Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 34:1–36, 2005
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc.
ISSN: 1064-3389 print / 1547-6537 online
DOI: 10.1080/10643380490492485
The Rise and Fall of Mercury: Converting
a Resource to Refuse After 500 Years
of Mining and Pollution
LARS D. HYLANDER
Department of Limnology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 20,
S-752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
MARKUS MEILI
Stockholm University, Inst. of Appl. Environ. Research (ITM), S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
The link of mercury (Hg) pollution to Hg mining is rarely made,
although Hg primary production presently is as large as global Hg
emissions from coal combustion. Here we present historical comparisons on global, continental and national scales, covering up to
five centuries of Hg production and consumption. Nearly half of the
historical consumption has been pre-industrial, notably for silver
and gold mining by amalgamation. More than half has been mined
in Europe and one quarter in the Americas. Four economic periods
with different control of global Hg price and production were discerned: The Hg price rose sharply after 1830 when Spain no longer
controlled the Hg market and when consumption started to shift to
gold mining in North America and later on industrial uses. In the
1970’s, however, the price as well as quantities consumed plunged
as a result of rising health and environmental concerns. In Sweden,
per-capita consumption has recently dropped below pre-industrial
levels, exemplifying a successful implementation of environmental
policy. The chlor-alkali industry is still the globally dominating Hg
consumer, and large stocks to be decommissioned in industrialized countries need political guidance to avoid transfer of Hg and
related risks to other countries, a potential transfer to small-scale
miners favoured by low Hg prices.
Address correspondence to Lars D. Hylander, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 20, S-752
36, Uppsala, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected]
1
2
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
KEY WORDS: mercury production, mercury consumption and
consumption patterns in America and Europe, mercury price
development, mercury waste, final deposition
I. INTRODUCTION
For millennia, mercury (Hg) has been considered a valuable natural resource
with a wide range of applications, although the toxicity of elemental Hg was
reported already by Pliny the Elder (dead 79 A.C.) and the toxicity of Hg salts
was demonstrated by the “mad hatters” making felt hats from furs treated with
Hg (as nitrate).20 Health concern was until a few decades ago focused on
occupational exposure, e.g. in mines.85 Meanwhile, Hg was used in a wide
range of fields such as medicine and technology with few or no restrictions
until the last decades of the 20th century. By this time, severe intoxications of
people by organic Hg compounds in Iraq, Japan, and the USA was observed,
and the public in several industrialized countries forced industry and authorities to recognize the toxicity of Hg and Hg compounds.6,42,87,112,114 Wild life
mortality of seed-eating birds and birds of prey caused by seed dressed with
Hg compounds,103,122 alerted the Swedes and Finns in the 1960’ies about
the risks of using Hg and also initiated studies revealing alarmingly high
Hg content in fish caught close to paper and chlor-alkali industries.102 Acquired knowledge about environmental transformations of inorganic Hg to
far more toxic organic forms along initially largely unknown transfer pathways focused the attention on the large quantities of Hg used in paper and
chlor-alkali plants.89 Swedish authorities were first to act and enforced legislation on the use of Hg in Sweden, to avoid a tragedy such as that in
Minamata, Japan.89,112,114 Consequently, seed dressing with methyl-Hg was
prohibited in 1966, and Hg was banned from all pesticides in 1988.96,97 Total
emissions of Hg from Swedish chlor-alkali plants to air and waters were reduced from more than 30 t per year in the 1950’s and 1960’s to less than 0.1 t
in 2000.26,97 Sale of clinical thermometers containing Hg is prohibited since
1992, and since 1993, practically all manufacturing and sale of thermometers,
electrical switches, batteries, and other electrical appliances containing Hg
is prohibited.108 At present, Hg is still used in fluorescent tubes and energy
saving lamps (proposed to be replaced by Hg-free luminous cathode lamps54
and low energy diodes, LED), Hg-cells (expected to be converted to a Hgfree process before 2010)104 in two of originally ten chlor-alkali plants with
Hg-cells, and dental amalgams, occasionally still inserted in persons above
20 years of age.109
In many other countries, Hg is still widely used in industry and society, often unregulated e.g. as an amalgamating agent for gold extraction
(UNEP).116 Mercury used has originally been extracted from mines. This Hg
has caused anthropogenic emissions for more than two millennia,2,20 and
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
3
has contributed significantly to elevated atmospheric Hg deposition rates, together with the more recent combustion of fossil fuels. Atmospheric Hg deposition rates have according to Bergan et al.9 increased by 1.5–3 times globally
and up to 10 times in Europe, North America, and Southeastern China since
onset of industrialization, while Shotyk et al.100 and Roos-Barraclough et al.91
observed even larger increases since pre-industrial times in deposition rates
over mires in Denmark, Greenland, and Switzerland. Also Lamborg et al.50
concluded that presently the global anthropogenic contribution is twice as
large as natural Hg emissions, and the anthropogenic contribution to global
Hg pollution has been confirmed by recent analyses of Hg in dated ice and
sediment cores.12,21,98
Globally, several emission inventories have recently been compiled
based on measured Hg emissions from large point sources such as chloralkali plants and other industries using Hg, waste incineration plants, metallurgical plants, and coal combustion utilities, or based on estimated regional
combustion rates of fossil fuels and various types of waste and their measured
or estimated Hg content.81,84 Diffuse emissions of Hg to air and water are
often missing or coarsely estimated from population densities.46 Emissions
from waste disposal are uncertain.82 Pacyna and Pacyna81 reported 111 t of
Hg emissions from global waste incineration in 1995. However, this is stated
by the authors to be grossly underestimated and to be multiplied by a factor
up to five, since only few countries report quantities of waste incinerated,
and even fewer actually measure Hg emissions from waste incinerators. Even
less is known about Hg emissions to air and water from wastes disposed in
landfills, from which atmospheric emissions are enhanced by intentional or
unintentional open fires.45,55 Potential emissions are large considering the
large amount of Hg yearly transferred into wastes, in the EU alone estimated
to at least 990 t per year but, due to missing data, more probably 2000–4000 t
per year.73
Even complete emission inventories have the limitation that they do not
account for the potential emissions in the future from waste generated or from
Hg stocks after that a production process using Hg has ceased, e.g. the chloralkali production with Hg cells. In environmental assessments, the emission
potential of Hg stocks in a shorter or longer time perspective is occasionally
considered,4 but is generally ignored.28 A valuable help for estimating future
direct and indirect emissions of Hg is to complement emission inventories
with the best possible records of Hg primary production and consumption
patterns, preferably with regional and annual resolution. Such records will
not only reveal quantities of Hg produced, but also its geographic destination
and potential use, which is valuable information when tracking Hg stocks in
the technosphere/society in efforts to reduce their potential effects on human
and environmental health.
Long production records of primary Hg are comparably easy to compile,
since production has been dominated by a few sites in the European region
4
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
with the largest geological reserves of Hg,120 and since extraction of Hg
has been carefully recorded for centuries due to the exclusiveness of Hg
in ancient times. Together with the Spanish monopoly for several centuries,
this has contributed to a good documentation of metallic Hg production
in Europe and America already since the 16th century, whereas production
figures for Asia, the former USSR countries, and Africa are still incomplete.
Consumption data of Hg are less accurate than production data because of
the widespread use of Hg in practically all countries of the world in multiple
uses, often without any registration or documentation. In addition, the stock
of Hg in society has increased because market forces have been set aside by
public subsidies.24,65
A historic perspective on Hg mining and detailed use patterns can lead
to a better understanding of the present and future fate of Hg.86 Therefore we
made an attempt of compiling all available data on both primary production
and consumption of Hg with national-regional and annual-decadal resolution for the past five centuries, as well as associated consumption patterns.
