VeryYoungLearners’VocabularyDevelopmentin
English:ACaseStudywith4and5year-oldChildren
FinalDegreeProject
ClàudiaYllaEsteve
Tutor:AnnaVallbonaGonzález
EarlyYearsSchoolTeachingDegree
MinorinEnglish
Facultatd’EducacióTraduccióiCiènciesHumanes
UniversitatdeVic-UniversitatCentraldeCatalunya
Vic,May2016
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to all the people who have made this study
possible.Withouttheirguidanceandparticipationthisprojectwouldnothavebeen
possible.
First of all, I would like to thank my tutor Dr. Anna Vallbona González who
encouraged and guided me since the beginning of the project. Her dedication and
constantadviceshavebeenfundamentaltocarryoutthisresearch.
I am also very grateful to Susagna Riu, a good friend of mine, who supported and
helpedmeasacoachthroughoutthewholeproject.
Furthermore,IwouldliketosaythankyoutotheschoolLesEscoles,inGurbandto
all the pupils who took part in my sessions and tests actively. Their participation
facilitatedandallowedmetocarryoutthisstudy.
Finally,Iwishtothankmyfamilyandfriendsforbeingalwaysbymyside.
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Abstract
Thepresentstudyisbasedonhowyounglearnersacquirethevocabularyofasecond
language through being exposed to some specific words in four different sessions,
whichareallrelatedtothetopicofanimals.
Inordertodoso,threevocabularytestswerecarriedout.AnInitialVocabularyTest,
to check their previous knowledge of the words, a Vocabulary Test after every
session, to see the difference after being exposed to the words, and a Delayed
VocabularyTest,toobservethewordsthatchildrenrecognisedandrememberedin
relation to the initial test. Results suggest that time is an influential factor in
vocabularyacquisition,especiallywithveryyounglearners.
Keywords:vocabularyacquisition,veryyounglearners.
Resum
Aquest estudi es basa en com aprenents joves adquireixen vocabulari d’una segona
llengua a partir d’haver estat exposats a algunes paraules específiques en diferents
sessions,totesellesrelacionadesamblatemàticad’animals.
Peraconseguir-hos’hanportatatermetresprovesdevocabulari.Unaprovainicial,
per comprovar el seu coneixement previ de les paraules, una prova de vocabulari
desprésdecadasessiópertaldeveureladiferènciadesprésd’haverestatencontacte
amb les paraules i una prova final de vocabulari per observar les paraules que els
alumnes varen reconèixer i recordar en relació amb la prova inicial. Els resultats
suggereixen que el temps és un factor que influeix en l’adquisició de vocabulari,
específicamentquanestractad’aprenentsmoltjoves.
Paraulesclau:adquisiciódevocabulari,aprenentsmoltjoves.
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TableofContents
Acknowledgements…………………………………......................................................................2
Abstract………………………………………………...........................................................................3
Listoffigures……………………………………………………………………………………………..5
1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….6
2. Theoreticalframework………………………………………………………………….....7
2.1VocabularyAcquisition…………………………......................................7
2.2VocabularyinForeignLanguageLearning………………………....8
2.2.1TheFrequencyFactorinVocabularyLearning……....9
2.2.2Learningaword.GeneralConsiderations……………..12
3.LearningVocabularyinForeignLanguageContexts………………………………13
3.1LearningVocabularythroughgames………………………………….13
3.2LearningVocabularythroughsongs…………………………………..15
3.3LearningVocabularythroughstories…………………………………16
3.4TechniquesinVocabularyteachingtoyounglearners………...18
4.Study…………………………………………………………………………………………………..22
4.1Researchobjective…………………………………………………………….22
4.2Participants…………………………………………………………………...….22
4.3Datacollectionandinstruments…………………………………………23
4.4Dataanalysis……………………………………………………………………..24
4.5Results…………………………………………………………………………..….25
5.Discussion……………………………………………………....................................................32
6.Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………..37
7.Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………....…39
8.Webreferences…………………………………………………………………………………..41
9.Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………………42
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Listoffigures
Figure1:TheCurveofForgettingdevelopedbyEbbinghaus………………………….……...10
Figure2:Short-termmemory’sroleinourmemoryprocess………………………...……....11
Figure3:Methodologystructureusedtocollectdataandinstruments……….…...……23
Figure4:ComparisonbetweentheInitialVocabularyTest,theVocabularyTestafter
Session1andtheDelayedVocabularyTest………………………………………………………...…26
Figure5:ComparisonbetweentheInitialVocabularyTest,theVocabularyTestafter
Session2andtheDelayedVocabularyTest…………………………….…………………………..…27
Figure6:ComparisonbetweentheInitialVocabularyTest,theVocabularyTestafter
Session3andtheDelayedVocabularyTest………………………………………………………..….28
Figure7:ComparisonbetweentheInitialVocabularyTest,theVocabularyTestafter
Session4andtheDelayedVocabularyTest…………………………………………………………...29
Figure8:Someofthemostinterestingfindingsobtainedaccordingtothe
results……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………..31
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1.Introduction
English has become an important global language of communication and, in recent
years, it has expanded throughout the world. Due to its importance, since the early
90’s,Englishhasbecomethemostwidelytaughtlanguageinourschools.
Vocabulary is one of the aspects which is central to English language teaching and
learning because without a good knowledge of vocabulary, students could not
comprehend others or express their own beliefs. According to Meara (1996:35)
“Lexical competence is at the heart of communicative competence”. In other words,
vocabulary is essential for communication; without sufficient vocabulary knowledge
communicationcouldnotsimplytakeplace.ThisismainlythereasonwhyIdecidedto
focusthisprojectonvocabularyacquisition.
The main objective of this research project is to find out the evolution of young
learner’s vocabulary acquisition over a short period of time. Therefore, this study
analyses if time is an influential factor in vocabulary acquisition. In order to do so, a
vocabularytestwascarriedtocheckhowmanyandwhatwordschildrenknewatthe
beginningoftheproject,afterbeingexposedtosomevocabularysessionscarriedout
during my training placement, and how many and what words young learners had
acquiredattheendofthestudy.
I chose this topic because there has not been much research yet in the field of Early
Year’s Education as far as English for very young learners is concerned because the
introductionofEnglishinEarlyYearsisstillquitearecentthinginourschoolcontext.
Therefore I wanted to go further and investigate about an aspect which I will be
involvedinasafutureteacher.ItisanaspectthatIfindveryinteresting.
This project has been divided into two parts; the theoretical framework where the
mainaspectsofvocabularyacquisitionaredefinedandexplainedandthestudy,which
includes the main research questions, an explanation of the data collection and
instruments,thedataanalysisandtheresultsobtained.Afterwards,inthediscussionI
will answer the research questions and at the same time I will link the results with
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someideasmentionedinthetheoreticalframework.Finally,Iwillconcludemystudy
statingsomegeneralconclusionsabouttheproject.
