Glossary
biomes are typically based on dominant vegetation structure
(e.g. forest, grassland). Ecosystems within a biome function in a
broadly similar way, although they may have very different species
Abatement cost: See Marginal abatement cost.
composition. For example, all forests share certain properties
Abundance: The total number of individuals of a taxon or
regarding nutrient cycling, disturbance, and biomass that are
taxa in an area, population, or community. Relative abundance
different from the properties of grasslands. Marine biomes are
refers to the total number of individuals of one taxon compared
typically based on biogeochemical properties.
with the total number of individuals of all other taxa in an area,
volume, or community.
Acidification: Acidification is a natural process. The term is
used to describe the loss of nutrient bases (calcium, magnesium
make or modify products or processes for specific use.
Capacity building: A process of strengthening or developing
and potassium) through the process of leaching and their
human resources, institutions, organisations, or networks. Also
replacement by acidic elements (hydrogen and aluminium).
referred to as capacity development or capacity enhancement.
Adaptation: Adjustment in natural or human systems to a
new or changing environment. Various types of adaptation can
be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation,
private and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned
adaptation.
Adaptive capacity: The general ability of institutions,
Capture fisheries: see Fishery.
Carbon sequestration: The process of increasing the
carbon content of a reservoir other than the atmosphere.
Catch: The number or weight of all fish caught by fishing
operations, whether the fish are landed or not.
Coastal system: Systems containing terrestrial areas
systems, and individuals to adjust to potential damage, to take
dominated by ocean influences of tides and marine aerosols, plus
advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences.
nearshore marine areas.
Adaptive management: A systematic process for continually
Collaborative (or joint) forest management: Community-
improving management policies and practices by learning from the
based management of forests, where resource tenure by local
outcomes of previously employed policies and practices. In active
communities is secured.
adaptive management, management is treated as a deliberate
experiment for purposes of learning.
Afforestation: Planting of forests on land that has
historically not contained forests.
Agrobiodiversity: The diversity of plants, insects, and soil
biota found in cultivated systems.
Alien species: Species introduced outside its normal
distribution.
Community (ecological): An assemblage of species
occurring in the same space or time, often linked by biotic
interactions such as competition or predation.
Community (human, local): A collection of human
beings who have something in common. A local community
is a fairly small group of people who share a common place of
residence and a set of institutions based on this fact, but the word
‘community’ is also used to refer to larger collections of people
Alien invasive species: See Invasive alien species.
who have something else in common (e.g. national community,
Aquaculture: Breeding and rearing of fish, shellfish, or plants
donor community).
in ponds, enclosures, or other forms of confinement in fresh or
marine waters for the direct harvest of the product.
Biodiversity (a contraction of biological diversity): The
Conceptual Framework: Is a concise summary in words
and pictures of the relationship between people and nature
including key components of interactions between humans and
variability among living organisms from all sources, including
ecological systems. Conceptual frameworks assist in organising
terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
thinking and structuring work when assessing complex
complexes of which they are part. Biodiversity includes diversity
ecosystems, social arrangements and human-environment
within species, between species, and between ecosystems.
interactions.
Biofuels: Liquid fuels derived from biomass and
predominantly used in transportation. The dominant biofuels
are ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol is produced by fermenting
Condition of an ecosystem: The capacity of an ecosystem
to yield services, relative to its potential capacity.
Condition of an ecosystem service: The capacity of
starch contained in plants such as sugar cane, sugar beet,
an ecosystem service to yield benefits to people, relative to its
maize, cassava, sweet sorghum or beetroot. Biodiesel is typically
potential capacity.
produced through a chemical process called trans-esterification,
Contingent valuation: Economic valuation technique based
whereby oily biomass such as rapeseed, soybeans, palm oil,
on a survey of how much respondents would be willing to pay for
jatropha seeds, waste cooking oils or vegetable oils is combined
specified benefits.
with methanol to form methyl esters (sometimes called “fatty acid
methyl ester” or FAME).
Biogeographic realm: A large spatial region, within
which ecosystems share a broadly similar biota. Eight terrestrial
biogeographic realms are typically recognised, corresponding
roughly to continents (e.g. Afrotropical realm).
Cost-benefit analysis: A technique designed to determine
the feasibility of a project or plan by quantifying its costs and
benefits.
Cost-effectiveness analysis: Analysis to identify the least
cost option that meets a particular goal.
Critically endangered species: Species that face an
Biological diversity: See Biodiversity.
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. See also Threatened
Biomass: The mass of tissues in living organisms in a
species.
population, ecosystem, or spatial unit.
Biome: The largest unit of ecological classification that
is convenient to recognise below the entire globe. Terrestrial
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Biotechnology: Any technological application that uses
biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof to
Cultural landscape: See Landscape.
Cultural services: The nonmaterial benefits people obtain
from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience,
achieving sustainability. It is based on an adaptive, collaboratively
including, e.g. knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic
developed vision of desired future conditions that integrates
values.
ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional perspectives, applied
Decision-maker: A person whose decisions, and the actions
that follow from them, can influence a condition, process, or issue
under consideration.
Decomposition: The ecological process carried out primarily
within a geographic framework, and defined primarily by natural
ecological boundaries.
Ecosystem process: An intrinsic ecosystem characteristic
whereby an ecosystem maintains its integrity. Ecosystem processes
by microbes that leads to a transformation of dead organic matter
include decomposition, production, nutrient cycling, and fluxes of
into inorganic mater.
nutrients and energy.
Degradation of an ecosystem service: For provisioning
Ecosystem properties: The size, biodiversity, stability,
services, decreased production of the service through changes in
degree of organisation, internal exchanges of materials, energy,
area over which the services is provided, or decreased production
and information among different pools, and other properties that
per unit area. For regulating and supporting services, a reduction in
characterise an ecosystem. Includes ecosystem functions and
the benefits obtained from the service, either through a change in
processes.
the service or through human pressures on the service exceeding
Ecosystem resilience: See Resilience.
its limits. For cultural services, a change in the ecosystem features
Ecosystem resistance: See Resistance.
that decreases the cultural benefits provided by the ecosystem.
Ecosystem robustness: See Ecosystem stability.
Degradation of ecosystems: A persistent reduction in the
capacity to provide ecosystem services.
Direct use value (of ecosystems): The benefits derived from
Ecosystem services: The benefits people obtain from
ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and
water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; cultural
the services provided by an ecosystem that are used directly by an
services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and
economic agent. These include consumptive uses (e.g. harvesting
supporting services such as nutrient cycling that maintain the
goods) and nonconsumptive uses (e.g. enjoyment of scenic beauty).
conditions for life on Earth. The concept “ecosystem goods and
Agents are often physically present in an ecosystem to receive
services” is synonymous with ecosystem services.
direct use value. (Compare Indirect use value).
Diversity: The variety and relative abundance of different
entities in a sample.
Driver: Any natural or human-induced factor that directly or
indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem.
Driver, direct: A driver that unequivocally influences
Enabling conditions: Critical preconditions for success of
responses, including political, institutional, social, economic, and
ecological factors.
Endangered species: Species that face a very high risk of
extinction in the wild. See also Threatened species.
Environmental settings: Are the locations and places where
ecosystem processes and can therefore be identified and measured
humans interact with each other and nature that give rise to the
to differing degrees of accuracy. (Compare Driver, indirect).
cultural goods and benefits that people obtain from ecosystems.
Driver, indirect: A driver that operates by altering the level
or rate of change of one or more direct drivers. (Compare Driver,
direct).
Equity: Fairness of rights, distribution, and access. Depending
on context, this can refer to resources, services, or power.
Eutrophication: The increase in additions of nutrients to
Ecological character: See Ecosystem properties.
freshwater or marine systems, which leads to increases in plant
Ecological degradation: See Degradation of ecosystems.
growth and often to undesirable changes in ecosystem structure
Ecosystem: A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and
and function.
microorganism communities and their non-living environment
interacting as a functional unit.
Ecosystem approach: A strategy for the integrated
management of land, water, and living resources that promotes
conservation and sustainable use. An ecosystem approach is based
Evapotranspiration: See Transpiration.
Existence value: The value that individuals place on knowing
that a resource exists, even if they never use that resource (also
sometimes known as conservation value or passive use value).