Sweden is here taken as an example of a country without any Hg mine and
having made the transition from consuming large Hg quantities to phasing
out practically all Hg use within only four decades. The USA is an example of
a former producer of Hg with a large industrial activity based on Hg, thereby
largely influencing the international Hg market. Further, we compiled relationships between price and quantities (production as well as consumption),
since such knowledge is valuable for evaluating and forecasting effects of
market forces and political decisions, historically and in the future. Here, a
compilation of data covering several centuries is presented, i) to quantify the
role of European and American Hg production in global Hg production; ii)
to present the drastic changes in Hg consumption patterns in Sweden for
comparison with those in regions with other socio-economic conditions and
diverging per-capita Hg consumption; and iii) to relate historic and recent
patterns of Hg production and consumption to not only environmental but
also economic considerations.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data on mined quantities of Hg were compiled country by country from statistical yearbooks, scientific articles and other sources. Practically all North
American production and consumption and a large part of global production during the past 150 years were reported in Mineral Resources of the
United States (1883 to 1934), USGS Minerals Yearbook (1943 to 2001), and
USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, Mercury (1995 to 2001).120 These data
were compared and complemented by data from Metallgesellschaft and other
sources.5,11,27,44,62,68,72 Details are available elsewhere.44 The aim was to
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
5
include all primary (virgin) production including byproduction from mining
of other metals, but to exclude secondary production from metal recycling,
flue gas cleaning, etc. Data originally reported in flasks (generally à 34.507 kg,
(rarely à 34.473 kg) and in quintals (à 46.0095 kg) were transformed to metric
tons (t) throughout.
American Hg consumption patterns are compared with those in Europe,
where data from Sweden are most detailed. Consumption is defined as industrial consumption and consumption of metallic Hg for amalgamation in
gold and silver mining and other uses. Accordingly, Hg consumed in products is registered in the country of production and not in the country of final
consumption. Although best available data sources were used,26,97,120 data
were incomplete, especially from the 19th and the first half of the 20th century. For example, data on Hg used for production of explosives in Sweden
were missing and have been collected from rolls on production available for
some years at two factories and otherwise by calculating fulminate content
of estimated quantities of percussion and blasting caps produced.17,52,123
Consumption of Hg by Swedish chlor-alkali plants is based on a detailed inventory of emissions.26 Mercury initially acquired at the start-up of
the plants was not included and has here been estimated to 1.8 t Hg per
1000 t of annual chlorine production capacity.56,64 After closing of Hg cells
at eight chlor-alkali plants in the 1960’s–1990’s, Hg was either transferred
to cells still in operation or sold on the market, where most of it was exported and subsequently officially registered. This Hg has reduced apparent
consumption based on trade statistics, while Hg reused in chlor-alkali plants
was not registered in official trade statistics, but has certainly also contributed
to reduce registered consumption.
Consumption of Hg for production of pesticides and antifouling paints
in Sweden has earlier been reported for longer periods,16,23,26 while data on
Hg consumed by industries producing electric devices and measuring and
control instruments was only reported for 1976.23 Mercury consumption for
this sector during other years was estimated by scaling production statistics
since 1858 with unit production in 1976.23,97 This Hg consumption estimate
was consistent with the Hg net import to Sweden after subtraction of Hg
consumed by other sectors.
Consumption pattern in the USA is presented from 1850.120 Pre 1940 data
were scarce but followed regular trends, at least during the 20th centuries,
and were estimated either by interpolation or from notes and text accompanying the tables.120 Consumption data for Japan and European countries
other than Sweden were used for comparisons referring to the period of maximal Hg consumption in the middle of the 20th century.19,118,121 Since there
are no complete records on global Hg consumption, global net consumption throughout the studied five-century period was assumed to be equal to
the contemporaneous global production of primary Hg, because there have
been no major stockpiles of Hg extending over more than a few years in the
6
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
market economies, except for the US National Defense Stockpile established
at the end of World War I. This stockpile is presently holding 4 435 t,120 but
has been built up gradually with a limited impact on the Hg market before
part of it was sold out a decade ago. Population data used to calculate percapita consumption were obtained from statistics of the United Nations, USA
and Sweden.97,115,119
Running Hg prices were available for Almadén (1540–1642), London
(1850–1893 and from 1957), and the main shipping ports of Hg in the
Americas; Mexico City (1565–1849), San Francisco (1850–1905), and New
York (1906–2000).15,120 The Hg prices in New York were about 10% (0.11 US$
kg−1 ) higher than in San Fransisco during a few years with parallel notations.
Prices at both European and American ports are here given in US$ to be comparable. Since the Spanish “Peso” silver coin was the template for the USA
Silver Dollar with equal value,8 the Hispano-American and European price
series in pesos were here converted to US$ on a 1:1 basis.
All price series were index-corrected using various indices. First, indexcorrected Hg prices from 1910 to present were obtained from Roskill’s Metals
Databook 2000.93 The US Consumer Price Index117 was used to extend the series between 1820 and 1909. For further extension into the initial exploitation
of colonial resources, an average inflation rate of 1% per year 1540–1550 and
1.5% per year 1551–1600 was adopted from Hamilton.36 For the period 1601–
1819, inflation was assumed negligible because commodity prices peaked in
Spain at the beginning of the 17th century,36 and because the increase in
Gross National Product was only 0.2% per year in the Americas.60 Furthermore, currencies were at that time based on weight in silver and gold and
more stable than in recent decades.60
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Primary Production
Roughly half of the registered Hg production has been extracted in Europe
(Figure 1), where Spanish mines alone have contributed one third of globally
mined Hg.44 About one forth has been mined in the Americas, and most of
the remaining part of registered, historical Hg production originates in Asia,
mainly Kyrgyzstan, other countries of the former USSR, and China. However,
the Asian figures may be largely underestimated, because of large gaps in the
historical records and registered figures often representing exported quantities, not including domestic consumption in the producer countries. While
production has changed dramatically over time and among mines, the global
production of primary Hg has always been dominant in the region of the
mercuriferous belt between the western Mediterranean and central Asia, but
appears currently to be shifting to the east.44
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
7
FIGURE 1. Global, historical primary production of Hg, and the total contribution from
Europe and the Americas (area stacked above line for Europe).