2.TheoreticalFramework
2.1VocabularyAcquisition
Acquiringthevocabularyofourfirstlanguageisnotaneasytask.However,acquiring
the vocabulary of a second language especially if the second language learners are
very young is even more complicated. Young learners of a second/foreign language
are still building up their first language vocabulary, and this development is closely
tied up with their conceptual development. In fact, very young language learners
begin the task of first language acquisition without the cognitive maturity or
metalinguisticawarenessthatoldersecondlanguagelearnershave.Althoughyoung
secondlanguagelearnershavebeguntodevelopthesecharacteristics,theystillhave
fartogointheseareas,aswellasintheareaofworldknowledge,beforetheyreach
thelevelsalreadyattainedbyadultsandadolescents.
Therefore,inplanningandteachingaforeignlanguage,weneedtobearinmindthis
firstlanguagebackgroundtoknowwhatwillworkandwhatmaybetoodifficultfor
children.
Vocabulary development is not just about learning words, it is also about learning
more about those words, about learning formulaic phrases or chunks, or finding
wordsinsidethem.Learningwordsisnotaneasytaskthatisdoneandfinishedina
short period of time. It is complex since learning words is a cyclical process of
meeting new words, followed by meeting those words again and again, each time
extendingknowledgeofwhatthewordsmeanandhowtheyareusedintheforeign
language.AsCameronpointsout“everytimechildrenmeetfamiliarwords,theyhave
changed and will bring new first language and conceptual knowledge to the
vocabulary”(Cameron,2001:74).
AccordingtoLocke(1993)theacquisitionofthewordmeaningstakesmuchlonger
than the acquisition of the spoken form of the words so children use the words in
their speech long before they have a full understanding of them. The vocabulary
developmentisacontinuousprocessinwhich,childrendonotonlyaddnewwordsto
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theirexistingvocabularybankbutalsobuildupknowledgeaboutwordstheyalready
know partially. Learning a word requires a long time and plenty of exposure to the
wordusedindifferentsituations.
HatchandBrown(1995:372)alsoclaimthat“learningwordsisacontinuousprocess
thatchanges,aschildrengetolder”.Thesetwoauthorsdescribefive“essentialsteps”
in vocabulary learning based on their research into learners’ strategies. For them,
learners in the first place need to have sources for encountering new words, then
theymustgetaclearimage,whethervisualorauditoryorboth,fortheformsofthe
newwords.Oncethesourcesandtheimagesaresetup,theymustlearnthemeaning
ofthewords.Thiswillallowthemtomakeastrongmemoryconnectionbetweenthe
formsandthemeaningsofthewordsandfinallytheywillbeabletousethewords.
2.2VocabularyinForeignLanguageLearning
Historically,inforeignlanguageteaching,vocabularyhashadanuncertainplacewith
inthefieldoflanguageteaching.InthedayswhentheAudio-lingualMethodwasused
and implemented, vocabulary received limited attention. Up to the 1980s, the
emphasis was not on the understanding of words; it was on the acquisition of
grammarstructuresandpatterns.Itwasbelievedthatoncethesepatternshadbeen
incorporated,thenvocabularycouldsimplybeconnectedtotherelevantslotsinthe
grammar pattern. However, for the last three decades, with the introduction of the
CommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)approach,vocabularyhasbecomeamajor
focusonlinguisticwork.Theemphasisisnowinfavourofbuildingupanextensive
vocabularybankofwordsassoonaspossible.OnereasonisthatinmanyESLclasses,
even where teachers have devoted much time to vocabulary teaching, the results
have been disappointing. Allen (1983) stated that sometimes, after months or even
yearsoflearningEnglish,manyofthewordsmostneededhaveneverbeenlearned,
especially in countries where English is not the main language of communication.
Nowadays,eveninteacher-trainingprograms,moreattentionisgiventotechniques
forteachingvocabulary.
Vocabularyisreallyneededinbothteachingandlearning.Iflearnersdonotknowthe
meaning of the words, they will not be able to understand what they see, read and
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learn. Thus, building up useful vocabulary is central to the learning of a foreign
language.
In the words of Thornbury (2002:13), “The ability of English will improve
significantlyifwelearnmorewords.Wecansayverylittlewithgrammar,butwecan
sayalmosteverythingwithwords”.
Nation (1990) suggested that a new word needs to be met at least five or six times
before it has any chance of being learnt. Indeed, vocabulary needs to be met and
recycled at intervals, in different activities, so that with new knowledge and new
connections are developed every time the same words are met. For children who
start language learning young this is especially important. Thus, real vocabulary
learningcomesthroughuse,meetingthewordsinavarietyofcontextsandhavingto
usethemtoexpressnewideas.
2.2.1TheFrequencyFactorinVocabularyLearning
Giventheunderstandingthatmanylanguagescontainmorethanamillionwords,itis
fair to say that native or non-native speakers will never learn all the words. The
Englishlanguageissaidtocontainaround54thousandwordfamilies.Itisbelieved
thatthevocabularyofanativespeakeradultrangesfrom20thousandforastudent
of about eighteen years of age starting university to the 37 thousand. Young native
speakersofEnglishknow4or5thousandwordfamiliesbytheageoffive,towhich
they add about 1 thousand every year. In comparison, Second Language learners of
English who attend English schools have been found to add about 1 thousand per
year, but the 4 or 5 thousand gap between them and their native speaker peers
remains(Nation,1990).Asitwasexplainedinprevioussections,itiswidelyaccepted
that the frequency factor plays an important role in vocabulary knowledge. Nation
(1990) stated that plenty of studies suggest that a learner needs to have many
meaningful encounters with a new word before it becomes established in memory.
According to Palmer (1917:123) “the more frequently used words will be the more
easily learnt”. It means that words that are frequent in a language are learnt first
because they are found more often and each encounter leaves an evidence which
makesthemeasiertoremember.
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Wecaneasilyrememberideas,itemsorinformationtowhichweturnourattention
butwecanquicklyforgettheideas,itemsorinformationthatwe“touch”onlyonceor
twice. This natural forgetfulness of information is a quality of a healthy mind that
keeps our brain from being overwhelmed. Indeed, we tell our memories what is
important to store and retain by how many times we practice retrieving the
information. In other words; the more times we practice the more permanently the
informationwillbestored.In1885,EbbinghausaGermanphilosopher,producedan
explanation of how memory works. It is called The Curve of Forgetting originally
called TheEbbinghausCurve.Ebbinghaus demonstrated how quickly we forget new
informationifwedonotfrequentlyuseit.(Seefigure1below).