Externality: A consequence of an action that affects someone
on the application of appropriate scientific methods focused on
other than the agent undertaking that action and for which the
levels of biological organisation, which encompass the essential
agent is neither compensated nor penalised through the markets.
structure, processes, functions, and interactions among organisms
Externalities can be positive or negative.
and their environment. It recognises that humans, with their
cultural diversity, are an integral component of many ecosystems.
Ecosystem assessment: A social process through which the
findings of science concerning the causes of ecosystem change,
Final ecosystem service: Are the outcomes from ecosystems
that directly lead to good(s) that are valued by people.
Fishery: A particular kind of fishing activity, e.g. a trawl fishery,
or a particular species targeted, e.g. a cod fishery or salmon fishery.
their consequences for human well-being, and management and
Fish stock: See Stock.
policy options are brought to bear on the needs of decision-makers.
Fixed nitrogen: See Reactive nitrogen.
Ecosystem change: Any variation in the state, outputs, or
structure of an ecosystem.
Ecosystem function: See Ecosystem process.
Ecosystem interactions: Exchanges of materials, energy, and
information within and among ecosystems.
Ecosystem management: An approach to maintaining
or restoring the composition, structure, function, and delivery
of services of natural and modified ecosystems for the goal of
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Functional diversity: The value, range, and relative
abundance of traits present in the organisms in an ecological
community.
Geographic information system: A computerised system
organising data sets through a geographical referencing of all data
included in its collections.
Goods: Are all use and non-use, material and non-material
outputs from ecosystems that have value for people.
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Governance: The process of regulating human behaviour
the upper limit of fluctuating noise such as that from road traffic.
governmental and nongovernmental mechanisms.
LA10,18h is the arithmetic average of the 18 hourly LA10,1h values
Habitat: Is an ecological or environmental area that is
inhabited by a particular animal or plant species. ‘Broad Habitats’
are used to classify different ecosystems for reporting.
Health, human: A state of complete physical, mental,
and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease
from 06.00 to 24.00.
LA90,T: The A weighted noise level exceeded for 90% of the
specified measurement period (T). In BS 4142: 1990 it is used to
define background noise level.
LAeq,T: The equivalent continuous sound level or ambient
or infirmity. The health of a whole community or population is
noise level is the sound level of a notional steady sound having the
reflected in measurements of disease incidence and prevalence,
same energy as a fluctuating sound over a specified measurement
age-specific death rates, and life expectancy.
period (T). LAeq,T is used to describe many types of noise and can
Heritage (cultural and natural): UNESCO defines heritage
as 'our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what
we pass on to future generations'. Physical objects produced
be measured directly with an integrating sound level meter. It is
written as Leq in connection with aircraft noise.
Land cover: The physical coverage of land, usually expressed
and used by past generations, ranging from small-scale domestic
in terms of vegetation cover or lack of it. Related to, but not
utensils to large-scale buildings, monuments, places and
synonymous with, land use.
landscapes, may become valued as cultural heritage by their
Landscape: An area of land that contains a mosaic of
descendants. Equally, symbolic products of human creativity
ecosystems, including human-dominated ecosystems. The term
and imagination such as music, visual arts, poetry and prose,
cultural landscape is often used when referring to landscapes
knowledge and know-how contribute to a society or group's
containing significant human populations or in which there has
understanding of its cultural heritage.
been significant human influence on the land.
Human well-being: See Well-being.
Indirect use value: The benefits derived from the goods
and services provided by an ecosystem that are used indirectly
Landscape unit: A portion of relatively homogenous land
cover within the local-to-regional landscape.
Land use: The human use of a piece of land for a certain
by an economic agent. For example, an agent at some distance
purpose (such as irrigated agriculture or recreation). Influenced
from an ecosystem may derive benefits from drinking water that
by, but not synonymous with, land cover.
has been purified as it passed through the ecosystem. (Compare
Direct use value).
Intermediate ecosystem services: Those whose
Marginal abatement cost: The cost of abating an
incremental unit of, for instance, a pollutant or carbon.
Market-based instruments: Mechanisms that create a
ecological processes and functions support all life, and, by
market for ecosystem services in order to improve the efficiency
definition all other services.
in the way the service is used. The term is used for mechanisms
Institutions: The rules that guide how people within societies
live, work, and interact with each other. Formal institutions are
written or codified rules. Examples of formal institutions would
be the constitution, the judiciary laws, the organised market, and
that create new markets, but also for responses such as taxes,
subsidies, or regulations that affect existing markets.
Market failure: The inability of a market to capture the
correct values of ecosystem services.
property rights. Informal institutions are rules governed by social
Marine system: Marine waters from the low-water mark
and behavioural norms of the society, family, or community. Also
to the high seas that support marine capture fisheries, as well
referred to as organisations.
as deepwater (>50 meters) habitats. Four sub-divisions (marine
Integrated coastal zone management: Approaches that
integrate economic, social, and ecological perspectives for the
management of coastal resources and areas.
Integrated pest management: Any practices that attempt
to capitalise on natural processes that reduce pest abundance.
Sometimes used to refer to monitoring programs where farmers
apply pesticides to improve economic efficiency (reducing
application rates and improving profitability).
Integrated responses: Responses that address
biomes) are recognised: the coastal boundary zone; trade-winds;
westerlies; and polar.
Mitigation: An anthropogenic intervention to reduce
negative or unsustainable uses of ecosystems or to enhance
sustainable practices.
Net primary productivity: See Production, biological.
Nutrient cycling: The processes by which elements are
extracted from their mineral, aquatic, or atmospheric sources or
recycled from their organic forms, converting them to the ionic
degradation of ecosystem services across a number of systems
form in which biotic uptake occurs and ultimately returning them
simultaneously or that also explicitly include objectives to
to the atmosphere, water, or soil.
enhance human well-being.
River basin management: Integration of water planning
and management with environmental, social, and economic
development concerns, with an explicit objective of improving
human welfare.
Interventions: See Responses.
Intrinsic value: The value of someone or something in and for
itself, irrespective of its utility for people.
Invasive alien species: An alien species whose
establishment and spread modifies ecosystems, habitats, or species.
LA10,T: The A weighted level of noise exceeded for 10% of
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the specified measurement period (T). It gives an indication of
in accordance with shared objectives. The term includes both
Nutrients: The approximately 20 chemical elements known
to be essential for the growth of living organisms, including
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon.
Open access resource: A good or service over which no
property rights are recognised.
Opportunity cost: The benefits forgone by undertaking one
activity instead of another.
Organic farming: Crop and livestock production systems
that do not make use of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, or
herbicides. May also include restrictions on the use of transgenic
crops (genetically modified organisms).
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
Policy-maker: A person with power to influence or determine
policies and practices at an international, national, regional, or local
level.
Pollination: A process in the sexual phase of reproduction in
Salinisation: The build-up of salts in soils.
Scenario: A plausible and often simplified description of
how the future may develop, based on a coherent and internally
consistent set of assumptions about key driving forces (e.g. rate of
some plants caused by the transportation of pollen. In the context
technology change, prices) and relationships. Scenarios are neither
of ecosystem services, pollination generally refers to animal-
predictions nor projections and sometimes may be based on a
assisted pollination, such as that done by bees, rather than wind
“narrative storyline.” Scenarios may include projections but are
pollination.
often based on additional information from other sources.
Population, biological: A group of individuals of the same
Security: Access to resources, safety, and the ability to live in a
species, occupying a defined area, and usually isolated to some
predictable and controllable environment.
degree from other similar groups. Populations can be relatively
Service: See Ecosystem services.
reproductively isolated and adapted to local environments.
Population, human: A collection of living people in a given
area. (Compare Community (human, local)).
Precautionary principle: The management concept stating
Shared social values: Refers to the fulfillment, meaning or
significance of the collective needs of society in relation to social,
health and cultural services.
Soil fertility: The potential of the soil to supply nutrient
that in cases “where there are threats of serious or irreversible
elements in the quantity, form, and proportion required to support
damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason
optimum plant growth. See also Nutrients.
for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental
degradation,” as defined in the Rio Declaration.
Species: An interbreeding group of organisms that is
reproductively isolated from all other organisms, although
Primary production: See Production, biological.
there are many partial exceptions to this rule in particular taxa.