Since 1970, the recorded production of primary Hg has been reduced
by almost an order of magnitude to around 2 000 t in the year 2000. This is
still of similar magnitude as anthropogenic Hg emissions to the atmosphere
from fossil fuel combustion, which accounts for about half of the total global
anthropogenic Hg emissions to the atmosphere.81 The production of primary
Hg is expected to continue to decrease as an effect of increased awareness
about its environmental and health effects. Economically viable Hg-free alternatives exist for practically all current Hg applications.47,54,90,111 Presently
the demand for Hg is increasingly supplied by recycled Hg or by Hg obtained as a byproduct in the production of other metals such as zinc, lead,
copper, gold etc. when extracted from sulphide ores, where Hg often is a
trace element because of its affinity to sulphur.30
Recovering Hg in the acidic flue gases from ore roasting requires a separate removal stage in addition to the one for removing other impurities,
but such installations have been made in some countries thanks to environmental legislation.30 Further processing of the sludge generated in order
to obtain metallic Hg is driven solely by market conditions. Such production of byproduct Hg from Finnish zinc production accounted in 1999 and
2000 for 8.5% and 16%, respectively, of European primary Hg production.44
Massive sulfide deposits in the Urals (former Soviet Union) and India also
contain Hg that is, however, more likely released to the atmosphere rather
than recovered during the smelting process.94
Mercury may also be recovered at cyanide leaching of gold bearing
ores, which is the only source of primary Hg produced in the USA since
8
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
1991 and also results in about 100 t Hg annually produced in Peru.70,116,120
In Chile, about 6 t Hg are annually reported as a byproduct from copper
production,126 while Chile exported 75 t Hg to the USA in 2002.120 Australia
reports no Hg production but exported 107 t Hg to the USA in 2002.120
Several countries are believed to not have reported production of Hg from
copper electro refining processes.126 Further, the Peruvian Hg production
from gold cyanide leaching is not reported but traded locally.71 In 2000,
this was disclosed when several hundred persons claimed damages after
being exposed to Hg spilled from a truck, transporting Hg from one of the
mines of the company Minera Yanacocha to Lima.88 After this, the Peruvian
subsidiaries of two North America based companies, Newmont Mining and
Barrick Gold Corporation, disseminated information on Hg content in ore
and Hg production.70,116
Probably, environmental considerations will result in increased quantities of Hg recovered as a byproduct when processing ores destined for
acquisition of other metals.95 The fate of this Hg must be addressed because
of the shrinking market. It is also worth considering that the current Hg stock
in the chlor-alkali plants in the EU alone corresponds to more than 50 years
of production at the Spanish Hg mines at Almadén, given the production
level of 236 t in 2000.44
B. Industrial Consumption in Studied Countries
The global consumption as well as production of Hg peaked in the middle of the 20th century, although the peak in some former Spanish colonies
and North America occurred earlier (Figure 2). Per capita consumption in
most European countries and Japan peaked in the 1960’s and early 1970’s,
but at widely different levels (Figure 2, Table 1). In Sweden, Germany,
FIGURE 2. Annual per capita consumption of Hg in Sweden and the USA. Calculated as
average values per 5-year periods to avoid annual fluctuations caused by temporary differences
in stocks. Compiled from different data sources.8,26,97,120
9
10.6
16.8
12.0
8.5
6.5
5.9
4.1
10.9
6.9
14.9
10.1
6.7
8.7
8.7
1.2
2.2
(g person
y−1 )b
1064
1666
1254
880
690
298
67
91
77
902
624
2243
1829
1826
3693
8454
29.2
34.3
70.7
74.0
60.0
66.1
29.9
58.8
75.4
24.0
53.8
52.3
22.6
21.8
51.4
46.1
4.0
7.2
12.3c
22.6c
3.5
m
m
l
l
g
g
25.1
28.1
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
6.7
3.1
1.9
1.5
14.0c
11.1c
3.0c
0c
0c
1.5
6.0
c
c
c
0.0
35.2
13.0
4.6
c
c
15.5
c
c
c
0.0
0.3
21.0g
3.9g
1.0
0.0
c
c
0.0
m
m
c
c
m
m
h
h
c
c
m
m
1.1
c
c
1.7
0.3
0.2
0.1
1.0
0.1
c
c
c
c
c
m
m
4.9
0.0
0.3
14.3
17.3
3.0
3.4
4.6
3.8
5.6
d
d
d
d
f
f
1.1
f
f
4.0
1.5
i
i
0.0
6.0
f
21.1d
21.0d
19.5d
13.6d
5.8e
3.9e
4.5e
9.9e
4.9 f
10.1
0.0
2.4
1.2
26.0
5.2
7.7
20.8
18.1
14.0l
14.3l
16.9
24.5
11.3
29.9m
35.5m
d
d
1.2 j
1.3 j
d
f
f
12.4
f
f
f
0.0
0.0
2.1
0.8
10.0
2.9
d
e
e
e
e
25.1
d
d
d
d
121
4.7
121
1.7
121
2.2
121
2.3
19
5.1
121
20.6
121
22.7
— This study
— This study
121
11.1
121
14.5
19
3.1
19
3.8
120
8.1
19
4.7
19
4.1
ChlorFungicides Paper
PharmaLabo- ElectroControl
(t y−1 ) alkali Catalysts pesticides industry Paint ceutical Dental ratory techn. Batteries instrum. Other Reference
Consumption pattern (%)
b Population
by industry including Hg in products for export, Hg in imported consumer products is excluded.
sizes from.115 Per capita consumption 1970 in Belgium-Luxemburg 10.5, Denmark 4.3, Italy 6.1, Netherlands 4.1, and UK 4.2 g Hg y−1 (UK 11.9, 6.7,
12.8 in 1969, 1971, 1972).
c Paint and pharmaceuticals included in “Fungicides, pesticides.”
d “Laboratory” includes inorganic chemicals used in dentistry, batteries etc.
e Control instruments included in “Electrotechnical.”
f Not indicated.
g Fungicides and pesticides included in “Paper industry.” Use in paper industry prohibited from 1969.
h Data not available, marginal quantities of Hg used.
i No registered production of laboratory chemicals.
j HgCl added to manganese dry cells; Hg oxide cells were not produced in Sweden.26
2
k World excluding Japan, W. Europe, USA.
l Catalysts included in “Electrotechnical.”
mFungicides, pesticides, paper industry, pharmaceutical, dental included in “Batteries.”
a Consumption
1957–1960
1963–1969
1970
1971
1972
France
1970
Netherlands
1970
Sweden
1963–1969
1970
W. Germany
1970
1971
All W. Europe
1972
USA
1972
1972
Othersk
1972
Total World
1972
Japan
Year
−1
Consumptiona
TABLE 1. Mercury (Hg) Consumption and Consumption Pattern in Japan, Selected European Countries, the USA, and Estimates for the Rest of the
World at the Peak of Global Hg Consumption
10
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
the UK, the USA, and Japan, Hg consumption peaked at more than 10 g
per person and year. This illustrates the presence of industries consuming large quantities of Hg, such as chlor-alkali plants with Hg cells as the
basis for chemical and paper industries. In the USA, the main peak occurred a century earlier due to Hg used in amalgamation, while the industrial peak was somewhat lower than in e.g. Sweden and Japan, a result of mainly employing an asbestos diaphragm technique instead of Hg
cells in the chlor-alkali plants.56 Other industrialized countries such as the
Netherlands and Denmark have, generally, consumed less than 5 g Hg per
person and year (Table 1), indicative of food and other industries consuming minimal quantities of Hg. For comparison, the mean consumption
in less industrialized countries was about 1 g Hg per person and year
in the early 1970’s, before the gold mining boom using Hg was revived
(Table 1).
C. Consumption Patterns
1. AMALGAMATION
The pattern of Hg use varies widely both over time and among regions. Before the end of the 16th century, limited amounts of metallic Hg were used
in alchemy and in applying gold amalgam to surfaces to be gold-plated (gilding), where after Hg was evaporated by heating.20 Silver amalgam was later
used in the same way to make mirrors from glass sheets.107 The “discovery” of
the new world lead to a drastically increased production of metallic Hg (Figure 1), which was mainly used for extraction of silver in Latin America and
later on gold in North America (Figure 3) with the amalgamation method. This
was the dominating use of Hg for more than three centuries. The production
FIGURE 3. Consumption pattern of primary plus recycled Hg in the USA since 1851. Recycled
Hg constituted 0–30% of consumed Hg before 1993, but nearly all during the end of the 1990’s.
Five-year averages based on annual values obtained mainly from.120
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
11
FIGURE 4. Consumption pattern of primary plus recycled Hg in Sweden since 1851. Swedish
industry was exporting most of the agricultural chemicals produced, while the absence of any
national production of Hg oxide batteries or laboratory chemicals explain the low consumption
of Hg by these consumers. Mercury recycled at site from waste of chlor-alkali factories has
not been registered nor included in the graph, while Hg in wastes recovered abroad during
the 1990’s is included in the consumption. Instruments include electrical rectifiers (60% in
the 1960’s), thermometers other than clinical thermometers, other measuring and electrical
instruments. Five-year averages based on annual values obtained from.17,26,35,52,97,123
of silver in South America increased significantly after 1555, when the Hg
amalgamation process was introduced.44 This drastically reduced the use of
firewood, which had become scarce around the mines, and made silver extraction profitable also in the abundant silver ores with a metal content lower
than the ores worked in Europe. Interestingly, mainly smelting techniques
were employed for silver mining in Sweden and the rest of Europe (Figure 4),
while amalgamation with mainly European Hg was performed in the Americas. With the shipment of Hg from Almadén in Spain and also from Idrija
in Slovenia for use in silver mining in central and south America, about 130
000 t of Hg were sent overseas until the end of the 19th century. In addition,
more than 50 000 t of Hg was produced in the Huancavelica mines in Peru.
