articles
For articles published in periodicals, the first full reference should follow this pattern:
Name(s) of author(s)
Title of article, between single quotation marks
Title of periodical, in italics
Volume number, in Arabic numerals (the abbreviation ‘vol.’ is not needed)
(If necessary, also give the issue or part number – this should be indicated by ‘no.’)
Year of publication, in brackets (do not give the month or season)
Pages referred to
For example:
1. R. G. Davies, ‘Thomas Arundel as Archbishop of Canterbury 1396-1414’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History,
24, no. 1 (1973), pp. 9-21.
2. E. Blackwood, ‘Sexuality and gender in certain Native American tribes: the case of cross-gender females’,
Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 10 (1984), pp. 27-42.
References to Book Reviews
References to reviews follow a similar form to journal articles, and the first full reference should follow this
pattern:
Name(s) of author(s) of the review, followed by [review] and then a comma
The full citation of the reviewed book (see above), all placed between single quotation marks
Title of periodical, in italics
Volume number, in Arabic numerals (the abbreviation ‘vol.’ is not needed)
(If necessary, also give the issue or part number – this should be indicated by ‘no.’)
Year of publication, in brackets
Pages referred to
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For example:
1. Peter Fry [review], ‘Robin E. Sheriff, Dreaming Equality: Color, Race, and Racism in Urban Brazil
(Piscataway, 2001)’, Journal of Latin American Studies, 35, no. 1 (2003), pp. 204-5.
2. Adrian Armstrong [review], ‘Sharon Kettering, Patronage in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century France
(Aldershot, 2002)’, The Sixteenth-Century Journal, 34, no.4 (2003), pp. 1117-18.
References to Newspaper Articles
The usual convention is that it is only necessary to give:
Title of newspaper, in italics
Date of publication, not in brackets but followed by a comma
Pages referred to, where available (if a newspaper has separate parts, this should be identified as well)
For example:
1. The Times, 3 December 1856, p. 12.
2. Leicester Mercury, 12 May 1940, p. 2.
3. Sunday Times, 22 November 1990, News Review section, p. 1.
However, if it is relevant to your topic, you may also include the name(s) of the author(s), if given (do not include
designations such as ‘Paris correspondent’ or ‘Business editor’) and the title or first headline of the article,
between single quotation marks, in the same way as citing a journal article.
For example:
1. ‘U.S. Scientists Hear Sakharov’, New York Times (14 November 1988), p. A7.
2. Andrei D. Sakharov, ‘Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom’, New York
Times (22 July 1968), pp. 17-19.
3. J.M. Keynes, ‘Mr Lloyd George’s land policy’, The Observer, 10 May 1929, p. 10.
4. Orlando Figes, ‘Shelved – Did Kremlin make my Stalin book disappear?’, The Guardian Online (4 March
2009), www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/mar/04/orlando-figes-stalin-publisher [accessed 5 April 2009].
References to Quotes from Sources When You Have Not Seen the Original
To reference a quote from a primary or secondary source within another book or article, you adopt a similar
form to book citation, giving as full references for both works as possible. (Example 1 below shows the form if
you only know a small amount of information about the original quote, and example 2 shows a full reference.)
You should include at least the following:
Name(s) of quote’s author(s) and as much of the original reference as you know
‘quoted in’
Correct reference for work in which it is quoted (see relevant section)
For example:
1. Nancy Jay, quoted in R. Girard, Violence and the Sacred (Baltimore, 1977), p. 7.
2. N. Jay, Throughout your Generations Forever (Chicago, 1992), p. xxv, quoted in R. Girard, Violence and
the Sacred (Baltimore, 1977), p. 7.
3. Gladstone’s speech at Midlothian, 16 March 1880, quoted in Jenkins, Gladstone, p. 454.
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References to Online Material
Where an online resource is simply a facsimile copy of a printed original (such as a journal, newspaper or
parliamentary debates, an Ebook or a collection of printed items such as EEBO), you may reference it as if it
was the original print version, according to the relevant section above. In other cases, where the material only
exists in this form online, the references follow the same principles as those for hardcopy items, e.g. titles of
websites are in italics, but not the titles of sections within them or of any otherwise unpublished documents
which they contain. Online primary sources follow the same format.
You should include at least the following:
Name(s) of the author(s), if known, or of the organisation which owns the website
Title of website, and where appropriate of the sub-section or page. (Do not merely cut and paste the entire link;
it makes no sense to the reader and fills up your footnotes and bibliography with nonsense).
Date of publication, creation or posting (if available)
And, most importantly, the date on which you consulted the website, in square brackets
For example:
1. M. Stevenson, ‘A fresh look at tales of human sacrifice: Mexican digs confirm grisly Spanish-era
accounts’, MSNBC (January 2005), www.msnbc.msn.com [accessed 21 March 2013].