Production, biological: Rate of biomass produced by an
Operationally, the term species is a generally agreed fundamental
ecosystem, generally expressed as biomass produced per unit of
taxonomic unit, based on morphological or genetic similarity, that
time per unit of surface or volume. Net primary productivity is
once described and accepted is associated with a unique scientific
defined as the energy fixed by plants minus their respiration.
name.
Productivity, biological: See Production, biological.
Projection: A potential future evolution of a quantity or set
of quantities, often computed with the aid of a model. Projections
are distinguished from “predictions” in order to emphasise that
projections involve assumptions concerning, for example, future
socioeconomic and technological developments that may or
Species diversity: Biodiversity at the species level, often
combining aspects of species richness, their relative abundance,
and their dissimilarity.
Species richness: The number of species within a given
sample, community, or area.
Stock (in fisheries): The population or biomass of a fishery
may not be realised; they are therefore subject to substantial
resource. Such stocks are usually identified by their location. They
uncertainty.
can be, but are not always, genetically discrete from other stocks.
Provisioning services: The products obtained from
Storyline: A narrative description of a scenario, which
ecosystems, including, for example, genetic resources, food and
highlights its main features and the relationships between the
fibre, and fresh water.
scenario’s driving forces and its main features.
Public good: A good or service in which the benefit received
by any one party does not diminish the availability of the benefits to
others, and where access to the good cannot be restricted.
Reactive nitrogen (or fixed nitrogen): The forms
of nitrogen that are generally available to organisms, such
Strategies: See Responses.
Subsidy: Transfer of resources to an entity, which either
reduces the operating costs or increases the revenues of such entity
for the purpose of achieving some objective.
Subspecies: A population that is distinct from, and partially
as ammonia, nitrate, and organic nitrogen. Nitrogen gas (or
reproductively isolated from, other populations of a species but that
dinitrogen), which is the major component of the atmosphere, is
has not yet diverged sufficiently that interbreeding is impossible.
inert to most organisms.
Regulating services: The benefits obtained from the
Supporting services: Ecosystem services that are necessary
for the production of all other ecosystem services. Some examples
regulation of ecosystem processes, including, for example, the
include biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen,
regulation of climate, water, and some human diseases.
soil formation and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and
Resilience: The level of disturbance that an ecosystem can
undergo without crossing a threshold to a situation with different
provisioning of habitat.
Sustainable use (of an ecosystem): Human use of an
structure or outputs. Resilience depends on ecological dynamics as
ecosystem so that it may yield a continuous benefit to present
well as the organisational and institutional capacity to understand,
generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
manage, and respond to these dynamics.
aspirations of future generations.
Resistance: The capacity of an ecosystem to withstand the
impacts of drivers without displacement from its present state.
Responses: Human actions, including policies, strategies,
and interventions, to address specific issues, needs, opportunities,
Sustainability: A characteristic or state whereby the
needs of the present and local population can be met without
compromising the ability of future generations or populations in
other locations to meet their needs.
or problems. In the context of ecosystem management, responses
Taxon (pl. taxa): The named classification unit to which
may be of legal, technical, institutional, economic, and behavioural
individuals or sets of species are assigned. Higher taxa are those
nature and may operate at various spatial and time scales.
Riparian: Something related to, living on, or located at the
banks of a watercourse, usually a river or stream.
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
above the species level. For example, the common mouse, Mus
musculus, belongs to the Genus Mus, the Family Muridae, and the
Class Mammalia.
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Threatened species: Species that face a high (vulnerable
Well-being: A context- and situation-dependent state,
species), very high (endangered species), or extremely high
comprising basic material for a good life, freedom and choice,
(critically endangered species) risk of extinction in the wild.
health and bodily well-being, good social relations, security, peace
Threshold: A point or level at which new properties emerge
of mind, and spiritual experience.
Wetlands: Areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether
in an ecological, economic, or other system, invalidating
predictions based on mathematical relationships that apply at
natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is
lower levels. For example, species diversity of a landscape may
static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine
decline steadily with increasing habitat degradation to a certain
water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres.
point, then fall sharply after a critical threshold of degradation is
May incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the
reached. Human behaviour, especially at group levels, sometimes
wetlands and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six
exhibits threshold effects. Thresholds at which irreversible
metres at low tide laying within the wetlands.
changes occur are especially of concern to decision-makers.
Total economic value framework: A widely used
framework to disaggregate the components of utilitarian value,
including direct use value, indirect use value, option value, quasioption value, and existence value.
Total fertility rate: The number of children a woman would
Abbreviations and
Acronyms
give birth to if through her lifetime she experienced the set of
age-specific fertility rates currently observed. Since age-specific
rates generally change over time, TFR does not in general give the
AE
Actual Evaporation
actual number of births a woman alive today can be expected to
AES
Agri-environment scheme
have. Rather, it is a synthetic index meant to measure age-specific
ANGSt
Accessible Natural Greenspace Standard
birth rates in a given year.
AOD
Above Ordnance Datum
Trade-off: Management choices that intentionally or
AONB
Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty
otherwise change the type, magnitude, and relative mix of
AoSP
Areas of Special Protection
services provided by ecosystems.
ASNW
Ancient Semi-natural Woodland
ASSI
Area of Special Scientific Interest
use observed costs to travel to a destination to derive demand
AWI
Ancient Woodland Inventory
functions for that destination.
BAP
Biodiversity Action Plan
BARS
Biodiversity Action Reporting System
condition (e.g. of an ecosystem) is unknown. Uncertainty can
BBS
Breeding Bird Survey
result from lack of information or from disagreement about
BBSRC
Travel cost analysis: Economic valuation techniques that
Uncertainty: An expression of the degree to which a future
what is known or even knowable. It may have many types of
sources, from quantifiable errors in the data to ambiguously
BMI
body mass index
defined terminology or uncertain projections of human behaviour.
BoBW
Best of Both Worlds
Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative
BOD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
measures (e.g. a range of values calculated by various models) or
BRC
Biological Records Centre
by qualitative statements (e.g. reflecting the judgment of a team of
BSBI
Botanical Society of the British Isles
experts).
BSE
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Urbanisation: An increase in the proportion of the
population living in urban areas.
Urban Heat Island: A metropolitan area which is
significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas.
Urban systems: Built environments with a high human
Valuation: The process of expressing a value for a particular
good or service in a certain context (e.g. of decision-making)
bTB
Bovine Tuberculosis
BTO
British Trust for Ornithology
BTV
Bluetongue Virus
CABE
Commission for Architecture and the Built CAMS
Catchment Abstraction Management Areas
CAMSAR
Condition and Management Survey of the population density.
Environment
Archaeological Resource
usually in terms of something that can be counted, often money,
CAP
Common Agricultural Policy
but also through methods and measures from other disciplines
CBA
cost-benefit analysis
(sociology, ecology, and so on). See also Value.
CBD
Convention on Biological Diversity
CCW
Countryside Council for Wales
CD&E
construction, demolition and excavation
CDOM
co-varying coloured dissolved organic matter
Value: The contribution of an action or object to userspecified goals, objectives, or conditions. (Compare Valuation).
Value systems: Norms and precepts that guide human
judgment and action.
Voluntary measures/actions: Measures that are adopted
by firms or other actors in the absence of government mandates.
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Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council
CEA
cost-effectiveness analysis
CEFAS
Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science
Watershed (also catchment basin): The land area that
CEH
Centre for Ecology & Hydrology
drains into a particular watercourse or body of water. Sometimes
CFP
Common Fisheries Policy
used to describe the dividing line of high ground between two
CGT
Capital Gains Tax
catchment basins.