Camargo13 estimated the amount of Hg originating from Spain and Peru and
consumed by Spanish-American silver miners between 1570 and 1820 to be
114 215 t Hg, which is in agreement with our earlier estimates44 and 7% less
than the estimate by Nriagu.76,77 Also after independence, silver was mainly
produced with the amalgamation method in Spanish America for the rest of
the 19th century. Related Hg consumption was not registered, but Nriagu77
estimated it to be 70 000 t Hg based on registered silver production of which
70% was assumed to be extracted with Hg.
The fate of this Hg is at debate. Nriagu76,77 stated that this Hg contributes
to the present day to increased Hg levels in the environment, due to continuous reemission of Hg from land and water, as suggested also by global
modeling.41,50 Camargo,13 in contrast, states that Hg emitted at historic silver
12
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
and gold mining has been sequestered in deep sea sediment and is not biologically accessible any longer. Mercury used for silver and gold mining in
the Americas is about half of all primary Hg historically mined. The more
than a century-long time period, which has passed since historic amalgamation peaked, is a short period in geological perspectives. The fate of soil
Hg bound to soil organic matter, metal oxy-hydroxides, and other soil compounds binding Hg deposited on land, is poorly known,93 but the influence
of historic emissions is likely to last for centuries. In the temperate, boreal
forest zone, Hg deposited binds initially mainly to organic matter and is
mainly released when the organic matter is mobilized or mineralized.31,48,67
The half life for soil organic matter of the organic horizon of boreal forests
is typically several decades or centuries, depending among other on climatic
conditions.29,37,67 Further, the turnover time of organic matter varies by orders of magnitude between different fractions and thus depends on composition and heterogeneity.29 This is expected to result in a long and variable
time-lag on the order of centuries between changes in anthropogenic Hg
emissions and corresponding responses in Hg concentrations of fish and
wildlife.67
Although gold deposits were discovered in North America already in
1799 in North Carolina, it was the discovery of gold in California in 1847
that initiated the gold rushes in North America, culminating half a century
later in Klondike in western Canada and in Alaska, which during its peak
consumed about half of the global Hg production at that time.78 The resulting
dispersal of Hg to the environment is still evident, manifested by elevated
Hg contents in soils, sediments, and fish downstream historic gold mining
sites, leading to restrictions on fish consumption.40,53,61,66,99,125 Most of the
63 300 t of Hg mined in the USA and Canada between 1850 and 1900 was
used for gold mining in North America and Australia (Table 1, Figure 3).
Cyanide leaching was introduced around 1880 and became widely used a
few years after the turn of the century,120 but a significant use of Hg in gold
mining continued for another decade (Figure 3), which is also evident from
lake sediment profiles.83
An increased gold price during the 1980’s boosted a new gold mining
boom using Hg for amalgamation. This time the boom took place in Latin
America, Central Africa, and South East Asia. An estimated 2 000 t of Hg have
been dispersed in the Amazon alone during this latest gold rush,7 which still
continues although at reduced scale in the Brazilian Amazon, due to exhausted placer deposits. As a consequence, many Brazilian gold miners are
nowadays working gold deposits with the amalgamation technique in neighboring countries as we observed during numerous journeys in the region
between 1982 and 2001. Large but not quantified amounts of Hg have also
been used for gold extraction in China, Mongolia, and Russia (mainly Siberia)
using Hg from local mines.38,51 Amalgamation is officially banned in China
since 198538 and in Russia since 1990.51 In spite of the bans, Hg consumption
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
13
for gold amalgamation in China was estimated to 80 t in 1995, of which up
to 75% may have been recycled.38 Sukhenko and Vasiliev106 report 30 t of
annual Hg emissions from amalgamation in Siberia in the beginning of the
1990’s. Consumption and emissions of Hg in southeast Asia during the last
goldrush is poorly quantified. According to Appleton et al.,3 an estimated
140 t of Hg was released into the Agusan River catchment in the Philippines
during the period 1986–1988 when gold mining peaked there, while there are
no figures for the years before and after this period or for other parts of the
Philippines or neighboring countries, where the amalgamation technique is
known to be used. Ongoing efforts within the United Nations Environment
Programme, the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation, and
the World Bank is expected to contribute with updated quantification of the
present Hg use for gold extraction globally.14,49,113,116
Mercury used for goldmining in Africa was addressed when Communities and Small-Scale Mining (CASM) held their third annual general
meeting and learning event in Ghana, 2003.14 The participants expressed
preoccupation about the large quantities of Hg emitted by small-scale gold
miners with associated damages to both human and environmental health.
Annually, an estimated 500–700 t of Hg is emitted by small-scale miners, of which at least 10% is emitted in Africa, a region poorly recognized regarding Hg usage in small-scale mining (Table 2). Globally, 10–
15 millions of small-scale gold miners are active, most of them using
Hg.14 Retorts have at some places been introduced to reduce Hg emissions and thereby the health hazards for the miners, but results show
that the use of retorts has not reduced the emissions of Hg to an acceptable level at the mining sites.79 There are an increasing number of
alternative, Hg free methods on the market, being viable alternatives to
continued use of Hg. However, these efforts are counteracted by the
agreement between the European chloral-alkali industry and MAYASA (the
company owning Hg mines in Almadén, Spain) to transfer excess Hg
to Spain for reselling on the world market.116 MAYASA is buying this
Hg for 1.2–2 US$ kg−1 , which is about 30%–40% of the world market
price (4.1–4.9 US$ kg−1 between 1996 and 2000; Figures 5 and 6) and
significantly below their costs for producing virgin Hg (2.65–2.80 US$
kg−1 ).63
It should be noted that tailings from the amalgamation technique in
some cases are submitted to cyanide leaching to recover remaining gold,
thereby aggravating the environmental emissions of Hg.1,14 Müezzinoglu74
and Hinton et al.40 have recently published reviews on environmental effects
of different methods used in gold mining and alternative techniques under
development and implementation, so these aspects will not be treated here.
Also, remediation techniques for Hg contaminated sites and Hg abatement
technologies have been reviewed in Ebinghaus et al.18 and are therefore not
repeated her.
14
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
TABLE 2. Countries with Small-Scale Gold Mines and Estimateda Quantities of Hg
Emitted from Them in 2000
Region and country
Africa
Burkina Faso
Central African Republ.
Two Congos
Ethiopia
Gambia
Ghana
Guinee Conakry
Madagascar
Mali
Malawi
Mozambique
Senegal
South African Republ.
Sudan
Tanzania
Zimbabwe
Sum
Asia
Chinad
India
Indonesia
Laos
Philippines
Myanmar
Vietnam
Sum
Hg (t)
—b
?
>0
?
—b
4–6
—b
—b
5
>0
3–5
—b,c
0.5
3–5
10–15
10–20
>36–>57
200–300
?
100–150
5
20
>0
>0
>325–>475
Region and country
Hg (t)
Americas
Bolivia
Brazil
Canada and USA
Chile
Colombia
Canada and USA
Ecuador
10
15–20
>0
1
30–40
>0
2
French Guyana
Guyana
Peru
Suriname
USA
Venezuela
Central America
Sum
3
5
20–35
8
>0
10–15
2–5
>106–>144
Other areas
Former Soviet Union
countries
World total
20
>487–>696
a Estimates
from different persons participating in the CASM meeting in Ghana, September
2003. Small-scale gold mining was not known to be significant in countries not mentioned.
b Mercury not used by tradition and conservatism.
c Law banning the use of Hg for gold mining.
d Figure for 1997.34
2.