Figure1:TheCurveofForgettingdevelopedbyEbbinghaus
Ifweassumethatweheartennewtermsinasession,ourimmediaterecallis100%
(PointA).Itmeansthatwecanrepeatthetermsordefinitionsatthepointwherewe
first encounter them. Nevertheless, if we do not repeatedly return our attention to
thesetermsordefinitionswewillforgetabout40%overthefirst24hours(PointB).
If we wait another 24 hours, two days later without reviewing the words, we have
lost60%(PointC).Inconclusion,wecangofromagradeof“A”(100%)to“B”(60%)
to“C”(40%)injust48hours.
Thisfactoriscalledshort-termmemoryloss.Whathappensisthatourbrainsattacha
drop of temporary memory “glue” to the information. In a short time, this drop of
temporary “glue” loses its bond and we forget the information. However, if we
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continuallyaddmoredropsof“glue”,eventuallytheinformationwillbecomepartof
morepermanentmemory.
Inordertounderstandthis,weneedacleardefinitionofthetermshortmemory.It
referstotheprocessoftemporarilystoringsmallbitsofinformationforaveryshort
amount of time, usually for only 15-30 seconds. As explained before, this kind of
informationquicklydisappearsunlesswemakeaconsciousefforttoretainit.Shortterm memory is a necessary step toward the next stage of retention, long-term
memory. The transfer of information to long-term memory for more permanent
storagecanbefacilitatedorimprovedbyrehearsal,atermfortheroleofrepetitionin
the retention of memories. It involves repeating the information over and over in
ordertogettheinformationprocessedandstored.
Below there is an illustration that shows the part short-term memory plays in our
memoryprocess.
Figure2:Short-termmemory’sroleinourmemoryprocess.
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2.2.2Learningaword.Generalconsiderations
Knowledgeofawordexistsonvariouslevels,whichseemtobelanguageuniversals.
These different aspects of word knowledge were originally described by Richards
(1976) and later redefined by Nation (1990). Cameron (2001) in an attempt to
describe the process and link it to the teaching of vocabulary in contexts of foreign
language learning described what knowing a word entails. The main aspects
concerningvocabularylearningaccordingtoCameron,aresummarizedbelow:
•
Receptive Knowledge: Recognising and understanding the meaning when it is
spokenorwritten.
•
Memory:rememberorrecallingthewordindifferentcontextswhenneeded.
•
Conceptual knowledge: using the word with the correct meaning. Knowing
whatthewordmeans.Forinstance,notconfusingchickenwithkitchen.
•
Phonological knowledge: hearing and pronouncing the word correctly, on its
ownorinphrasesandsentences.
•
Grammatical knowledge: accurateuse,knowinggrammaticalconnectionswith
otherwords.Forinstance,shesangverywellnotshesangverygood.
•
Collocation knowledge: knowing which other words can be used with it. For
example,abeautifulviewnotagood-lookingview.
•
Orthographic knowledge: spelling the word appropriately. For example,
protractornotprotacter.
•
Pragmatic knowledge: using the word in the right context and situation.
Knowing the limitations on the use of the word according to variations of
functionandsituation.Forinstance,Wouldyoulikeacoffee?ismoreappropriate
inaformalorsemi-formalsituationthanWhatcanIgetyou?.
•
Connotational knowledge: knowing positive or negative associations with
related words. For instance, slim has positive connotations, when used about a
person,whereasskinnyisnegative.
•
Metalinguistic knowledge: recognising grammatical properties. For example,
knowingthatthewordprotractorisanounandproisaprefix.
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Tosumup,knowingaboutawordincludesknowingaboutitsform,forinstance,how
itsounds,howitiswritten,thegrammaticalchangesthatmayhave,itsmeaning;its
conceptualcontent,anditsuse;patternswithotherwordsandtypesoflanguageuse.
Consequently, increasing the depth of vocabulary knowledge does not happen
automatically in a foreign language, even in most favourable circumstances such as
immersion programs. Conceptual knowledge grows when children experience more
oftheworldintheirdailylives.However,itmightdependbecauseofmaturation,one
of the factors that seem to affect the nature of conceptual knowledge. (Cameron,
2001).
3.LearningVocabularyinForeignLanguagecontexts
Languagelearningisachallengingtaskrequiringconstanteffortespeciallyforyoung
learners.Theprocessoflanguagelearningishardwork.Childrenmustmakeaneffort
tounderstand,torepeataccurately,tomanipulatenewlyunderstoodlanguageandto
use the whole range of known language in conversation or written composition.
Effortisrequiredateverymomentandmustalwaysbekeptinmind.
3.1LearningVocabularythroughgames
Games are considered a good strategy for teaching vocabulary to young learners.
Games encourage learners to direct their energy towards language learning by
providingthemwithmeaningfulcontexts(Wright,Betteridge,andBuckby,1979).
Communicativecompetenceisofutmostimportancewhenlearningalanguage.Word
gamescancontributetospontaneousandcreativeuseofthelanguageastheyprovide
a context where children “feel less self-conscious and therefore more apt to
experimentandfreelyparticipateinusingtheforeignlanguage”.McCallum(1980:9).
Inaddition,gamesautomaticallystimulatestudent’sinterestandhelptheteacherto
createcontextsinwhichthelanguageisusefulandmeaningful.AccordingtoWright
etal.(1979)learnersaremorelikelytoexperiencethemeaningofthelanguagewhen
usingitinagamethanwhentheyareusingitinaconventionaldrillinaclass.Ifthe
learnersrespondtothecontentinapositiveway,itmeansthatthelanguagethatthey
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are acquiring is meaningful as they are amused, challenged, intrigued or even
surprised.Thus,iscrucialtogiveimportancetothemeaningofthelanguagebecause
children will learn more vividly and, therefore, they will better remember the
contents.
LewisandBedson(1999)mentionthefactthatplayinggamesisavitalandnatural
part of growing up and learning. It is essential for a child’s development and for
learning life skills. Through games children experiment, discover and interact with
theirenvironment.Theyaddvariationtoalessonandraisemotivationbyproviding
encouragement to use the target language. The game context in itself makes the
foreign language immediately useful to the children as it brings the target language
alive. In addition, games provide enjoyment and relaxation, but also they incentive
studentstousetheirlanguageinacreativeandcommunicativemanner.(Yolageldili
andArikan,2011).
McCallum (1980) suggested several reasons and advantages for using games in the
classroom:
• Gamesfocusstudent’sattentiononspecificstructures.
• Theycanfunctionasreinforcement,reviewandenrichment.
• Theyinvolvethesameparticipationfrombothslowandfastlearners.
• Gamesprovideimmediatefeedbackfortheteacher.