CHD
coronary heart disease
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
CHP
Combined Heat and Power
FFCD
Foresight Flood and Coastal Defence
CI
confidence interval
FGM
farm gross margin
Convention on International Trade in Endangered FIO
faecal indicator organism
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
FIT
Feed-in Tariff
CITES
CME
Choice Modelling Experiments
FLUF
Foresight Land Use Futures
CMS
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory FLUFP
Foresight Land Use Futures Project
Species of Wild Animals
FMD
Foot and Mouth Disease
carbon dioxide
FOG
Fire Operations Group
CO2
CO2e
carbon dioxide equivalent
FSC
Forest Stewardship Council
COGAP
Code of Good Agricultural Practice
FTE
full time employment
Confor
Confederation of Forest Industries
FWAG
Farm and Wildlife Advisory Group
COP
Conference of Parties
FWC
forest-wood-chains
COPR
Control of Pesticides Regulations
FWS
Farm Woodland Scheme
CP
Charting Progress
GAEC
Good Agricultural and Environmental Condition
CPRE
Campaign to Protect Rural England
GB
Great Britain
CQC
Countryside Quality Counts
GCR
Geological Conservation Review
CRoW
Countryside and Rights of Way
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
CS
Countryside Stewardship
GF
Go with the Flow
CSERGE
Centre for Social and Economic Research on the GHG
greenhouse gas
Global Environment
GIS
geographic information system
CSO
Central Statistics Office
GLUD
Generalised Land Use Database
CSS
Countryside Stewardship Scheme
GM
genetically modified
DARD
Department of Agriculture and Rural GMO
genetically modified organism
Development
GNI
Global National Income
Department of Communities and Local GPI
genuine progress indicator
Government
GPL
Green and Pleasant Land
DDT
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
GPP
gross primary production
DECC
Department of Energy and Climate Change
GPS
Global Positioning System
Defra
Department for Environment, Food and Rural GVA
gross value added
Affairs
GW
gigawatts
Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust
DCLG
DMG
Deer Management Group
GWCT
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
ha
hectares
DOC
dissolved organic carbon
HAP
Habitat Action Plan
HaRPPS
information retrieval system to support DoE
Department of Environment
DON
dissolved organic nitrogen
management of habitats and rare priority EA
Environment Agency
protected species
EASAC
European Academies Science Advisory Council
HLS
EAU
Environmental Advisory Unit
HMS
Harmonised Monitoring Scheme
EC
European Commission
HNV
High Nature Value
Higher Level Stewardship
ECG
electrocardiogram
HPAI
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
ECN
Environmental Change Network
HRV
heart rate variability
EEA
European Environment Agency
HSW
Habitat Survey of Wales
EEC
European Economic Community
HWP
Harvested Wood Products
EEZ
exclusive economic zone
ICES
International Council for the Exploration of the EIA
environmental impact assessment
ELME
European Lifestyles & Marine Ecosystems
ICZM
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Sea
ELS
Entry Level Stewardship
IEEP
Institute for European Environmental Policy
ELVS
English Leisure Visits Survey
IFM
Integrated Farm Management
END
European Directive on the Assessment and IPC
Infrastructure Planning Commission
Management of Environmental Noise
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
EQS
Environmental Quality Standards
IPPC
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
ERICA
Environmental Risk from Ionising Contamination
ISPV
Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus
ES
ecosystem service
IT
Information Technology
ESA
Environmentally Sensitive Area
ITS
internal transcribed sequences
ESRC
Economic and Social Research Council
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
ET
evapotranspiration
IWA
Institute of Welsh Affairs
EU
European Union
JNCC
Joint Nature Conservation Committee
EUNIS
European Nature Information System
JULES
Joint UK Land Environment Simulator
FC
Forestry Commission
KE
knowledge exchange
FEPA
Food and Environmental Protection Act
Kw
kilowatt
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
1457
LANR
Local Authority Nature Reserve
LCM
Land Cover Map
LCM2000
Land Cover Map 2000
NIEA
LEAF
Linking Environment and Farming
NI-NFFO
Non-Fossil Fuel Obligations
LETS
Local Exchange Trading Systems
NISMR
Northern Ireland Sites and Monuments Record
LFA
less favoured area
NIWT
National Inventory of Woodlands and Trees
LNR
Local Nature Reserve
NLEPI
Net Landscape Ecological Potential Index
LS
Local Stewardship
NM
nautical mile
LSOA
UK Census Lower Super Output Area
NNR
National Nature Reserve
LU
Livestock Unit
NOFS
New Organic Farming Scheme
LUCID
Local Urban Climate Model and its Application to NOx
nitrogen oxides
Scheme
Northern Ireland Environment Agency
the Intelligent Design of Cities
NP
National Park
cubic metres
NPP
net primary production
MA
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
NPS
National Policy Statement
MACC
marginal abatement cost of carbon
NRoSO
National Register of Sprayer Operators
MAFF
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
NS
National Security
MCCIP
Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership
NSAs
Nitrate Sensitive Areas
MCS
Marine Conservation Society
NSTS
National Sprayer Testing Scheme
MCZ
Marine Conservation Zone
NTFP
non-timber forest product
MEEB
Minimum Entry Environmental Benefit
NVC
British National Vegetation Classification
MEECE
Marine Ecosystem Evolution in a Changing NVZ
Nitrate Vulnerable Zone
Environment
NW
Nature@Work
Monitoring Engagement with the Natural OAS
Organic Aid Scheme
Environment
OMHoPDL Open Mosaic Habitats on Previously Developed MENE
MFA
Material Flow Analysis
MMH
Mountains, Moorlands and Heaths
ONS
Office for National Statistics
MMO
Marine Management Organisation
OPW
Office of Public Works
MNR
Marine Nature Reserve
OSNW
Other Semi-natural Woodland
MOD
Ministry of Defence
OSPAR
Convention for the Protection of the Marine MONARCH modelling natural resource responses to climate Land
Environment of the North East Atlantic
change
OTMS
Over Thirty-Month Scheme
Met Office Rainfall and Evaporation Calculation p.a.
per annum
System
PAN
Planning Advice Note
MOSS
Management of Special Sites
PAWS
Plantations on Ancient Woodland Sites
MPA
Marine Protected Area
PCB
polychlorinated biphenyl
MSC
Marine Stewardship Council
PDL
Previously Developed Land
MSFD
Marine Strategy Framework Directive
PDV
Phocine Distemper Virus
MSY
maximum sustainable yield
PE
Potential Evaporation
Mt
megatonnes
PEFC
Programme for Endorsement of Forest Mt CO2
megatonnes of carbon dioxide
MtC
megatonnes of carbon
PES
payment for ecosystem services
MtCO2e
megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
PFRA
Preliminary Flood Risk Assessment
MW
megawatts
PM
particulate matter
Mwe
megawatts equivalent
PM10
air pollution with particle diameter < 10 microns
MWTP
marginal willingness to pay
PML
Plymouth Marine Laboratory
NAEI
National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory
POC
particulate organic carbon
NAO
North Atlantic Oscillation
POM
particulate organic matter
NBN
National Biodiversity Network
POP
persistent organic pollutant
MORECS
1458
Northern Ireland Countryside Management m3
NICMS
Certification
NCC
Nature Conservancy Council
PPG
Planning Policy Guidance
NCMS
National Countryside Monitoring Scheme
PPS
Planning Policy Statement
NDVI
Normalised Difference Vegetation Index
PRD
partial root drying
NEA
National Ecosystem Assessment
QALY
Quality Adjusted Life Year
NEE
net ecosystem exchange
Ramsar
NEP
net ecosystem productivity
NERC
Natural Environment Research Council
RBMP
River Basin Management Plan
NERC
Natural Environment and Rural Communities
RCEP
Royal Commission for Environmental Pollution
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
NGO
non-governmental organisation
REC
Regional Environmental Characterisation
NHS
National Health Service
REP
Rural Environment Protection
NICE
National Institute for Health and Clinical RFA
Renewable Fuels Agency
Excellence
RHI
Renewable Heat Incentive
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
RHS
River Habitat Survey
UKWIR
UK Water Industry Research
RIG
Regionally Important Geological and UN
United Nations
Geomorphological Sites
UNECE
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
RIMA
reflexive interventionist or multi-agent-based UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
approach
US
United States
United States of America
RoTAP
Review of Transboundary Air Pollution
USA
RPA
Rural Payments Agency
USD
United States dollar
RPI
Retail Price Index
UV
ultraviolet
RSPB
The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
UVB
ultraviolet B
SAC
Special Area of Conservation
VI
Voluntary Initiative
SAF
Single Application Form
VMA
Valuation Meta-Analysis
SAMS
Scottish Association for Marine Science
VMNR
Voluntary Marine Nature Reserve
SAP
Species Action Plan
VMS
Vessel Monitoring System
SAS
Six Acre Standard
VOC
volatile organic compound
SCaMP
Sustainable Catchment Management Programme
VPF
value of a preventable fatality
SCC
social cost of carbon
VRP
Valleys Regional Park
SCORCHIO Sustainable Cities: Options for Responding to Climate cHange Impacts and Outcomes
VTG
vitellogenin
WAG
Welsh Assembly Government
SDA
Severely Disadvantaged Area
SEA
Strategic Environmental Assessment
SEEA
System of Environmental and Economic WFD
Water Framework Directive
Accounting
WGS
Woodland Grant Scheme
SEER
Social and Environmental Economic Research
WHO
World Health Organization
SEP
Special Environmental Project
WHR
waist to hip ratio
SEPA
Scottish Environment Protection Agency
WiSe
Wildlife SafE
SFM
sustainable forest management
WM
World Markets
SGM
Standard Gross Margin
WPZ
Water Protection Zone
SLNCI
Sites of Local Nature Conservation Importance
WSSD
World Summit on Sustainable Development
WATER
Wetted Land Assessment and Techniques for Restoration
SMP