PIGMENT AND ORGANIC FUNGICIDE PRODUCTION
Cinnabar (HgS) has been used in its natural state as a pigment and also as
a drug and preservative for several thousand years.57 The use of the bright
red/orange pigment ranged from temples and the emperor’s palaces to seals
stamped on paper money already more than 1000 years ago in China. Quantities of cinnabar mined for these purposes in China are not recorded. In
Idrija, the pigment production corresponded to 7 628 t of metallic Hg during
a 500-year period.15 Most of this production was vermilion (cinnabar produced from elemental Hg). This was important also in the US, where 195 t
Hg were sent to New York in 1882 for production of vermilion, nearly as
much as used in gold and silver mining (205 t) in the USA during the same
year.120 Another indication of the importance of vermilion at that time is that
similar amounts of Hg (239 t in 1882) were exported from USA to China
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
15
FIGURE 5. Prices of Hg in Europe and in the Americas over five centuries. Initial intercontinental differences reflect the high costs for transportation. Pre-1800 prices show the low and
stable monopoly price controlled by the Spanish state for more than two centuries. European
prices for Almadén until 1640 and London 1850–1893, 1957–2000; American prices for Mexico
City until 1849, San Francisco 1850–1905, New York 1906–2000. Compiled from.5,36,92,97,117,120
FIGURE 6. Levels and fluctuations of Hg production, consumption, and price in the USA,
the largest consumer nation. The USA was also the largest producer nation in the 1850’s until
the 1880’s, after which several Hg mineral resources became depleted. Ten major price peaks
were discernible and described in the text. The price plunged after 1965, while consumption
continued at a high level until 1990. Compiled from.117,120 See methods section for further
details.
16
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
for production of vermilion.120 The American vermilion industry continued
to be a large consumer of Hg for the rest of the 19th century (Figure 3),
but was later reduced and in the 1940’s entirely replaced by less expensive
compounds such as antimony sulphuret, red lead, and hematite.120
Organic Hg compounds are efficient biocides, which were added as an
antifouling agent to paints, as a slimicide to paper pulp and as a fungicide to
protect seeds and plants from fungal diseases. In Sweden, these applications
started in the 1940’s and the production grew rapidly, so that half of the
140 t Hg annually imported in the end of the 1950’s were used to produce
biocides, mainly for the pulp and paper industry (42% of the annual Hg
imports), while antifouling paint used 2% of imported Hg, and agricultural
chemicals used 6% (Figure 4, specification not shown). Two thirds of the
agricultural chemicals produced in Sweden were exported, among others
to Denmark, which contributed to the low industrial Hg consumption in
Denmark (Table 1). This minor use of Hg in agriculture caught the public
attention by killing birds and terrestrial animals as already described. As a
result, Hg was excluded from all slimicides from the end of 1967, from all
antifouling paints for boats sold after 1973, and from all fungicides used
in agriculture after 1988, when the National Chemicals Inspectorate did not
prolong the registration of a Hg-containing fungicide, occasionally used as
an exception from the ban of Hg fungicides from the 1970’s.
The trend was similar but with a smaller amplitude in the USA, where
17% of totally 1830 t Hg consumed per year was used for organic Hg compounds in the end of the 1950’s, divided between slimicides using 3%, antifouling paint using 4%, and agricultural chemicals, including insecticides,
using 11% (Figure 3; specification not shown). The figures reflect the smaller
relative importance of forestry and larger relative importance of agriculture in
the economy of the USA. While the use of Hg-free slimicides and agricultural
biocides was introduced at about the same time in the USA as in Sweden,
the production of antifouling paint in the USA shows a diverging development by more than tripling until the 1980’s, after which also this use of Hg
decreased. In 1993, EPA canceled registrations of the last two Hg-containing
fungicides at manufacturer’s request.120
3.
CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY
Global Hg production increased markedly in the 20th century, due to industrial use other than for gold and silver mining (Figures 1, 3, 4). One of
the main consumers was and still is the chlor-alkali industry, where Hg cells
are used for production of chlorine, hydrogen, and sodium (in a few plants
potassium) hydroxides by electrolysis of a brine solution. In 1996, approximately 1 344 t Hg, 40% of all Hg produced, was consumed by the world’s
chlor-alkali industry111 and has recently decreased to an estimated 30%120
or lower, since West European and North American chlor-alkali industry
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
17
reported 173 t consumed in 2000,116 corresponding to 9.4% of Hg produced.
Quantities of Hg consumed by chlor-alkali industries in other parts of the
world remain to be reported. While 53% of the chlorine and alkali production in Europe is still done with Hg cells, the corresponding figure for
the USA is about 10%, while Japan has produced all chlorine and alkali
with Hg-free technologies for more than 15 years already.25,56,120 Measured
direct emissions to air and water from chlor-alkali plants have decreased
substantially during the past years, especially in western Europe and North
America,80,111,120 but are still amounting to about 10 tons a year in western
Europe.25 In addition, large amounts of Hg-containing sludge are produced,
which may explain much of the Hg consumption of 135 t per year by West
European chlor-alkali plants.80 Only about 10% of the reported Hg consumption was accounted for as emitted or entering the products.56 Mercury in the
sludge was reported as unaccounted until a few years ago, when a new routine was introduced for reporting to the national and regional authorities.80
Potential releases of Hg from these wastes are of concern.47 If wastes are
deposited in landfills instead of recycling the Hg, the waste producers
should reserve funds for the costs of future generations to maintain these
sites.
Using Hg cells is not the economically most favorable technology for
production of chlorine and sodium hydroxide any longer.47 The alternative
membrane technology does not use or emit any Hg and in addition has lower
energy consumption.47 It is regarded socially as well as economically feasible to convert all chlor-alkali plants in the EU to Hg-free technology already
by 2007 (Dir. Jean-Marie Cadiou and Head of Unit Per Sørup, Institute for
Prospective Technological Studies, at a EU Joint Research Centre presentation in Stockholm, 15 March 2001). Further, contracting parties in the Paris
Commission Decision 90/3 of 14 June 1990 on Reducing Atmospheric Emissions from Existing Chlor-Alkali Plants agreed that “the objective is that they
(the Hg cells) should be phased out completely by 2010.” 25,80 While several companies have infrastructure with Hg cells still operable, Euro Chlor
presently advocates a delay of the final phase-out date.25 Nevertheless, the
two remaining Swedish chlor-alkali plants with Hg cells are due to conversion before 2010, and it is expected that Hg cells, the main consumer
and polluter for a century, will worldwide be entirely replaced within a few
decades.
4.
USES IN EXPLOSIVES, ELECTRICAL AND MEASURING APPLIANCES
Hg fulminate [Hg(ONC)2 ], which was discovered by Howard in 1799, became
widely used in percussion and blasting caps in the 19th century,120 since it
was the initial detonator in the caps invented by Nobel in the 1860’s. They
were used for dynamite and other explosives with widespread use in mining and construction of canals, roads, and railways and in ammunition.20,97
18
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
Just before World War I, the USA consumed 250–300 tons, more than one
third of actual Hg consumption in the USA, in their production of fulminate
(Figure 3). Since dry fulminate is extremely sensitive to thrusts, it had to be
produced at the assembly sites of percussion and blasting caps.123 Sweden
imported most caps assembled, but produced the fulminate needed for additional caps at a couple of factories for explosives, which are estimated to
have consumed 0.7 tons Hg per year around 1940 corresponding to about
2% of imported Hg (Figure 4). This has not been accounted for in earlier
inventories on Hg use in Sweden, and although it makes up a minor quantity in Sweden, warrants an assessment of the quantities of Hg consumed
for fulminate production in Germany and UK, where the production of percussion and blasting caps for both national demand and a substantial export
was large at the time.97 After World War II, fulminate was replaced by lead
azide and nitrogen tetrasulphide.120,123 In Sweden, fulminate production was
terminated in 1959.17,52
Before the ban in 1992, Sweden imported clinical thermometers containing large quantities of Hg, while smaller quantities of Hg were used in
domestic production of other thermometers, measuring instruments and rectifiers (Figure 4).97 In Sweden, Hg use for measuring instruments and electrical
products was large between World Wars I and II, while corresponding use in
the USA dominated for a longer period and still is large as a result of aversion
of several producers to replace Hg-containing thermometers, thermostats for
housing, and switches in cars with Hg free ones (Figures 3 and 4).116,120 However, this use is on change also in the USA, where several states have recently
introduced bans on the manufacture, sale and distribution of Hg fever thermometers and Hg-added novelty items.22 Comparatively small amounts of
Hg are still used for fluorescent tubes in both Sweden and the USA, although
the emissions to the environment from used tubes are significant if they are
not recycled without breakage of the tubes.