• Theycanbeusedinanylanguage-teachingsituationandwithallskillareas.
• Theycontributetoanatmosphereofhealthycompetition,providingcreativeuseof
naturallanguageinanon-stressfulsituation.
• Theyensurethemaximumstudentsparticipation.
Moreover, Uberman (1998) also affirms the beneficial role of games concerning
vocabularyteaching.Fromherownteachingexperiences,Ubermannoticedstudent’s
excitementandenthusiasminlearningthroughgames.Forher,gamesareusefuland
effectivetoolsthatshouldbeappliedinvocabularyclasses.Theuseofvocabularyisa
waytomakethelessonsmoreinteresting,enjoyableandeffective.
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3.2LearningVocabularythroughSongs
Listening is fundamentally important for language acquisition because it provides
inputforthelearner.Withoutopportunitiestohearthetargetlanguage,acquisition
simplywillnottakeplace.AccordingtoNunan(2011),listeningisthegasolinethat
fuels the acquisition of aural language. It is also relevant as it forms approximately
60% of language use. When planning listening experiences for young learners, it is
crucial to keep in mind that the activities need to be developmentally appropriate.
They should vary according to the age, developmental stage, and the level of the
learner. Therefore, songs, rhymes and activities, which involve physical movement
andmanipulationofobjects(TPR),canbeappropriateforyounglearnerstoacquire
languagelearning.
Creatinganenjoyablelearningisachallengeforteachers.Aswithgames,songsare
another useful and fun strategy that language teachers should take into account as
part of their classroom-teaching repertoire. Songs contain authentic language, are
easily obtainable, provide vocabulary, grammar and cultural aspects and the most
importantthingisthattheyarefunforthestudents.
Forthisreason,songsplayanimportantroleinthedevelopmentofyoungchildren’s
second language. A testament to this is the commonness which songs are used in
EnglishLanguageTeachingclassroomsallovertheworld.
Songsshouldbeconsideredavaluablepedagogicaltoolformanyreasons.Murphey
(1992)believedthatsongscanhelpyounglearnersimprovetheirlisteningskillsand
pronunciation, thus potentially helping them to enhance speaking skills. Songs can
also be useful tools in learning vocabulary, sentence structures, and sentence
patterns. They can provide the opportunity of vocabulary practice as they are
normally based on a theme or topic that can support the context for vocabulary
learning.Regardingsentencestructuresandsentencepatterns,manychildren’ssongs
haveaclearsentencestructureorsentencepatternthatcanbecomesetinthemind
of the learner. Accordingly, songs can be useful to reinforce questions and specific
vocabulary taught in a lesson. Nunan (2011) states that songs and nursery rhymes
arealsoexcellentforgivingstudentsintensiverepetitionoftargetlanguageitems.In
consequence,musicandrhythmsofthesongfacilitatevocabularyacquisition.
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Mostchildrenenjoysingingsongs,astheycanbeawell-welcomedchangefromthe
routineoflearningaforeignlanguage.LoandLi(1998)pointedoutthatsongsoffera
breakfromtheclassroomroutineandthattheuseofthemtolearnEnglishdevelopsa
non-threateningatmosphereinwhichskillscaneasilyimprove.
Eken (1996) claims that songs can be used in the English language classroom for a
varietyofreasons.Inthefirstplace,theycanbeusefultopresentatopicoratheme,
aswellastopracticealanguagepointorlexis.Songscanalsobeemployedtoenhance
children’screativityanduseofimagination,thusprovidevarietyandfuntoteaching
and learning. Furthermore, they can also provide a relaxing classroom atmosphere
encouraging extensive and intensive listening. Finally, songs will allow teachers to
focusonthecommonlearnererrorsinamoreindirectway.
3.3LearningVocabularytroughstories
Listeningtoandretellingstoriesarebasictoearlylearning.Storiesarefundamental
tothehumanexperience.Childrenenjoylisteningtostoriesintheirmothertongue.
Forthisreason,storybookscanprovideanidealintroductiontotheforeignlanguage
as they are presented in a context that is familiar to the child. Cameron (2001)
mentionsthefactthatstoriescanofferawholeimaginaryworld,createdbylanguage,
thatchildrencanenterandenjoywhilelearningalanguage.Children’sstoriesinclude
usesoflanguagethatareconsideredtypicalofpoeticandliterarytexts.Manyofthese
instruments offer chances for foreign language learning. Specifically, stories are
designed and created to entertain and acquire vocabulary, so writers and tellers
choosewordswithspecialcaretokeeptheaudienceattention.Therefore,theymight
provide unusual words with interesting rhythms or sounds that are onomatopoeic.
AccordingtoCameron(2001),childrenwillpickupwordsthattheyenjoyand,inthis
way, stories offer space for growth in vocabulary. If stories have the qualities of
content, organisation and language use they become potentially useful tools in the
foreign language classroom, since they have the potential to capture children’s
interestandthusmotivationtolearn,alongwithspaceforlanguagegrowth.
Ellis and Brewster’s storytelling handbook (1991) provides several reasons why
teachersshouldusestorybooks.Ontheonehand,storieslettheteacherintroduceor
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revisenewvocabularyandsentencesstructuresbyexposingthechildrentolanguage
in varied, memorable, and familiar contexts, which will enrich their thinking while
startingtheirownlanguageproduction.Atthesametime,storybookscanenrichthe
pupil’s learning experience since they are motivating, giving them positive attitude
towards the foreign language, and create desire to continue learning. On the other
hand,listeningtostoriesinclassisasharedsocialexperience;itprovokesashared
response of laughter, sadness, excitement and anticipation which is not only
enjoyable but can help building the child’s confidence up and encourage social and
emotional development. Moreover, listening to stories develops listening and
concentration skills as children enjoy listening stories over and over again so
repetition definitely helps them to acquire and reinforce their language, due to the
fact that many stories contain natural repetition of key vocabulary and structures
that may help children to remember and anticipate what is about to happen. In a
nutshell, stories are an excellent opportunity providing authentic language use,
meanwhile children also exercise their imagination, which is undoubtedly a useful
toolinlinkingfantasyandrealworld.
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3.4TechniquesinVocabularyteachingtoyounglearners
Young learners have plenty of opportunities to explore and grasp new vocabulary
duringtheirEnglishlessons.Vocabularycanbetaughtusingdifferenttechniques.It
canbeintroducedbytheteacher,orthroughgames,songs,storiesandthroughother
materialsthatareavailableintheclasses.Vocabularycanalsobelearntthroughclass
interaction.Itcanbefromteachertostudentsorviceversaandstudentstostudents.