2. E. Nesbit, Ballads and Lyrics of Socialism (London, 1908), Victorian Women Writers Project (2003),
www.indiana.edu [accessed 16 June 2014].
3. Save The Children, report on work in Zaire, December 1988, www.savethechildren.org.uk/zaire
[accessed 20 September 2014].
4. Nikita Krushchev, ‘On further increasing the country's grain production and putting virgin and idle Lands
into cultivation’ (23 February 1954), Seventeen Moments in Soviet History (2003), www.soviethistory.org
[accessed 1 October 2014]
5. Orlando Figes, interview with Sasha Weiss [podcast], ‘Orlando Figes on the politics of Russian history’
(13 April 2009), The New York Review of Books (1963-2009), www.nybooks.com/podcasts/ [accessed 20
April 2009].
References to Visual and Audio Media
This form of referencing is for media such as films, television, radio, podcasts, newsreels, sound recordings, etc.
Because media vary so much it is hard to give a standard form for this kind of referencing. In some cases, exactly
how you cite will depend on whether you are emphasizing the performer, the writer, the director or the
conductor, so you will have to be flexible and decide what information you think is relevant; if in doubt, consult
your module tutor or dissertation supervisor. As a general guide, you should include at least the following
information:
Title of work
Type of media, in square brackets
Author, composer, director or interviewee (where relevant, indicate the person’s role)
Production company, television channel, orchestra or similar
Date of release, broadcast, recording or copyright
For example:
1. Platoon [film], directed by Oliver Stone (Cinema 86 and Hemdale Film, 1986).
2. The Simpsons, Season 9: Trash of the Titans, directed by Jim Reardon et al. (CBS, first broadcast 10
September 2006).
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3. Bill Clinton, interview with Larry King [television], Larry King Live (CNN, 24 June 2004).
4. Metropolis [DVD film], directed by Fritz Lang (originally released 1926, digitally remastered Kino
International Corporation, 1997).
5. Rage Against the Machine, ‘Killing in the name’ [music recording], Rage Against the Machine (Epic,
1992).
6. Gustav Mahler, Symphony No. 1 in D Major [CD], Concertgebouw Orchestra conducted by Leonard
Bernstein (Deutsche Grammophon, 1989).
7. Orlando Figes, interview with Sasha Weiss [podcast], ‘Orlando Figes on the politics of Russian
history’ (13 April 2009), The New York Review of Books (1963-2009), www.nybooks.com/podcasts/
[accessed 20 April 2009].
8. Highlights of 1943 [online film, ID:1101.01], (British Pathé, first broadcast 31 December
1943), www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=12486 [accessed 5 November 2009].
References to Unpublished Secondary Material
References to unpublished secondary sources such as dissertations, theses, conference papers, personal
communications, etc., follow similar conventions to published material. Titles are not italicized because these
are not published works. As there are such a wide variety of types of source, you may have to use your
judgement based on the examples below. Your supervisor can also help with specific citations.
For example:
1. J. Harwood, ‘Disguising Ritual: a re-assessment of part 3 of the Codex Mendoza’, Ph.D. thesis (University
of Essex, 2002).
2. S.D. McCafferty, and G.D. McCafferty, ‘Weapons of resistance: spinning and weaving tools as material
metaphors of gender discourse in postclassic Mexico’ (unpublished draft, 1995).
3. E. Umberger, ‘Aztec Kings [sic] and the Codex Duran’, paper delivered at the British Museum, Aztec Art
and Culture: an International Symposium (23 March 2003).
4. C. Dodds Pennock, ‘The “expansion” of Europe’, lecture delivered at the University of Leicester (22
November 2007).
5. P. Cottrell, personal communication (9 October 2008).
References to Early Printed Books
References to original published primary sources (e.g. eighteenth-century books) broadly take the same form as
published secondary sources. Citations from early printed books present particular difficulties. The full titles are
often very long and you may need to abbreviate them (within reason). Such abbreviations do not need to be
included in your list of abbreviations. You should usually retain the original spelling, although you may
modernize ambiguous letters such as ‘u’ and ‘v’ if you wish. Your supervisor can give you additional guidance on
this.
Later editions of early printed books (with a more recent editor or introduction, for example) should be cited as
below. The only significant difference from a modern edited book is that the modern editor is added after the
publication title.
For example:
1. R. Abbey, An elegie vpon the most the most deplorable death of Prince Henry, eldest sonne to the king of
Bohemia who vpon the 9th of Ianuary last passing to Harlem, most unfortunately perished (London,
1629).
2. H. Carochi, Arte de la lengua mexicana con la declaración de los adverbios della (Mexico City, 1645).
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3. Chronicles of London, ed. C.L. Kingsford (Oxford, 1925).