Shoreline Management Plan
WTP
willingness to pay
SNG
semi-natural grassland
WWF
World Wide Fund for Nature
SOC
soil organic carbon
WWI
World War I
SP
Stated Preference
WWII
World War II
SPA
Special Protection Area
WWTW
wastewater treatment work
SPM
site prediction model
SPP
Scottish Planning Policy
SRDP
Scotland Rural Development Programme
SRP
soluble reactive phosphorus
SSSI
Site of Special Scientific Interest
SuDS
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems
SUE
Sustainable Urban Environment
Contributors
Expert Panel, Authors, Reviewers, User
Group, Client Group and Secretariat
TAG
Technical Advisory Group
TANs
Technical Advice Notes
TB
tuberculosis
Abson, David (University of Leeds)
TEEB
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Acreman, Mike (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
TEV
Total Economic Value
Ajax-Lewis, Nigel (Wildlife Trust for South & West Wales)
TFR
Total Fertility Rate
Albon, Steve (The James Hutton Institute)
TGF
trip generation function
Aleem, Mariam (Food Standards Agency)
THC
tetrahydrocannabinol
Alexander, Richard (Natural England)
TMP
Tracking Mammals Partnership
Allott, Tim (University of Manchester)
TOC
total organic carbon
Alonso, Isabel (Natural England)
UHI
Urban Heat Intensity
Anderson, Penny (Penny Anderson Associates)
UK
United Kingdom
Andrews, Barnaby (University of East Anglia)
UK NEA
United Kingdom National Ecosystem Assessment
Andrews, Julian (University of East Anglia)
UKBAP
United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan
Angus, Stewart (Scottish Natural Heritage)
UKCIP
United Kingdom Climate Impacts Programme
Annett, Judith (Northern Ireland Biodiversity Group)
UKCP
UK Climate Projection
UKMMAS
United Kingdom Marine Monitoring and Archdale, Peter (Council for Nature Conservation & the Countryside)
Assessment Strategy
Armitage, Heather (The James Hutton Institute)
UKTS
United Kingdom Tourism Statistics/Survey
Armitage, Will (Her Majesty’s Treasury)
UKWAS
UK Woodland Assurance Standard
Armstrong, Aileen (Scottish Natural Heritage)
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
1459
Asara, Viviana (University of Cambridge)
Brooke, Diane (Association of Electricity Producers)
Ashley, Jayne (Sustainable Development Commission)
Ashmore, Mike (University of York)
Brown, Bob (Independent / Joint Nature Conservation Brown, Claire (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre)
Askew, Tom (University of Cambridge)
Brown, Lee (University of Leeds)
Aslam, Uzma (University of Leeds)
Bruce, Lee (Woodland Trust)
Aspinall, Richard (The James Hutton Institute)
Bruneau, Patricia (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Atkinson, Giles (London School of Economics)
Bubb, Philip (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre)
Atkinson, Sian (Woodland Trust)
Austen, Melanie C. (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
Buckingham, David (Royal Society for the Protection of Buckton, Seb (Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust)
Bailey, Mark (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Bullock, James M. (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Baker, Julia (Balfour Beatty)
Burgess, Jacquelin (University of East Anglia)
Baker, Sandra (University of Oxford )
Burgess, Paul (Cranfield University)
Baker, Tom (University of Liverpool)
Burgess, Diane (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
Balmford, Andrew (University of Cambridge)
Burn, Alastair (Natural England)
Bankhead, Judith (Rivers Agency)
Burnett, Emma (Oxford University)
Bardgett, Richard D. (Lancaster University)
Burrows, Michael (Scottish Association for Marine Science)
Barry, Caroline (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Butenschön, Momme (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
Bashford, Jenny (National Farmers’ Union)
Butler, Christine (Department of Agriculture & Rural Cahalan, Christine (Bangor University)
Batty, Michael (University College London)
Campbell, Colin D. (The James Hutton Institute)
Bazley, Tony (Earth Science Ireland Magazine)
Carey, Martin (Mourne Heritage Trust)
Beaumont, Nicola (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
Carter, Claire (University of Ulster)
Beck, Helen (Commission for Architecture and the Built Carvell, Claire (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Casement, Patrick (Council for Nature Conservation & the Environment)
Chamberlain, David (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh)
Benjamins, Stephen (Joint Nature Conservation Committee)
Christie, Mary (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Benton, Dustin (Campaign to Protect Rural England)
Christie, Mike (Aberystwyth University)
Berry, Pam (Oxford University)
Christie, Peter (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
Bide, Peter (Department of Communities and Local Christie, Susan J. (Northern Ireland Environment Link)
Church, Alistair (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Government)
Biesmeijer, Koos (University of Leeds)
Church, Andrew (University of Brighton)
Biggs, Jeremy (Pond Conservation)
Clarke, Barrie (Water UK)
Birchall, Caroline (Natural England)
Clarke, Michelle (National Soil Resources Institute)
Bird, William (Natural England)
Clarke, Stewart (Natural England)
Black, Helaina (The James Hutton Institute)
Colbeck, Ian (University of Essex)
Blackstock, Kirsty (The James Hutton Institute)
Cole, Matthew (University of Birmingham)
Blackstock, Tim H. (Countryside Council for Wales)
Collins, Murray (London School of Economics)
Blackwell, Martin (North Wyke Research)
Comerford, Emma (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Blaney, Ralph (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Coombes, Emma (University of East Anglia)
Blyth, Simon (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre)
Cooper, Nigel (Church of England / Anglia Ruskin University)
Bonn, Aletta (IUCN UK Peatland Programme)
Cooper, David (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs)
Booker, Rob (The James Hutton Institute)
Cooper, Alan (University of Ulster)
Boon, Phil (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Cooper, Andrew (University of Ulster)
Bradburne, Robert (Department for Environment, Food and Corker, Pat (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Corstanje, Ron (Cranfield University)
Rural Affairs)
Bradbury, Richard (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Bradley, Martin (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
1460
Countryside)
Bell, Laverne (Quarry Products Association Northern Ireland)
Bolt, Katharine (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Development)
Bateman, Ian J. (University of East Anglia)
Beharry-Borg, Nesha (University of Leeds)
Birds)
Bailey, Sallie (Forestry Commission)
Barton, Jo (University of Essex)
Committee)
Ashworth, Jen (Natural England)
Costigan, David (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs)
Bradshaw, Richard (University of Liverpool)
Counsell, Dominic (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Brady, Emily (Edinburgh University)
Coupar, Andrew (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Breen, Joe (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Crabbe, James (University of Bedfordshire)
Breeze, Tom (University of Reading)
Crang, Michael (Durham University)
Brereton, Tom (Butterfly Conservation)
Cregg, Patrick (Woodland Trust)
Brett, Hope (Environment Agency)
Crick, Mark (Joint Nature Conservation Committee)
Brierley, Bill (Environment Agency)
Crone, Victoria (Department of Environment)
Broadmeadow, Mark (Forestry Commission)
Cross, Paul (Bangor University)
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
Crowe, Andrew (University of East Anglia)
Gale, Andrew (Natural England)
Crowle, Alistair (Natural England)
Garbutt, Angus (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Crute, Ian (Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board)
Gaston, Kevin J. (University of Sheffield)
Cush, Peter (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Gibbons, Steve (London School of Economics)
Darnell, Amii (University of East Anglia)
Gibby, Mary (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh)
Dasgupta, Sir Partha (University of Cambridge)
Gibson, Chris (Queen’s University, Belfast - retired)
Davies, Keith (Countryside Council for Wales)
Gilbert, Jack (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
Davies, Linda (Imperial College London)
Gilchrist, Paul (University of Brighton)
Davies, Iain (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Gilvear, David (University of Stirling)
de Moor, Des (The Ramblers)
Ginley, Sue (Forestry Commission)
Delaney, Colum (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Glass, Jayne (University of the Highlands and Islands)
Diack, Ian (Natural England)
Doody, Pat (National Coastal Consultants)
Glerum, Jonathan (Construction Industry Research and Dornbusch, Uwe (Environment Agency)
Downey, Philip (Department of Agriculture & Rural Drewitt, Joanna (Scottish Government)
Goulding, Keith (Rothamsted Research)
Duck, Callan (Sea Mammal Research Unit)
Graham, Andrea (National Farmers’ Union)
Dugdale, Steve (University of East Anglia)
Grant, Gary (Green Roof Consultancy)
Duigan, Catherine (Countryside Council for Wales)
Green, David (University of Aberdeen)
Dunbar, Michael (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Gregory, Richard (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Duncan, Callan (Marine Conservation Society)
Grice, Phil (Natural England)
Dunn, Helen (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Griffin, John (Forest Service)
Griffiths, Richard (University of Kent)
Affairs)
Durance, Isabelle (Cardiff University)
Grime, Philip J. (University of Sheffield)
Early, John (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Gruffudd, Pyrs (Swansea University)
Easson, Lindsay (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