Through interaction, plenty of this vocabulary is automatically absorbed (Harmer,
1993). It is useful to make a distinction between direct and indirect vocabulary
learning. In direct vocabulary learning the learners do exercises and activities that
focus their attention on vocabulary. However, in indirect vocabulary learning the
learners’ attention is focused on some other features, usually the message that is
conveyedbyaspeakerorwriter.
Newvocabularyshouldideallybepresentedinacontextthatisfamiliartothechild.
Visual support is very important to help convey meaning and to help children
memorize new words (Brewster, Ellis & Girard, 1991). Repetition drills are also
useful for familiarizing students with new vocabulary or specific expressions.
AccordingtoCross(1991),theprocedureofteachingvocabularycanbedividedinto
threestages:presentation,practiceandproduction.
1.Presentationvocabularyisintroduced.Herearesometechniquesthatcanbeused
tointroducevocabulary:
•
UsingFlashcardsorpictures
A great deal of vocabulary can be introduced by using illustrations or pictures. Hill
(1990)haslistedseveraladvantagesofusingpicturessuchasavailability;onecanget
theminmagazinesorontheInternet.Theyarecheap,oftenfree;theyarepersonalas
teacherscanselectthem,theyarealsousefulforvarioustypesofactivitiesandthey
are easily kept too. Therefore, pictures are multifunctional devices that are widely
usedasalearningdrilltoaidmemorizationbywayofspacedrepetition.
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•
UsingPuppets
Puppets are parts of visual aids for teaching strategies especially in teaching
vocabulary. It is believed that puppets can give an element of fun to learners. By
insertinghumorouselements,puppetsareintendedtoattractstudent’sattention.
•
UsingRealobjects(Realia)
Much of the vocabulary at this stage of children’s learning will consist on concrete
nouns.Thismeansthatthereareplentyofobjectsthatcanbeusedtoshowmeanings.
Forhelpingstudentsunderstandthemeaningofaword,weoftenfindthatapicture
is useful, but real objects are better than pictures whenever we have them in the
classroom.AccordingtoNunan(1999:313),Realiaisdefinedas“objectsandteaching
propsfromtheworldoutsidetheclassroomthatareusedforteachingandlearning”.
Introducing a new word by showing the real object often helps pupils to memorize
the word through visualization. Realia also stimulates the mind and makes the
vocabularymorememorableaschildrencantouch,smelloreventaste.
•
Mimingandgesturing
Miming and gesturing are useful techniques for the explanation of actions and
grammaritems.However,thistechniquehassomelimitations,asitcanbedifficultfor
the teacher to mime some complicated concepts. However, as teachers we should
consideronemethodthatisused,whenexplainingthemeaningthroughactions.Itis
calledTotalPhysicalResponse(TPR).ThemainprincipleofTPRistoreachlearners
tounderstandbylisteningfirstandstartspeakingwhentheyfeelready.Thismethod
iscarriedoutthroughcommands.Whenweaskstudentstorespondphysicallytooral
commands, which use the new words, the activity is very much like what happens
when one is learning one’s mother tongue. (Allen, 1983). Children have frequent
experiences in obeying commands during the early years of learning the mother
tongue. Those experiences seem to play an important part in the learning of
vocabulary.
19
•
Usingtranslation
It is the traditional way of explaining the meaning of words using the student’s
mother tongue. The advantage of translating the word by the teacher is that this
methodsavestime.Ontheotherhand,itisnotaveryeffectivewayofacquiringnew
wordsbecauselearnersarepassive.
2.Practice.Onceanewwordhasbeenintroduced,teachersshouldprovideexercises
in order to practice and check the subject items being learnt. Several types of
activitiescanbecarriedout,forinstance:
•
Memorygames
Itisasimpleandfunactivityforyounglearners.Itdevelopssocial,visualand
memory skills. Children have to flip the cards over and match the pairs as
quicklyaspossible.Vocabularyisreinforcedwhenacardispickedup.
•
Dominoes
It is a good game to practice vocabulary. Through matching different
vocabulary domino cards, children will revise and practice the words
previouslyintroduced.
•
Bingo
Itisafungamethatencouragesstudentstostudyandreviewthevocabulary
words. The objective is to be the first one to get bingo by matching the
definitiongivenbytheteachertothevocabularywordontheirbingocard.
•
What’smissing?
This game can be played by using flashcards. The number of flashcards will
depend on the student’s level, but it should be limited to a maximum of ten.
Childrenhavetoclosetheireyesandtheteacherhastoremoveoneflashcard.
Whentheyopentheireyestheyhavetotelltheflashcardthatwastakenuntil
thereisnooneleft.
20
3. Production. In this stage students are expected to apply the newly learnt
vocabulary. The teacher can provide different activities that they can use on their
owntoconsolidateandrevisethewords,forexample:
•
Wordfamilies/sets
Childrencanbuilduptheirownwordsets.Picturescanbecopiedfromstories
orcutoutfrommagazines,colouredandlabelled,andkeptinenvelopes.Each
onecanbelabelled,forinstance:animals,clothes…
•
Collages
Making collages is a useful way of revising vocabulary. Children can collect
pictures around a particular theme, and stick these on to a large sheet of
paper.Thesecanbeusedtodecoratetheclassroom.
21
4.Study
4.1ResearchObjective
ThisprojectaimstoanalysetheacquisitionofvocabularyinEarlyYearsspecifically
amongchildrenbetween4and5yearsofage.Inordertodosothefollowingresearch
questionswereposed:
1. Is time an influential factor in vocabulary acquisition as far as young learners is
concerned?
1.1Aretheredifferencesinvocabularyacquisitionwhencomparingtheinitial
knowledge of the students and their final knowledge after 4 teaching
vocabularysessions?
1.2Aretheredifferencesinvocabularyacquisitionwhencomparingtheinitial
knowledge of the students and their vocabulary knowledge tested after each
session?
1.3 Are there differences in vocabulary acquisition when comparing the
knowledgeaftereachsessionandtheknowledgeattheend?
4.2Participants
ThestudywascarriedoutinaCatalanStateSchoolthatofferseducationfromEarly
Years,(childrenbetweenthreeandfiveyearsold)untilPrimaryeducation,(children
fromsixtotwelveyearsofage).IchosethisschoolformyresearchprojectbecauseI
did the third training placement there and because I decided to link my didactic
intervention during the placement with the research required for my Final Project.
The participants were 25 pupils aged between 4 and 5 (52% boys and 48% girls).
Children had been introduced to English for the first time at school in September
2015.TheywereexposedtoEnglish1hourand15minutesaweek.However,76%of
the children in this group had been attending extracurricular English lessons
(1h/week)attheschoolsinceSeptember,thusincreasingtheiramountofexposure
tothelanguage.