4. J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, trans. and ed. J.E. Mangan (Durham, 2002).
5. The Estate Book of Henry de Bray, ed. D. Willis (Camden Society, 4th ser., xxvii, 1916), p. 3.
References to Documents in Published Collections
Where a document has been found in a published edition or collection, the first full reference should follow this
pattern:
The nature of the specific document (author, recipient, title and date)
The editor(s) of the work in which it appears
The title of the work in which it appears
The publication details of the work in which it appears
Volume – if required
Page(s) referred to
For example:
Where a document has been found in a published edition or collection, the location consists of the full details of
the work in which it appeared, following the pattern set out above.
For example:
1. Austen Chamberlain to Sanders, 22 December 1921, in J. Ramsden (ed.), Real Old Tory Politics: the
Political Diaries of Robert Sanders, Lord Bayford, 1910-1935 (London, 1984), pp. 169-70.
2. Headlam diary, 5 May 1929, in S. Ball (ed), Parliament and Politics in the Age of Baldwin and MacDonald,
1923-1935 (London, 1993), p. 176.
3. Phipps to Foreign Office, telegram, 20 March 1936, Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939, 2nd
series, 17 (1979), p. 450.
4. Milan Kundera, ‘A nation which cannot take itself for granted’ (June 1967), in G. Stokes (ed.), From
Stalinism to Pluralism: A Documentary History of Eastern Europe since 1945 (Oxford, 1996), pp. 151-5.
5. Pope John Paul II, ‘Pope John Paul II speaks in Victory Square, Warsaw’ (2 June 1979), in G. Stokes (ed.),
From Stalinism to Pluralism: A Documentary History of Eastern Europe since 1945 (Oxford, 1996), pp.
200-3.
6. ‘The Emancipation Manifesto’ (3 March 1861), in B. Dmytryshyn (ed.), Imperial Russia: A Source Book,
1700-1917 (London, 1967), pp. 220-5.
In your dissertation, you may wish to refer frequently to documents from the same published source. In such
cases, you can save a considerable amount of space, without losing clarity, by using an abbreviation. This should
be both indicated at the first reference to the published source and included in the list of abbreviations:
1. Neville to Hilda Chamberlain, 12 Sep. 1930, in R. Self (ed.), The Neville Chamberlain Diary Letters
(hereafter NCDL), vol. 3, The Heir Apparent, 1928-1933 (Aldershot, 2002), p. 289.
2. Simon to Rumbold, 13 October 1934, Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939 (hereafter DBFP),
2nd series, 12 (1972), p. 127.
3. Neville to Ida Chamberlain, 19 Sep. 1930, NCDL, 2, p. 291.
4. Rumbold to Simon, 14 October 1934, DBFP, 2nd series, 12, p. 132.
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References to Published Official Documents and Pamphlets
References follow a similar form as books, and the first full reference should follow this pattern:
Name(s) of author(s)/editor(s)/organisation(s)
Title of work in full in italics
Volume number - if required
Place, edition (if not the 1st), and year of publication, all within brackets
Volume – if required
Page(s) referred to – if relevant
For example:
1. University College, Leicester, Annual Report and Accounts 1936 (Leicester, 1936), pp. 12-19.
2. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Proceedings in the National Convention of Paris: and other Authentic
Documents Respecting Religion in France (London, 1794).
References to speeches in Parliament should give the name of the speaker and location in the printed record;
they do not normally give the topic of the debate. The title of the House of Commons debates is Parliamentary
Debates (Hansard): House of Commons Official Report, and there is a separate but similarly titled series for the
House of Lords. This can be shortened to one of two standard forms, either Hansard or HC Debs. The text in the
volumes is not numbered in pages but in columns (there are two columns on each page), and so the
abbreviation col. and cols. is used instead of p. and pp.
1. Grey, 3 August 1914, HC Debs., 5th series, 127, cols. 1215-96.
References to Original (Manuscript) Documents
Document descriptions vary greatly according to the period and type of the document, but you should at least
indicate the authorship and nature of the document, its title (if any) and the recipient if it is a letter or despatch.
If you do not find relevant examples to follow in this guide, then consult your supervisor.
The first full reference should give the following information:
Author of the document (and, if it is a letter, the recipient)
Title or description of the document (not necessary if it is a private letter)
Date of the document (so far as it is known)
Location of the document – the archive holding it
Document collection and archive reference
Where you have consulted the document in the original, the location consists of the place where the collection
of documents may be consulted, the name of the collection in which it may be found and the precise reference
numbers (if any). For example:
1. Chamberlain to Collings, 29 July 1886, Birmingham University Library, Chamberlain MSS, JC/5/16/116.
2. Addison, memo, ‘Financial aspects of housing reform’, 21 Apr. 1921, Parliamentary Archives, Lloyd
George MSS, F/22/5/147.