Gupta, Anil (Convention of Scottish Local Authorities)
Edmonds-Brown, Ronni (University of Hertfordshire)
Gurnell, Angela (Queen Mary, University of London)
Edwards, Martin (Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Marine Hails, Rosemary (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology / Natural Halliday, Neil (Northern Ireland Environment Link)
Hanley, Nick (University of Stirling)
Centre)
Elliot, Russell (Countryside Council for Wales)
Hanna, Judith (Natural England)
Ellis, Christopher J. (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh)
Hansom, Jim (Glasgow University)
Emmett, Bridget A. (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Harmer, Ralph (Forestry Commission)
Evans, Chris (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Harrington, Lauren (University of Oxford)
Evans, Hugh (Forest Research (Wales))
Harrington, Richard (Rothamsted Research)
Evans, Martin (University of Leeds)
Harris, Ian (Bangor University)
Evans, Simon (National Forest Company)
Harris, Jim A. (University of Cranfield)
Everard, Mark (Environment Agency)
Harvey, Simon C. (Canterbury Christ Church University)
Falconer, Roger (Cardiff University)
Hattam, Caroline (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
Falzon, Charles (C Falzon Associates)
Haygarth, Phil (University of Lancaster)
Feest, Alan (University of Bristol)
Heard, Matt (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Ferguson, Scott (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Heathwaite, Louise A. (University of Lancaster)
Fezzi, Carlo (University of East Anglia)
Helfer, Stephan (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh)
Firbank, Les (University of Leeds)
Fish, Robert (University of Exeter)
Capital Initiative)
Haines-Young, Roy (University of Nottingham)
Science)
Elliot, Lindsey C. (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Rural Affairs)
Gordon, John (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Development)
Edward-Jones, Gareth (Aberystwyth & Bangor Universities)
Information Association)
Golshetti, Giles (Department for Environment, Food and Henry, Clifford (Northern Ireland Environment Agency - retired)
Fisher, Brendan (Princeton University)
Hesketh, Helen (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Fisher, Jane (Liverpool John Moores University)
Hess, Tim (Cranfield University)
Fitter, Alastair (University of York)
Hester, Alison (The James Hutton Institute)
Foden, Jo (University of East Anglia)
Hicks, Kevin (Imperial College London)
Foley, Nicola (Bangor University)
Hiddink, Jan (Bangor University)
Fortnam, Matthew (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Hills, Kate (Local Government Association)
Hine, Rachel (University of Essex)
Centre)
Freer, Jim (Bristol University)
Hinton, George (Natural England)
Frogbrook, Zoe (Environment Agency Wales)
Frost, Peter (Countryside Council for Wales)
Hobson, Edward (Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment)
Frost, Mathew (Marine Biological Association of the UK)
Hockley, Neal (Bangor University)
Fyfe, Gillian (Convention of Scottish Local Authorities)
Holyoak, Vince (English Heritage)
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
1461
Hopkins, John (Natural England)
Large, Andy (University of Newcastle)
Hoskins, Stephen (King Edward VI School, Southampton)
Lawlor, Declan (Loughs Agency)
Houghton, Jane (Natural England)
Lawson, Aileen (Ulster Farmers Union)
Hourahane, Shelagh (Creu-Ad Consultants)
Le Vay, Lewis (Bangor University)
Hughes, Rob (Queen Mary University of London)
Lea, Chris (Welsh Assembly Government)
Hughes, Dermot (Ulster Wildlife Trust - retired)
Leather, Simon (Imperial College London)
Hulme, Mark (British Trust for Ornithology)
Lerch, Andreas (Marine Scotland)
Hume, Carrie (Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust/Wildlife and Lilly, Allan (The James Hutton Institute)
Logan, Niall (Glasgow Caledonian University)
Countryside Link)
Humphrey, Jonathan (Ecological consultant)
Long, David (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh)
Ishwaran, Mallika (Department for Environment, Food and Lovett, Andrew (University of East Anglia)
Lucas, Steve (Bat Conservation Trust)
Rural Affairs)
Jackson, Emma (Marine Biological Association of the UK)
Luisetti, Tiziana (University of East Anglia)
James, Philip (University of Salford)
Lyme, Samantha (Natural England)
Jarrett, Dafydd (National Farmers’ Union - Wales)
Maberly, Steve (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Jefferson, Richard G. (Natural England)
Macdonald, David (University of Oxford)
Jenkins, Alan (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Mace, Georgina M. (Imperial College London)
Jenkins, Martin (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Mack, Kim (Scottish Government)
MacKerron, George (London School of Economics)
Centre)
Jennings, Simon (Centre for Environment Fisheries & Mackey, Ed (Scottish Natural Heritage)
MacKintosh, Jane (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Aquaculture Science)
Jeavans, Mark (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Maddison, David (University of Birmingham)
Madgwick, Genevieve (Natural England)
Affairs)
Johnes, Penny (University of Reading)
Maggs, Chris (Queen’s University Belfast)
Johns, David (Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science)
Maguire, Cathy (Queen’s University Belfast)
Johns, Tim (Environment Agency / Roehampton University)
Maguire, Orla (Belfast City Council)
Johnson, Sally (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Johnson, Andrew (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Malcolm, Stephen J. (Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Johnston, Robert (Fellow of the Society of Biology, Fellow of the Linnean Society)
Maltby, Edward (University of Liverpool)
Jones, Glyn (Agricultural Development Advisory Service)
Mangi, Stephen (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
Jones, Ceris (National Farmers’ Union)
Mannion, Kathrina (Department for Environment, Food and Marrington, Emma (Campaign to Protect Rural England)
Kasier, Michael (Bangor University)
Martin, John (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Kass, Gary (Natural England)
Maskell, Lindsay (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Kearney, Eimear (Lough Neagh Partnership)
Maxwell, Simon (Department for Environment, Food and Keatinge, Ray (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Rural Affairs)
May, Linda (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
McAdam, Jim (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
Affairs)
Keith, Aidan (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
McAuley, Marcus (Department of Culture, Arts & Leisure)
Kenney, Siobhan (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring McCall, Rob (Countryside Council for Wales)
McCann, David (Northern Ireland Environment Link)
Centre)
Killeen, Steve (Environment Agency)
McCann, Thomas (University of Ulster)
King, Tony (Scottish Environment Link)
McColgan, Ronan (Northern Ireland Environment Link)
Kingham, Jonathan (Northern Ireland Environment Link)
McCracken, Davy (Scottish Agricultural College)
Kirby, Keith (Natural England)
McCulloch, Neil (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Kirkpatrick, Hilary (University of Ulster)
Kirkwood, Lisa (World Wildlife Fund)
1462
Rural Affairs)
Jordan, Crawford (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
Kay, David (Aberystwyth University)
Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics)
Jones, Barbara (Countryside Council for Wales)
Jones, Laurence (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Aquaculture Science)
Mäler, Karl-Göran (The Stockholm School of Economics / McFerran, Damian (Centre for Environmental Data & Recording)
Kontoleon, Andreas (University of Cambridge)
McHaffie, Heather (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh)
Korn, Julia (Countryside Council for Wales)
McKay, Hazel I. (Independant consultant)
Kumar, Pushpam (University of Liverpool)
McMorrow, Julia (University of Manchester)
Kungu, Elizabeth (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh)
McMullan, Melina (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Kunin, William (University of Leeds)
McMurray, Philip (Department of the Environment)
Kwiatkowski, Lester (Imperial College London)
McNee, Jonathan (Planning Service)
Laidlaw, Scott (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
McQuarrie, Alison (Marine Scotland)
Landsberg, Florence (World Resources Institute)
Meharg, Mike (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Langmead, Olivia (University of Plymouth)
Memmott, Jane (Bristol University)
Lansdown, Richard (Ardeola Environmental Services)
Merino, Gorka (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
Metcalfe, Robert (Oxford University)
Pimm, Eunice (Joint Nature Conservation Committee)
Middlebrook, Ian (Butterfly Conservation)
Pinnegar, Sally (Natural England)
Mieszkowska, Nova (Marine Biological Association of the Pitkin, Peter (Scottish Natural Heritage)
UK)
Polasky, Steve (University of Minnesota)
Miles, Alison (Environment Agency)
Poots, Brian (Northern Ireland Forest School Association)
Mitchell, Arthur (Rural Development Council)
Porter, Keith (Natural England)
Mitchell, Diane (National Farmers' Union)
Porter, David (Rivers Agency)
Mitchell, Ian (Joint Nature Conservation Committee)
Potschin, Marion (University of Nottingham)
Moeller, Iris (University of Cambridge)
Potts, Simon G. (University of Reading)
Moffat, Andy (Forest Research)
Pretty, Jules N. (University of Essex)
Monteith, Don (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Procter, Julie (Greenspace Scotland)
Montgomery, Ian (Queen’s University of Belfast)
Purse, Beth (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Moore, Alan (Northern Ireland Water)
Pye, Kenneth (Kenneth Pye Associates Ltd.)