22
4.3Datacollectionandinstruments
In order to carry out my research and analyse how much vocabulary children had
acquired after being exposed to 4 English vocabulary sessions, I carried out one
vocabularytest.Eachchildwastestedindividuallyusingflashcards:theinterviewer
showed each child the flashcards, one by one and asked: “What is this?”. All the
answersobtainedwerewrittendowninachart.(SeeAppendix7)
An Initial Vocabulary Test was carried out at the beginning of February to see the
children’s prior knowledge of the main words, which would be presented in the 4
sessions. In order to do so, 40 keywords from the 4 sessions that were about to be
taughtwereselected,specifically10wordspersession.Forthenextfourweeks,an
English vocabulary session took place every Friday; so on the following Monday in
theafternoon,3daysaftertheclasssession,atestwascarriedouttocheckhowmany
andwhichwordschildrenstillrememberedfromtheprevioussession.Therefore,4
testswereperformedintotal,eachone3daysaftereveryEnglishvocabularysession.
ThefirstdayofApril,7weeksaftertheInitialVocabularyTestand3weeksafterthe
last vocabulary session, a Delayed Vocabulary Test was carried out to check which
wordschildrenrememberedfromallthesessions.(SeeFigure3)
FEBRUARY
MARCH
APRIL
10_02_2016
19_02_2016 22_02_2016 26_02_2016 29_02_2016 04_03_2016 07_03_2016 11_03_2016 14_03_2016 01_04_2016
Initial
Vocabulary
Vocabulary
Vocabulary
Vocabulary Delayed
Vocabulary
SESSION1 TestAfter SESSION2 TestAfter SESSION3 TestAfter SESSION4 TestAfter Vocabulary
Test
Session1
Session2
Session3
Session4
Test
Figure3:Methodologystructureusedtocollectdataandinstruments
As for the words chosen in the test, they were all related to the topic of animals:
sessions 1 and 3 were designed to work with farm and wild animals, and session 2
and 4 were designed to work with classic animal stories; Theuglyducklingand The
threelittlepigs.Belowthewordschosenforeverysessionarespecified.
Session1:Dog,Chicken,Goat,Duck,Pig,Horse,Rabbit,Cat,SheepandCow.
Session2:1-5littleducks,Quack,Motherduck,Hills,Swimming,Boy,Girl,Eggs,Ugly
andSwan.
Session 3:Parrot,Zebra,Giraffe,Elephant,Lion,Bear,Crocodile,Kangaroo,Monkey
andTiger.
23
Session 4: 3 Little Pigs, Farmer, Woodcutter, Straw, Sticks, Bricks, Wolf, Chimney,
Blowing,andHouse.
In order to understand how children could possibly acquire the vocabulary, it is
important to mention that the sessions were thought and taught to do so through
differentmaterialssuchasflashcards,games,songsandstories.Thewhole4sessions
followed one specific structure; first of all vocabulary was presented through
flashcards;thenitwaspracticedinafunwayusingawiderangeofgames(adomino,
abingo,amemorygame…)andsongslinkedwiththerelevanttopicandvocabulary.
Finally a story was read to conclude the session. Other useful techniques were also
used such as Realia and TPR (Total Physical Response). Moreover, handmade
materialslikepuppetswerecreatedtomotivateandrisechildren’sparticipation.
4.4Dataanalysis
Asmentionedbefore,whiletheInitialVocabularyTest,theVocabularyTestaftereach
session and the Delayed Vocabulary Test were being carried out, all the pupils’
answers where noted on specific chart. I used the same chart for the Initial
Vocabulary Test and the Delayed Vocabulary test as they both tested the 40 words
thatthefoursessionsentailed.Theanswerswerecategorisedas“yes”withacrossif
thechildrenknewthewordand“no”withoutfillingthechartifthechildrendidnot
knowtheword.OnceIhadalltheanswersmarked,Icountedthemtofindouthow
many children seem to know or recognise initially and finally every word. (See
Appendices1and2)
Concerning the Vocabulary Test after each session, I also used a chart to collect
results. However, it was a different chart for every session, as it only contained the
words for each session. After every session, the answers were also counted to
visualizeiftherewasanydifferencebetweenthewordsknownbeforeandthewords
knownafterbeingexposedtothemduringthesessions.(SeeAppendices3,4,5and6)
Afterwards,inordertobeabletoreflectallthedatacollectedusingbargraphs,the
percentageofcorrectanswersperwordwascalculatedforallthetests.
24
4.5Results
In this section of the project the results of the analysis are presented. In order to
presenttheresultsobtained,theInitialVocabularyTestandtheDelayedVocabulary
Testarefirstgoingtobecompared;SecondlytheresultsoftheInitialVocabularyTest
willbecomparedtotheresultsoftheVocabularyTestaftereverysession.Finally,a
generalcomparisonbetweentheresultsofthethreetestsisalsogoingtobeshown.
Session1Results
Accordingtowhathasbeenmentioned,theInitialVocabularyTestandtheDelayed
Vocabulary Test are first going to be compared. Figure 4, shows the results of the
wordsacquiredinSession1.Theresultssuggestthatinitiallybetween80and96%of
thechildrenknewsomewordsasdog,duck,pigandcat.Thewordthatinitiallythey
knewthemostwasdog(96%).Otherwordslikechicken,sheepandcowwereknown
bysomeofthechildren(50-60%).However,thepercentageofotherwordssuchas
goat,horseorrabbitshowsthatatthebeginningtheywereunknownwordsasonly
between4-8%ofthechildrenrecognisedthem.Themostunknownwordwashorse
withonly4%ofcorrectanswers.RegardingtheDelayedVocabularyTest,childrenat
theendseemtoknowmorethanatthebeginning;vocabularyknowledgeincreases
foralmostallthewords;cow,chicken,goat,rabbit,sheep,andespeciallyhorsewhich
wentfrom4%to64%.Wecanalsoseethatwordslikeduckandpigremainthesame
(80% and 92%). In addition, we can also observe with words like dogand cat that
childrenattheendknewlessthanatthebeginning.However,itisaminordecrease
(only4%).
Comparing the Initial Vocabulary Test with the Vocabulary Test after Session 1, we
notice an increase in the number of correct answers. Particularly, words like dog,
duck,pigor catreach or almost reach 100% of correct answers and words such as
goat,horseorrabbittowhichchildrendonotseemtohavebeenfrequentlyexposed
risenotablyespeciallythewordgoatrisingto64%.
Concerningthethreevocabularytestsfromageneralperspective,wordslikechicken,
sheep, cow or goat start with a low percentage, then they rise but at the end the
percentagedecreasesagain.Otherwordslikedogorcatstartwithahighpercentage
of recognition, then they rise even more but, in the Delayed Vocabulary Test, the
percentage decreases more than initially. In duck the percentage starts high, then
25
continues rising but then it decreases maintaining the same percentage as initially
(80%). With pig, however, the percentage value remains always the same. Finally,
withwordssuchashorseorrabbitthepercentagestartslow,thenitrisesandkeeps
increasinguntiltheend.