Further references to the same collection can employ an abbreviation of the place where it is held, so:
16. Chamberlain to Salisbury, 12 May 1892, BUL, Chamberlain MSS, JC/7/3/45.
The following standard abbreviations can be used in footnotes, and do not need any explanation:
MS
Manuscript (plural MSS)
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vol.
Volume (plural vols)
f.
Folio(s): sheet number, when referring to a manuscript source in which sheets are numbered on the
front face only (plural ff.)
TNA
The National Archives
BL
British Library
BPP
British Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons (followed by year of publication, and volume number
in roman), e. g., B.P.P., HC, 1830, XXVII; Statement of Imports and Exports of the United Kingdom, 1828.
Further examples of manuscript citations:
1. British Library: Add. MS 29132, f. 434, Clive to Hastings, 1 August 1771.
2. N.A.: STAC 8/104/20, Star Chamber Proceedings, James I, Cripple and wife v. Lambe et al, 1619.
3. Wiltshire Record Office: D1/39/26, Bishop of Salisbury, Instance Act Book, 1596-8, f. 227.
Subsequent References: Using the ‘Short Title’ System
Subsequent references to the same source may be presented as a ‘short title’, so long as certain minimum
information is retained and clarity is not sacrificed. The author is normally referred to by surname only, and the
title is shortened to a few key words (possibly just one), provided that there is no ambiguity with other works by
the same author. The short title form of a book remains in italic, and the short title form of an article or essay
appears in single quotation marks. The publications details are completely omitted. The following are acceptable
short title forms for items shown in previous examples above:
1. Chambers, Nottinghamshire, p. 98.
2. Davies, ‘Thomas Arundel’, pp. 17-20.
3. Addison, ‘Churchill and the working class’, p. 49.
Where a reference is identical with the one immediately previous except for the page numbers being cited, the
abbreviation ‘Ibid.’ (an abbreviation of Ibidem, meaning ‘in the same place’) may be used instead of the short
title of the book or article concerned:
For example:
1. J. D. Chambers, Nottinghamshire in the Eighteenth Century (London, 2nd ed., 1967), p. 12.
2. Ibid., p. 32.
3. Addison, ‘Churchill and the working class’, p. 49.
4. Ibid., p. 51.
In the above examples, note 2 is a reference to the book by Chambers and note 4 to the essay by Addison (not to
the book by Chambers).
The following standard abbreviations may be useful:
MS
Manuscript (plural MSS)
vol.
Volume (plural vols)
f.
Folio(s): sheet number, when referring to a manuscript source in which sheets are numbered on
the front face only (plural ff.)
TNA
The National Archives
BL
British Library
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British Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons (followed by year of publication, and volume
number in roman), e. g., BPP, HC, 1830, XXVII; Statement of imports and exports of the United
Kingdom, 1828.
Subsequent references to the same source may be presented as a ‘short title’, so long as certain minimum
information is retained and clarity is not sacrificed. The author may be referred to by surname only whereas
details of edition and place and date of publication are omitted. The title should be shortened to two or three
words, ensuring that there is no ambiguity with other works by the same author.
Where a reference is identical with the immediately previous one except for the page numbers being cited, the
abbreviation ‘Ibid.’ (an abbreviation of Ibidem, meaning ‘in the same place’), may be used instead of the short
title of the book or article concerned. However, Op. cit. and Loc. cit. are no longer generally used.
For example:
1. Chambers, Nottinghamshire, p. 98.
2. Ibid., p. 99
3. Addison, ‘Churchill and the working class’, p. 49.
4. Ibid., p. 51.
In the above examples, note 2 is a reference to the book by Chambers and note 4 to the essay by Addison (and
not the book by Chambers).
Bibliography
This consists of a list of all the sources, both primary and secondary, that you have consulted during your
research. You must append a Bibliography at the end of your assignment; it is not an alternative to footnotes you should have both. The Bibliography is a list of the primary and secondary sources which you have actually
consulted in the course of your work - do not include items which you have only seen indirectly by a mention or
quotation in another work. However, you should include all of the items that you have looked at, even if you did
not find some of them sufficiently helpful that you wish to refer to them in the text or footnotes
If there are any primary sources, these should be listed first. Secondary works should be arranged as a single list,
in alphabetical order by authors’ surnames. Where there is more than one publication by the same author, they
should be listed by their title. You should give the full details of each item, on the pattern of the first citations in
the examples above.
In the case of an essay, the bibliography is usually divided only into primary and secondary source sections.
However, for dissertations and theses, each of these sections may be divided into a number of sub-sections,
particularly where different types of primary sources have been used. For undergraduate dissertations, see the
further guidance in the relevant section of the HS3501/HS3502 Dissertation Handbook. For MA dissertations
and theses for higher degrees, follow the advice of your supervisor.
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