Moorhouse, Tom (University of Oxford)
Pywell, Richard J. (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Moran, Dominic (Scottish Agricultural College)
Quine, Chris (Forest Research, Forestry Commission)
Morgan, Vicky (Joint Nature Conservation Committee)
Quine, Timothy (University of Exeter)
Morling, Paul (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Ragab, Ragab (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Morris, Joe (Cranfield University)
Rahman, Amanna (Environment Agency)
Morris, Tony (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Ravenscroft, Neil (University of Brighton)
Morwood, Stuart (Forest Service)
Rawcliff, Peter (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Moss, Brian (University of Liverpool)
Rayment, Mark (Bangor University)
Moss, Joan (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
Reading, Christopher (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Mourato, Susana (London School of Economics)
Rebane, Mick (Natural England)
Mudge, Greg (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Reed, Mark (University of Aberdeen)
Mulholland, Fiona (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Rees, Sue (Natural England)
Munday, Paul (University of East Anglia)
Reid, Christine (Natural England)
Murchie, Archie (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
Reid, Neil (Quercus)
Neill, Ken (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Resende, Guliherme (London School of Economics)
Newman, Jonathan (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Reynolds, Brian (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Nicholls, Robert (University of Southampton)
Rhind, Peter (Countryside Council for Wales)
Norris, Ken (University of Reading)
Rimes, Carrie (Countryside Council for Wales)
Nunn, Julia (Centre for Environmental Data & Recording)
Roast, Stephen (Environment Agency)
Nurse, Jo (Department of Health)
Robertson, Anne (Roehampton University)
Nuttall, Geoff (World Wildlife Fund)
Robinson, Anna (Joint Nature Conservation Committee)
O’Neill, John (Fisheries Division, Department of Agriculture & Robinson, David (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Rural Development)
Rogers, Kenton (Hi-Line Consultancy)
Ogden, Peter (Campaign for the Protection of Rural Wales)
Rose, Paul (Joint Nature Conservation Committee)
Oppenheimer, Sarah (Royal Society for the Protection of Rosell, Robert (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
Birds)
Ross, Louise (University of Aberdeen)
Orford, Julian (Queen’s University Belfast)
Ross, Martin (South West Water)
Ormerod, Steve (University of Cardiff)
Rowan, John (University of Dundee)
Orr, Harriet (Environment Agency)
Rowntree, Clare (National Farmers’ Union)
Osborne, Juliet (Rothamsted Research)
Ruddock, Diane (The National Trust)
Osborne, Dan (Natural Environment Research Council)
Russell, Shaun (Wales Environment Research Hub)
Owen, Nicola (Mineral Products Association)
Russell, Stephen (Landscape Institute)
Owen, Roger (Scottish Environment Protection Agency)
Sadler, Jon (University of Birmingham)
Pagella, Saskia (Bangor University)
Sajwaj, Todd (Unaffiliated)
Pagella, Tim (Bangor University)
Sanderson, Bill (Countryside Council for Wales)
Pakeman, Robin J. (The James Hutton Institute)
Savill, Peter (University of Oxford)
Pascual, Unai (University of Cambridge)
Schaible, Richard (Forest Service)
Patterson, James (University of Nottingham)
Schoeman, Dave (University of Ulster)
Payne, Michael (National Farmers’ Union)
Scholes, Lian (Middlesex University)
Pearce-Higgins, James (British Trust for Ornithology)
Scott, Robert (Belfast City Council)
Pearson, Jon (Land Use Consultants)
Scowen, Matt (Bangor University)
Peel, Steve (Natural England)
Sen, Antara (University of East Anglia)
Perino, Grischa (University of East Anglia)
Service, Matthew (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute)
Perry, Suzanne (Natural England)
Shannon, Delia (Mineral Products Association)
Phillips, Nick (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Sheate, William R. (Imperial College London)
Pickup, Roger (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Shepherd, Matthew (Natural England)
Pilgrim, Emma (Rothamsted Research)
Sherry, Jan (Countryside Council for Wales)
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Shimmield, Tracy (Scottish Marine Institute)
van Soest, Daan (Tilburg University)
Silvertown, Jonathan (Open University)
Vanbergen, Adam (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Sime, Iain (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Vaughan, Ian (University of Cardiff)
Simpson, Lucy (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Vincent, Claire (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Vira, Bhaskar (University of Cambridge)
Centre)
Siriwardena, Gavin (British Trust for Ornithology)
Volpi, Massimiliano (Natural Environment Research Council)
Sizaret, Maxime (Causeway Coast & Glens Heritage Trust)
Wade, Rebecca (University of Abertay)
Skates, James (Welsh Assembly Government)
Wall, Diana (Colarado State University)
Skea, Jim (UK Energy Research Centre)
Waller, Paul (Paul Waller Consulting)
Skinner, Ann (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Walmsley, Clive (Countryside Council for Wales)
Small, Emma (Countryside Council for Wales)
Smith, Cecile (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Walpole, Matt (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Walton, Paul (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Smith, Philip (Land Use onsultants)
Ward, Rob (British Geological Survey)
Smith, Stuart (Countryside Council for Wales)
Warren, Martin (Butterfly Conservation)
Smithers, Richard (Woodland Trust)
Warrington, Stuart (National Trust)
Smyth, Emily (University of Ulster)
Waters, Ruth (Natural England)
Smyth, Tim (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
Watkinson, Andrew (Living With Environmental Change)
Snowdon, Pat (Forestry Commission)
Watson, Robert, T. (Department for Environment, Food and Somerfield, Paul (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
Spence, Barbara (Forestry Commission)
Anglia)
Watt, Allan (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Spray, Chris (University of Dundee)
Weighell, Tony (Joint Natural Conservation Council)
Spurgeon, James (Environmental Resources Management)
Wernham, Chris (British Trust for Ornithology)
Squire, Geoff (The James Hutton Institute)
Wharfe, Jim (Environment Agency)
Stein, Alexandra (Scottish Government)
Whitbread, Tony (Wildlife Trust)
Aquaculture Science)
Whitehouse, Andrew (Buglife – The Invertebrate Conservation Trust)
Stephens, Jude (Queen’s University Belfast)
Whitmore, Andrew P. (Rothamsted Research)
Stewart Roper, Charles (Scottish Government)
Wilks, Susie (Client Earth)
Stirrat, Craig (Built Environment Forum Scotland)
Williams, James (Joint Nature Conservation Committee)
Stoate, Chris (Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust)
Williams, Prysor (Bangor University)
Storkey, Jonathan (Rothamsted Research)
Willis, Graeme (Campaign to Protect Rural England)
Stott, Andrew (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Wilson, Alister (Waverley Management Consultants)
Wilson, Jeremy (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
Affairs)
Swart, Chloe (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre)
Tallowin, Jerry (Rothamsted Research)
Rural Affairs & the Tyndall Centre, University of East Spode, Steve (Welsh Assembly Government)
Stentford, Grant (Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Centre)
Smith, Pete (University of Aberdeen)
Winn, Jonathan (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre)
Taylor, Colin (EDF Energy)