The consumption of Hg for production of Hg-oxide batteries and of
alkaline batteries, to which HgCl2 was added to improve performance and
shelf life, increased drastically in the 1980’s in the US, Japan, and some West
European countries (Table 1, Figures 3 and 4). In Japan, 65% of the Hg consumed in 1990 was used for battery production.16 In contrast, Sweden had
no domestic production of Hg-oxide batteries, and only limited amounts of
Hg were consumed for production of manganese dioxide batteries,26 while
considerable quantities of batteries containing Hg were imported.35 In order
to reduce Hg emissions from waste incineration and diffuse emissions, the
authorities in most industrialised countries enforced legislation in the 1990’s,
banning both production and import of Hg-containing batteries with a few
exceptions, such as certain batteries for hearing aids and button-cells containing less than two percent Hg by weight, which are permitted in the EU
until 2004.110,111
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
5.
19
MEDICAL AND DENTAL USES
The dominating medical use of Hg, (in metallic form and as calomel, Hg2 Cl2 ),
in Sweden in the second half of the 19th century (Figure 4) indicates that
some persons were highly exposed to Hg, mainly for treatment of syphilis,
and 0.3–1% of the population of 3.5–5 millions were treated for venereal
diseases (10 000–50 000 persons).97,107 However, the per capita consumption
of Hg was low in Sweden during this period, contrary to the USA (Figure 2),
where most Hg was used in gold mining (Figure 3), causing direct human
exposure when Hg is emitted as vapor during the burning process.116 The
total number of persons engaged in gold mining in the USA is not known,
but in 1899 between 50 000 and 100 000 gold miners rushed to Yukon Valley
in Alaska and western Canada.78
Sublimate (HgCl2 ) is in certain countries still used as an antiseptic for
wounds. It was used in large quantities during the World Wars, triggered
by the largely increased use of Hg in explosives, as indicated by the peaks
in Figure 1. Sublimate was also used for preserving wood.120 Nowadays,
the use of Hg in medicine, pharmaceutical products, and gold mining has
been prohibited or restricted in industrialized countries, but is still a topic of
large concern for the population in many other countries, and needs to be
acted upon in order to reduce human exposure.116 For example, Thimerosal
(ethylmercury thiosalicylate) used for preserving vaccines in many countries
should be refrained from administering to children, being most vulnerable to
Hg. The use of Hg-containing skin lightening soaps, creams, and powder for
adults and babies should be ended immediately. This legal production in the
EU for export to Africa and India continued for several years after that the
domestic sale had been banned, indicating an example of double standards
in the EU.28
Mercury has been extensively used in dentistry during the last century, after that the modern amalgam was introduced in the USA in the 19th
century.105 In Sweden, the use of amalgam increased dramatically after decisions in 1938 of free dental care for children and in the 1950’s for pregnant
women.105 Presently, dental amalgam accounts for 10% of Hg used in the
USA and one third of Hg used in Sweden (Figures 3 and 4). Multinational
political actions, similar to those against the use of Hg in batteries, have not
been directed towards the use of amalgam for dental fillings, despite economically viable alternatives and large and well-documented emissions to both
air and water. Mercury emissions to the air from cremation are estimated to
0.28 t yr−1 in Sweden,75 or 0.03 g per capita per year from a population of
8.5 million with 40–100 t of Hg in dental fillings and a cremation rate around
65%.75,90,97 Mercury losses to waters from amalgam fillings via human feces amount to about one third of that to the air,101 while losses to waters
from dental practices are not quantified in Sweden but could be larger and
are of concern for sewage treatment plants.90 In Denmark with 5.4 million
20
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
inhabitants, Hg losses to water from dental practices were estimated to between 83 and 120 kg per year in 1992/93.58 Losses of Hg from Danish dentistry is expected to continue, because dental amalgam is until further notice
excluded from the general ban on Hg use from 1994.59
An estimated 20% of Hg consumed as dental amalgam is lost within
a 10-year period.4 This indicates that of 108 t of Hg consumed for dental
applications in Sweden during the 1970’s (Figure 4), about 20 t could have
polluted the environment until the end of the 1980’s. Dental use of Hg has
been significant also in Japan and most European countries (Table 1). Part of
the demand in the EU has been supplied by Swedish companies, exporting
dental amalgam when the demand in Sweden decreased during the latest
decade.97 Dental amalgam is classified as a medical product according to EU
legislation and consequently exempted from the Swedish export ban of Hg,
compounds, mixtures, and products containing Hg.108 Swedish efforts to reduce the use of dental amalgam beyond voluntary agreements by legislation
have been hindered by economic interests profiting on the continued use of
amalgam. Considering that some persons evidently suffer from dental amalgam and that researchers have been able to show effects of inorganic Hg
at lower concentrations than before,105 it seems appropriate that the amalgam producers set aside funds for treatment and convalescence of patients
affected by amalgam, instead of leaving this costs to the public (tax general
payers).
D.
EVALUATION OF UNCERTAINTIES INVOLVED IN FIGURES USED
In general, contemporary records on produced or consumed quantities are
the most reliable figures possible to obtain, although attention needs to be
paid to the various units used and to any changes in reporting practices. The
figures on Hg produced in Spain and Slovenia from 1500 to present and in
Spanish America until 1820 are expected to correspond to actually produced
quantities, because these were carefully recorded due to the value of Hg and
its importance in the Colonial and European economies. Production of Hg at
North American mines has been equally well registered since Hg mining did
not start until just before 1850. Mercury production in Algeria and Italy has a
shorter and well documented output. Production figures from the other two
main producer regions, China and the countries of former Soviet Union, are
missing for long periods and are based on exported quantities or estimated
production for other periods, which may be misleading. However, figures
reported from the countries of the former Soviet Union for the most recent
decade are based on produced quantities.
The consumption records presented are, in general, less certain than
the production records due to a large number of consumers ranging from
industries to craftsmen and individuals. Official statistics on Hg consumption
is available since the second half of the 19th century in both Sweden and
the USA, although less detailed in the beginning. Reliability of the figures
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
21
improved when the consumers later on had to report quantities of Hg consumed in specific categories. Still, a certain degree of uncertainness remains
due to the possibility of not reported quantities or reported quantities not
corresponding to consumed quantities. However, this uncertainty is probably
small, and smaller than that caused by public databases being made inaccessible to protect company proprietary data in market sectors with few (three
or less) actors, such as the dental sector in Sweden and Hg byproduction in
the USA. If the ongoing merging of companies results in an increasing number of areas where data are inaccessible, governmental restriction of public
information on industrial activities, harmful or potentially harmful to human
and environmental health, inflicts on fundamental values of democracy.
E.
ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON PRICES
The performance of the global Hg market for the last five centuries has been
diverging from the market of most other commodities. For nearly three centuries, 1560–1830, a global monopoly situation and a constant lack of Hg
prevailed, but despite this the selling price was kept constant at a level to
barely match production costs, since Spain controlled the Hg price from 1572
in western Europe and the Americas in power of its dominating position as
the largest producer and a monopoly on Hg trade with the Spanish Americas.