SESSION1
Ini$alVocabularyTest
VocabularyTesta3erSession1
DelayedVocabularyTest
100%
96% 92%
96%
84%
80%
72%
96%
92%
80%
80%
72%
56%
56%
84%
72%
68%
56%
56%
48%
52%
24%
8%
68%
64%
84%
76%
DOG
CHICKEN
GOAT
4%
DUCK
PIG
HORSE
RABBIT
CAT
SHEEP
COW
Figure 4: Comparison between the Initial Vocabulary Test, the Vocabulary Test after
Session1andtheDelayedVocabularyTest.
Session2Results
Figure5showstheresultsofthewordsacquiredinSession2.Aswecanobserve,the
blue bars, which indicate the words that children initially already knew, show that
words like 1-5 little ducks, quack and swimming seem to be better recognised than
others(80-96%).Thewordthatinitiallytheyknewthemostwasquack(96%).Other
words such as motherduck,boy,girland eggswere known by some of the children
(36-68%).Ontheotherhand,thepercentageofotherwordslikeugly,swanandhills
showsthatat the beginningtheywereunknownwordsformostofthechildren(012%).Ifwefocusourattentiontothewordhillsthepercentage(0%)indicatesthat
nochildalreadyknewtheword.RegardingtheDelayedVocabularyTest,childrenat
theendseemtoknowlessthanatthebeginning;vocabularydecreasesinhalfofthe
words,especiallywiththefollowingwords:1-5littleducks,quack,swimming,boyand
eggs.However,inwordslikemotherduckorhillsthevocabularyincreases,thusatthe
end children recognize those words better than initially. We should consider the
growth of the word hills, starting with 0% of knowledge and ending with 36%
26
becomingthewordbetterknown.Wecanalsoobservethatwordssuchasgirl,ugly
andswanareknownthesameasinitially.
Comparing the Initial Vocabulary Test with the Vocabulary Test after Session 2, we
notice a big vocabulary increase in the number of correct answers. Words like 1-5
little ducks, quack, mother duck and eggs reach or almost reach 100% of correct
answersandthewordhillsgoesfrom0%to44%.
Concerningthethreevocabularytestsfromageneralperspective,wordslikemother
duckorhillsstartwithlowpercentage,thentheyrisebutattheendthepercentage
decreases.Otherwordslike1-5littleducks,quack,swimming,boyandeggsstartwith
a high percentage of recognition, then they increase even more but, in the Delayed
VocabularyTestthepercentagedecreasesmorethaninitially.Ingirl,uglyandswan
thepercentagestartslow,thencontinuesrisingbutthen,itdecreasesmaintainingthe
samepercentageasinitially,36%,12%and8%respectively.
SESSION2
Ini$alVocabularyTest
VocabularyTesta3erSession2
DelayedVocabularyTest
100%
100%
96%
92%
100%
96%
88%
84%
80%
76%
80%
72%
68%
60%
52%
44%
60%
64%
48%
40%
36%
36%
36%
36%
28%
12%
12%
8%
8%
0%
1-5LITTLE
DUCKS
QUACK
MOTHER
DUCK
HILLS
SWIMMING
BOY
GIRL
EGGS
UGLY
SWAN
Figure5:ComparisonbetweentheInitialVocabularyTest,theVocabularyTestafterSession
2andtheDelayedVocabularyTest.
27
Session3Results
Figure 6 shows the results of the words acquired in Session 3. The results suggest
thatinitiallybetween76-96%ofthechildrenknewsomewordssuchaselephant,lion,
crocodile,monkeyandtiger.Thewordthatinitiallytheyknewthemostwaselephant
(96%).Otherwordslikezebraandgiraffewereknownbysomeofthechildren(4448%).However,thepercentageofotherwordslikeparrot,bearandkangarooshows
thattheywerealmostunknownwordsformostofthechildren(12-24%).Themost
unknown word was kangaroo with only 12% of correct answers. Concerning the
DelayedVocabularyTest,childrenattheendseemtoknowmorewordsthaninitially;
vocabularyknowledgeincreasesinhalfofthewordssuchaskangaroo,parrot,giraffe,
bearandespeciallyzebrawhichwentfrom48%to84%.However,thepercentageof
the other half of the words; elephant, lion, monkey, crocodile and tiger decreases a
littlebitsochildrenseemtoknowlessthaninitially.
Comparing the Initial Vocabulary Test with the Vocabulary Test after Session 3, we
can realise a vocabulary increase in the number of correct answers. Particularly,
some words like elephant, lion and monkey reach or almost reach 100% of correct
answersandwordssuchaszebraorgiraffe,whichincrease40%more.
Concerningthethreevocabularytestsfromageneralperspective,wordslikezebra,
giraffe,parrot,bearand kangaroostart with a low percentage, then they rise but at
the end the percentage decreases. Other words like elephant,lion,crocodile,monkey
andtigerstartwithahighpercentageofrecognition,thentheyriseevenmorebutin
theDelayedVocabularyTestthefinalpercentageislowerthanintheinitialtest.
SESSION3
Ini$alVocabularyTest
88%
84%
84%
VocabularyTesta3erSession3
100%
96%
92%
88% 88%
84%
DelayedVocabularyTest
92%
88%
80%
72%
68%
80%
88%
76%
72%
64%
56%
48%
44%
40%
32%
24%
32%
20%
44%
36%
12%
PARROT
ZEBRA
GIRAFFE
ELEPHANT
LION
BEAR
CROCODILE KANGAROO MONKEY
Figure6:ComparisonbetweentheInitialVocabularyTest,theVocabularyTest
afterSession3andtheDelayedVocabularyTest.
TIGER
28
Session4Results
Figure 7 shows the results of the words acquired in Session 4. The results suggest
thatinitiallybetween56-80%ofthechildrenknewsomewordsas3littlepigs,wolf
and house. The word that initially they knew the most was The 3 little pigs (80%).
Other words like farmer or sticks were known by some of the children (16-20%).
However,thepercentageofotherwordssuchaswoodcutter,chimney,blowing,straw
and bricks shows that at the beginning they were unknown words for most of the
children(0-8%).Ifwefocusourattentiontowordslikewoodcutterandchimneythe
percentage (0%) indicates that no child knew the word. Regarding the Delayed
VocabularyTest,childrenattheendseemtoknowmorewordsthanatthebeginning;
vocabulary knowledge increases for almost all the words; 3 little pigs, farmer,
woodcutter, straw, bricks, sticks, chimney, wolf and blowing showing a considerable
growth.Weshouldbearinmindthewordblowing,startingwithalowpercentageand
risinguntil52%.Wecanalsoobservethatchildrenattheendknewlessthaninitially
injustoneword:housedecreasingto8%.