Winter, Michael (University of Exeter)
Termansen, Mette (University of Leeds / Aarhus University)
Wood, Carly (University of Essex)
Thomas, Huw (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Woodcock, Ben (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Affairs)
Woodhurst, Ian (Campaign to Protect Rural England)
Thomas, Clive (Forestry Commission)
Wright, Mark (Northern Ireland Environment Agency)
Thompson, Des (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Wright, Timothy (Economic and Research Council)
Thompson, Julian (University College London)
Young, Mark (University of Aberdeen)
Thomson, Amanda (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Young, Michael (Geological Survey Northern Ireland)
Tierney, Megan (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre)
Tinch, Dugald (University of Stirling)
Tolia-Kelly, Divya (Durham University)
Tomlinson, Roy (Queen’s University Belfast - retired)
Acknowledgements
Townsend, Mike (Woodlands Trust)
Treweek, Jo (Treweek Environmental Consultants)
The UK National Ecosystem Assessment (UK NEA) was funded by
Turley, Carol (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affaris (Defra),
Turner, Kerry (University of East Anglica)
Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), Economic and
Turner, Sarah (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology)
Social Research Council (ESRC), Northern Ireland Environment
Tyler, Charles (University of Exeter)
Agency (NIEA), the Scottish Government, the Countryside Council
Upton, Andrew (Ulster Wildlife Trust)
for Wales (CCW) and the Welsh Assembly Government (WAG).
Usher, Michael (University of Stirling)
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Valatin, Gregory (Forest Research)
We would like to acknowledge the contributions of all the authors
Van der Wal, René (University of Aberdeen)
of the UK NEA and the support provided by their institutions that
UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report
enabled their participation. Writing this technical report would
Feeder Report (Saunders 2010). Contributing authors from
also not have been possible without the many comments and
Plymouth Marine Laboratory and Scottish Association for Marine
useful insights from the Expert Panel and Chairs, User Group
Science were partially funded through the NERC Oceans 2025
and Client Group. We also wish to further acknowledge the many
programme.
constructive comments provided by independent reviewers,
ensuring the assessment’s robustness. These comments were
Supporting services
further complemented by the many stakeholders who took part in
workshops during the two years of the assessment.
We are grateful to the many people who have contributed to
the writing of this chapter specifically John Gordon, Alistair
The UK NEA would not have been possible without the
Rennie, Stewart Angus and Ness Kirkbride and several other
availability of data that underpins the assessment, and we wish
colleagues and referees. We are especially indebted to: Robert
to acknowledge all institutions and individuals who provided
Jones, Patricia Bruneau, John Gordon, Stephen Chapman, Alan
data, specifically the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Natural
Lilly, Nikki Baggaley and Willie Towers who provided valuable
England, Scottish Natural Heritage, the Environment Agency,
information for the soil formation section, Fangjie Zhao and Keith
Forestry Commission, BTO, RSPB, The Woodlands Trust, Agri-
Goulding who made available unpublished data for the nutrient
Food & Biosciences Institute, Biotechnology & Biological Sciences
cycling section, and Brian Reynolds for information on trends
Research Council, the Met Office, and Cranfield University. We
in soil phosphorus. We are also grateful to several referees who
would also like to thank all of those who provided high resolution
provided helpful comments on previous versions of this chapter,
versions of graphics and photos for inclusion in the UK NEA
and other Coordinating Lead Authors and members of the UK NEA
Technical Report.
Expert Panel who contributed through valuable comments and
discussion.
Special thanks are due to the Secretariat staff who worked
tirelessley on the UK NEA and especially to Kate Trumper, Rhonda
Economic valuation
Pike, Chloe Cryus-Kent, Helen Walsh, Rowena Millar and the
designers at NatureBureau who worked with the Secretariat, and
The economic analysis (Chapter 22 & 26) was in part funded by
on the production of the Technical Report.
the ESRC Social, Economic and Environmental Research (SEER)
project (funder ref: RES-060-25-0063) at CSERGE, University of
Specifically, the following author teams would like to acknowledge:
Mountains, Moorlands and Heaths
East Anglia, UK. The work carried out on valuing of woodland
recreation was funded in part by the Forestry Commission. The
UK NEA economics team and many of the collaborating natural
and social scientists were supported in part by the NERC Valuing
The authors are grateful for comments on earlier drafts from
Nature Network (funder ref: NE/I015086/1) which provides a
Edward Maltby (University of Liverpool), Ian Montgomery
forum for bringing together researchers and decision makers from
(Queen’s University Belfast), Christine Reid (Natural England),
across the ecosystem services spectrum. The authors are grateful
Greg Mudge (Scottish Natural Heritage [SNH]), Mick Rebane
to the UK NEA Economic Advisory Panel and in particular Sir
(Natural England), Patrick Thompson (RSPB), Phil Burston
Partha Dasgupta, Brendan Fisher, Karl-Göran Mäler, Steve Polasky
(RSPB), Jeremy Wilson (RSPB), Penny Anderson (Penny Anderson
and Kerry Turner.
Associates), Diane Mitchell (National Farmers’ Union), Vicky
Morgan (Senior Habitats Adviser JNCC), Sally Johnson (SNH),
Scenarios
Andrew Coupar (SNH), Jo Treweek (Treweek Environmental
Consultants), James Pearce Higgins (BTO), Chris Gibson (Queen’s
The Scenarios chapter could not have been completed without the
University, Belfast - retired), and Robin Pakeman (Macaulay
assistance, guidance and feedback from a large group of people:
Institute).
Megan Tierney, Matt Walpole, Jonathan Winn, Claire Brown and
Woodlands
Lucy Simpson from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK; Bob Watson,
Robert Bradburne, Giles Golshetti, Josef Hargrave, Peter Costigan,
and Fiona Lickorish from Defra, London, UK; Steve Albon, The
The authors are grateful for assistance from Peter Crow, Elaine
James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, UK; Nicola George, Natural
Dick, David H. Evans, Justin Gilbert, Ralph Harmer, Helen McKay,
England; Alice Hardiman, RSPB, Sandy, UK; Kathryn Monk,
James Morison, Jonathan Starling and others.
Environment Agency Wales, Cardiff, UK; Jim Wharfe, Environment
Marine
Agency, UK; Angela Wilkinson, Said Business School, University
of Oxford, UK; Diane Mitchell, NFU, Stoneleigh, UK; Louise
Heathwaite, Lancaster Environment Centre, UK; Chris Quine,
Some of the material for this chapter has been reproduced with
Forest Research, Alice Holt, UK; also the Scenarios Expert Group,
permission from the Charting Progress 2 (CP2) Healthy and
the UK NEA economics team and the members of the UK NEA
Biologically Diverse Seas Evidence Group Feeder Report 2010
stakeholder groups in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern
(Frost 2010) and chapters therein. Reproduced information is
Ireland. We are also grateful for input from former research
highlighted in footnotes in the relevant sections. Information
assistants at CEM Kate Moore (now University of Leicester) and
has also been sourced from the Productive Seas Evidence Group
Gabrielle Silfwerbrand (now University of Stockholm, Sweden).
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