Initially, prices escalated from 1559, but the market became saturated after a
few years and competition with the Hg mine in Peru caused receding prices.5
The price was in 1572 fixed at current market price, but was later on lowered to correspond to estimated production and transport costs, but without
covering administrative costs or generating any profit. In this way, the Spanish crown wanted to stimulate the production of silver.5 The transport costs
were high in the 16th century, indicated by large difference in Hg price between Almadén and New Mexico (Figure 5). After 1590, prices decreased
gradually (except for 1607–1608) until the Spanish monopoly ceased in the
beginning of the 19th century. Then the Hg price initially rose sharply, but
declined again rapidly around 1850, when Hg mining finds were discovered
in North America (Figure 5). Later on it oscillated according to availability
and demand with an overall increasing trend in the 20th century until the
mid-1960’s, and for more than a century, consumption was more important
than production in governing the price. For example, when amalgamation
was replaced by more efficient cyanide leaching in the end of the 19th and
the beginning of the 20th centuries, the Hg price dropped (Figure 5) and
USGS120 stated in 1884: “The quicksilver industry is in a depressed condition.
The production has fallen off largely, but this has not had the effect of stimulating prices. . . ”. Efforts were made to find new applications for Hg other than
amalgamation or production of vermilion.120 Innovations technically successful were the use of Hg as an electrode in electrolysis, use in other electrical
appliances, in dentistry, instrumentation, and as ballast at navigation and the
development of inorganic and organic Hg compounds, which were used in
22
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
industrial processes as catalysts, in explosives, in health care (disinfectants,
skin bleaching), in paint to ships for antifouling, and in other paint, agriculture, and industry as fungicides (including slimicides at paper production).
Other inventions were less successful, such as replacing water by Hg in utility
burners, which resulted in large emissions of the comparatively expensive
Hg when the burners exploded and in a lower efficiency than for improved
burners using steam.120 Wars caused elevated Hg prices (Figure 5) due to
increased consumption of Hg used for pharmaceuticals and various kinds of
explosives (Figure 5), thereby spurring the production to new peaks during
WWII and the Vietnam War (Figure 1).
In the 1970’s, an awakened environmental concern caused a significant decrease in global demand of Hg, and the price plunged drastically
(Figures 2 and 5). Consumption of Hg was less reduced in the USA than in
Sweden (Figures 2 and 6). In the end of the 1980’s, western Europe, the
US, and Canada restricted the use of Hg further by reducing the permitted
Hg content in batteries (dry and button cells), which was later on followed
by Japan and other countries (Figures 3 and 4). European and Japanese car
manufacturers replaced Hg switches with Hg free ones, and Japan phased
out all the Hg cells while chlor-alkali plants in other industrialized countries
reduced their emissions.56,111 The dominating Hg producer, the Spanish state
company MAYASA, running the mines at Almadén, responded by forcing
up the Hg prices in 1987–88 by retaining Hg produced in stock.16,120 However, these efforts were punctured by uncontrollable sales of stocks from the
former USSR countries after a drastic reduction of the military arsenal.16,120
When this Hg and new Hg from mines in the former USSR countries entered the global Hg market, the price plunged further (Figure 5). MAYASA
had to close down in 1990 after several years of losses.65,120 Other mines
in Italy, USA and later on in Slovenia closed, too, but as in the 1880’s,
the low production could not stimulate the prices, which remained low
and have been just above 4 US$ kg−1 Hg during the last years of the 20th
century.
Another anomaly of the Hg market was demonstrated in 1993, when
MAYASA, assisted by public subsidies, reopened the mines in Almadén,
Spain, in spite of a continued low Hg price and a declining demand of Hg.43
The following years, MAYASA got additional subsidies from EU.24 The other
major Hg mines in operation at the end of the 20th century in Algeria, China,
and Kyrgyzstan are also state owned and for political reasons inclined to
producing Hg even at economic losses.120 One negative consequence of
this is that virgin Hg may be used instead of recovering Hg from waste
generated by e.g. Hg cells in chlor-alkali plants, unless environmental
legislation enforces recycling.
The index-corrected world market or global Hg price varied widely.
Globally, four periods can be discerned: (i) the colonial period when most Hg
was produced in Europe or under European control in Spanish America for
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
23
use, mainly, in silver mining; (ii) the gold rush period when both production
and consumption were dominated by the USA and additional gold mining
in Canada, Australia and Africa; (iii) the industrial period including the two
world wars, and (iv) the recent decades of environmental awareness in the
industrialized countries.
Comparisons show that global Hg price and production was controlled
accordingly by different forces: During the first period, both price and production were controlled by central, political authorities except for the last
three decade, during the second and third periods by the rules of capitalism
and war, and during the fourth period by the public opinion. This is reflected
in the relationship between price and production. During the colonial period,
the Hg price was constant for decades or even a century and a half despite
changes in production. The collapse of the Spanish empire ended the epoch
of fixed Hg price and resulted in a rapidly increasing price, driven by continued silver mining and gradually accelerated by the demand from gold miners
in North America, raising the price to the highest for two centuries and a half.
During 1850–1970, after the discovery of mineable Hg in the USA, the Hg
price showed no clear, long-term trend until 1970, but fluctuated widely with
an amplitude of about five-fold. At the same time, global production varied
about ten-fold (Figure 1).
Ten peaks in price and Hg production in the USA can be discerned
(Figure 6, Table 3). The first four can be linked to gold rushes, one of
them possibly also to the civil war. Three peaks in price can be linked to
the world wars and the inter-war recession, bringing about a price peak
just before the depression in the 1930’s, and two to the post-war industrialization, strengthened by the Korea and Vietnam wars (Figure 6). Finally, there is a smaller but distinct peak in the beginning of the 1980’s.
Linked to each price peak, also production showed a peak. During both
world wars, prices increased dramatically and simultaneously with production, demonstrating a rapid response to a sudden change in economy. With
the other peaks, however, production increased quite clearly after an increase in price, suggesting that production was controlled by demand, with a
time lag of generally two–five years (Figure 6). After 1970, patterns changed
dramatically following a collapse of the Hg price to the lowest level during history. At the same time, production in the USA collapsed, but recovered soon and reached another peak in the end of the 1970’s and beginning of the 1980’s, thereby preceding the corresponding price peak in
1981. This inverse production-price reaction appears to be related to a continued large demand for Hg also after 1970 and the discovery of new Hg
deposits.120
The Hg market in the USA, the largest national market, shows a close
relationship between consumption and price for almost a century until after World War II (Figure 6). An expected consumption-driven price-increase
is most evident in the 1920’s, the post-war period until the mid 1950’s,
24
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
TABLE 3. Correlation of Hg Price (in San Francisco Until 1905, Thereafter in New York,
Index-Corrected) to Hg Consumption and Production in the USA and to World Production
for Three Different Periods: 1855–1944, When the USA Was a Net Exporter of Hg, 1945–1965,
When the USA was a Net Importer, and 1966–2000, After an Apparent Change of Market
Rules in 1965. Pearson Correlation Coefficients Based on Annual Values, Bold Numbers are
Significant at the 5% Level
Periods
USA consumption current year
USA consumption preceding year
USA consumption succeeding year
USA, change in consumption current year
vs. preceding year
USA production current year
USA production preceding year
USA production succeeding year
USA, change in production current year
vs. preceding year
USA production current year/USA consumption
current year
USA production current year/USA consumption
preceding year
USA production current year/USA consumption
succeeding year
World production current year
World production preceding year
World production succeeding year
World, change in production current year vs.
preceding year
World production current year/USA consumption
current year
World production current year/USA consumption
preceding year
World production current year/USA consumption
succeeding year
1855–1944
1945–1965
1966–2000
0.30
0.17
0.38
0.15
0.51
0.61
0.27
−0.09
0.74
0.73
0.71
0.06
0.05
−0.09
0.22
0.30
0.13
−0.18
0.42
0.56
0.56
0.53
0.54
0.07
−0.12
−0.12
0.26
−0.04
−0.12
0.29
−0.14
−0.04
0.17
0.38
0.31
0.36
0.13
0.58
0.62
0.46
0.23
0.81
0.86
0.75
0.22
−0.02
−0.05
0.33
0.07
−0.04
0.45
−0.08
0.19
0.34
and in the beginning of the 1960’s. Other forces than market forces appear to have driven up the price in the beginning of the 1870’s, possibly
the German-French war, and during both world wars. The drastic price decrease in the 1970’s shows that the price reacted immediately and entirely in
accordance with the increasing knowledge acquired about health and environmental effects of Hg, while the consumption reacted more sluggishly and
thereby recalled a higher price within a few years in the beginning of the
1980’s before also the consumption plunged (Figure 6). This large decrease
in consumption forced the Hg price down to the lowest level ever. Ever
since Hg started to be mined in the USA, production was in the 19th century
larger than domestic consumption, some periods twice as large. However,
in the second half of the 20th century, domestic production was far from
meeting domestic consumption (Figure 6) and an increasing quantity had to
be supplied from European mines. This did not cause any markedly different
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
25
correlation between consumption and the rising price trend until 1965
(Table 3). A marked trend shift took place when the Hg price peaked in
1965 (Figure 6; Table 3). As both knowledge and awareness about health and
environmental impact of Hg increased, political decisions in Japan, Sweden,
and other countries contributed to reverse the price trend. Uncertainty and
fear among the Hg consumers about further complications of continued Hg
use may have contributed to the much faster fall in price than in actual Hg
consumption (Figure 6).
Although the Hg prices in New York and London were highly correlated (r = 0.85), the price in New York fell more rapidly than the price in
London after 1965 (Figure 5). A possible cause is that the state owned, mainly
European mines, supplying Hg sold via London, were less sensitive to market forces than the mines in the USA, which were all private companies.120
In addition, a continued large demand for Hg by the European chlor-alkali
industry, the dominant consumer by that time, may have damped the price
fall in London.
After 1965, the fall of the Hg price was significantly correlated with reduced Hg consumption in the USA (r = 0.74) and also globally, if assuming
that global production reflects global consumption (Table 3). This indicates
a marked decrease in the demand for Hg, which should have alerted producers to reorganize their activity. This was not initiated at Almadén until
1979, when an ambitious program to develop the exploitation of Hg and
to diversify the activities of the company into agriculture and public works
services took off.33 The government paid 2/3 of the budget but had later
on, as the owner, to also assume the losses, which were partly offset as
a 15 times enlargement of social capital.33 Although improvements of infrastructure is an appropriate area for public intervention, the lack of transparency and clear borders between public benefits and the loss making Hg
production, no involvement of the private sector and a lack of sound economic principles turned out to be fatal for the program, and as a results,
the mining company and region is now suffering from an aggravated recession. Between 1985 and 1997, the Hg mining company received subsidies
amounting to 150.8 millions US$, of which 59.7 millions US$ were used to
support the mining and production of mainly Hg involving losses, thereby
sapping market forces of Hg.33,65 Spain has received large sums from the EU
structural funds since 1994 (typically 5 000 millions US$ annually), but it has
not been possible to trace the partition transferred to the mining sector of
MAYASA.
Between 1965 and 2000, the decreasing Hg price was strongly correlated
with production of Hg and driven by the reduced consumption (Table 3). The
present low Hg price may be fatal for the environment, by stimulating the
use in gold mining and other dissipative uses and by reducing any economic
incitements for recycling Hg after use.
26
L. D. Hylander and M. Meili
IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
When phasing out Hg from industrial and other uses, stockpiles of Hg need
to be safely disposed with minimal emissions to the environment. Mining
waste and tailings containing considerable amounts of Hg are abundant in
the region of the mercuriferous belt between the western Mediterranean and
central Asia, as well as in the western part of South and North America.32 At
the Idrija Hg mine in Slovenia, an estimated 40 000 t of Hg have accumulated
in waste.69 Large but not yet quantified amounts are present around mines
extracting Hg, copper, gold and other metals in Spain, Italy, and other mining
regions worldwide, being potential Hg emitters. To give an example, more
than one million tons of tailings and oxidized ‘hot rocks’ (roasting plant
waste) from a Hg mine in the Philippines was used in the 1960’s for the construction of a coastal jetty, which continues to increase the Hg concentration
in adjacent water.124
A compilation of Hg in industrial waste in Sweden suggests 280 t of Hg
in 5000 t of mining waste containing more than 1% Hg, 800 t of Hg in mining
waste with 0.0001–1% Hg, 8 t of Hg in steel industry waste containing about
0.0004% Hg, 8 t of Hg in waste from the paper and pulp industry containing
about 0.0007% Hg, and 13 t of Hg in deposits at former chlor-alkali and
paper pulp factories.104 The Swedish mining waste with 1% Hg or more
and some mining waste with lower Hg concentration but being a risk to
the environment has been decided to be safely stored in a deep bedrock
repository to minimize future environmental and health risks.104 In the USA,
sales of Hg from the National Defense Stockpile were suspended in 1994
and remain suspended pending completion of an analysis of the potential
environmental impact of the sales, and continued storage in ware houses has
been suggested as an option.120
Another challenge for the near future is the disposal of the large stocks
of Hg currently in use, notably the 12 000–15 000 t of metallic Hg used as
electrodes in West European chlor-alkali plants with Hg cells.56 For a safe
disposal, national and international authorities need to set up a framework
of regulations to protect the environment and public health, while the responsibility for the development of specific technical solutions may remain
with the industry and waste owners. As decided in Sweden, Hg-containing
wastes will be permanently stored in a deep bedrock repository in order to
minimize emissions to the environment, and an abandoned mine with suitable geological and hydrological characteristics may be used as a deposit.104
One possibility of disposing the large quantity of Hg in European chlor-alkali
factories is to return it back to its main origin, the mines of Almadén, for
appropriate treatment and final deposition. Recombining Hg with sulfur to
form cinnabar (HgS) will reduce its mobility, a technique that has been practiced for more than a century when producing vermilion, and will produce a
The Rise and Fall of Mercury
27
natural compound that can be safely stored, for example in abandoned Hg
mines.120 The presence of carbonates in the host rocks of Almadén will minimize local environmental hazards for millennia to come as it has done for
passed millennia.10,39 In this way, the flow of mined Hg would be reversed
in an environmentally profitable way with the turn of the millennium, about
500 years after its entry as a significant global pollutant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study was partly financed by the Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning (FORMAS) and by Helge
Ax:son Johnssons Stiftelse. The Swedish Foundation for International Cooperation in Research and Higher Education (STINT), Centre for Metal Biology, Uppsala, Environment Canada, the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA), the Swedish Institute (SI), and the Dept. of Research Cooperation at
the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida/SAREC) are acknowledged for research and travel grants to the first author. This study is linked to
efforts supported by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency to reduce
European mercury emissions. We would like to thank Ingegerd Gustafsson
◦
and Kjell-Ake Larsson for data from the archives of Dyno Nobel and NEXPLO
Bofors AB, respectively, Arne Jonsson for supplying literature not available
at libraries and Vesna Jereb, Jozef Stefan Institute, Slovenia, for translating
Slovenian articles. We also gratefully acknowledge Prof. John Jay TePaske,
Duke University, USA, and Dr. Felix Hruschka, Proyecto GAMA, Gestión Ambiental en la Minerı́a Artesanal, Lima, Peru, for statistical data.
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