Comparing the Initial Vocabulary Test with the Vocabulary Test after Session 4, we
can realise a considerable vocabulary growth in all the words. In particular, words
like 3 little pigs, sticks, wolf, and house reach or almost reach 100%. We should
considerthewordblowingasitexperimentsanimportantgrowthgoingfrom4%to
80%.
Concerning the three vocabulary tests from a general perspective, words like
woodcutter, straw, bricks, chimney, blowing, farmer, sticks, 3 little pigs and wolf start
with a high, middle or low percentage, then they rise but at the end the percentage
decreases.However,onlyinthewordhousethepercentagestartshigh,thenitrises
butattheenditdecreasesevenmorethaninitially.
SESSION4
Ini$alVocabularyTest
DelayedVocabularyTest
100%
88%
92%
84%
88%
80%
64%
64%
60%
52%
40%
3LITTLEPIGS
FARMER
WOODCUTTER
56%
48%
28%
20%
16%
0%
84%
40%
28%
20%
80%
52%
48%
VocabularyTesta3erSession4
16%
STRAW
12%
8%
4%
0%
STICKS
BRICKS
WOLF
CHIMNEY
4%
BLOWING
HOUSE
Figure7:ComparisonbetweentheInitialVocabularyTest,theVocabularyTestafter
Session4andtheDelayedVocabularyTest.
29
To conclude this section, after analysing and comparing the Initial Vocabulary Test
withtheDelayedVocabularyTest,3aspectscanbehighlighted:
1. Forsomeofthewordschildrenattheendknowmorethaninitially,sothereis
an increase in their vocabulary knowledge. For example: chicken,goat,horse,
rabbit, cow (Session 1), mother duck, hills (Session 2), parrot, zebra, giraffe,
bear,kangaroo(Session3),3littlepigs,farmer,woodcutter,straw,sticks,bricks,
wolf,chimneyandblowing(Session4).
2. Children at the end know the same as initially, so vocabulary remains the
same.Forinstance:duck,pig(Session1),girl,uglyandswan(Session2).
3. Children at the end know less than initially, so there is a decrease in
vocabulary. For example: dog, cat (Session 1), 1-5 little ducks, quack,
swimming, boy, eggs (Session 2), elephant, lion, crocodile, monkey, tiger
(Session3)andhouse(Session4).
In addition, after analysing and comparing, the Initial Vocabulary Test with the
VocabularyTestaftereachsession,anappreciableaspectisobserved:
•
Anincreaseofvocabulary
However, comparing the Vocabulary Test after each session with the Delayed
VocabularyTestanotherconsiderableaspectiseasilynoticed:
•
Adecreaseofvocabulary
30
Thefigurebelowshowsasummaryofthemostinterestingfindings:
Session2
Session3
Session4
InitialVocabularyTest
Dog
Quack
Elephant
3little
(Wordsbetterknown
96%
96%
96%
pigs
Session1
initially)
80%
VocabularyTestaftereach
individualSession
Goat
Hills
Zebra/Giraffe
Blowing
(Wordswhichafterbeing
(8-72%)
(0-44%)
(48-88%)(44-84%)
(4-80%)
practicedrisemoreregarding
64%
44%
40%
75%
DelayedVocabularyTest
(Wordswhichattheend
Horse
Hills
Zebra
Blowing
increasemoreconcerning
(4-64%)
(0-36%)
(48-84%)
(4-52%)
theirinitialknowledge)
60%
36%
36%
48%
theirinitialknowledge)
Figure8:Someofthemostinterestingfindingsobtainedaccordingtotheresults
31
5.Discussion
Asmentionedbefore,thisresearchprojectaimedtofindoutvocabularyacquisition
amongveryyounglearners.Inthissection,Iwilltrytoanswertheresearchquestions
posedasguidelinesofmyresearchaccordingtotheresultsobtainedintheanalysisof
thedatacollectedwith4and5year-oldstudentsandtointerpretthem.
R.Q.1: Is time an influential factor in vocabulary acquisition as far as young
learnersisconcerned?
When analysing the data collected and presenting it in graphs it was observed that
time seems to be an influential factor in vocabulary acquisition with very young
learners.Thisfact,canbeobservedwhenweanalysethebarsthatindicatetheresults
of the Vocabulary Test carried out after each session and the Delayed Vocabulary
Test. We should bear in mind to interpret and understand the results that the
VocabularyTestaftereachsessionwascarriedout3daysaftereachsessionwithout
beingexposedtothewords,andtheDelayedVocabularyTest6weeksafterthefirst
session,5weeksfromthesecondone,4weeksfromthethirdoneand3weeksfrom
thelastsession.Accordingtothat,itisclearlyobservableinallthesessionsthatthere
isanincreaseoftheirvocabularyknowledgewhentheirknowledgeistestedaftera
short period of time of being exposed to the words (Vocabulary Test after each
session). However, there is a decrease in the number of words when the children’s
wordknowledgeistestedafteralongperiodoftimefrom6to3weekswithoutbeing
exposedtothewords.(DelayedvocabularyTest).
In the following answers, this research question will be further discussed and, by
answeringothersubquestions,amoredetailedpictureofthismainquestionwillbe
given;thisisthereasonwhynomoreinformationisgivenatthispoint.
32
R.Q.1.1:Aretheredifferencesinvocabularyacquisitionwhencomparingthe
initialknowledgeofthestudentsandtheirfinalknowledge?
Considering the results some differences are found in vocabulary when comparing
thestudents’initialandfinalknowledge.Threemainfindingsneedtobeconsidered
and explained: sometimes the knowledge is higher, sometimes is the same and
sometimesislessthantheinitialknowledge.
1. Forsomewords,thechildren’sfinalwordknowledgeishigherthanthechildren’s
initial word knowledge. So, there is an increase in vocabulary at the end, as
children seem to know more words than initially. This might be because of
frequency and exposure. According to Nation (1997) lots of studies suggest that
learners need to have several meaningful encounters with a new word before it
becomes established in their memory. Therefore, the fact that children attended
somesessions,inwhichsomewordswerefrequentlyusedincontexthelpedthem
tomemoriseandrecallthosewordsbetterattheend.Thisideawouldbeinline
with Palmer (1917) who stated that words that are repeated many times are
easily learnt because they are found constantly in a context and this encounters
makeiteasiertorememberthem.AsitisobservableinFigure4,initiallymoreor
lessallthewordswerewellrecognisedbythechildren,maybebecausetheyhad
hadmanypreviousencounterswiththewordsbeforethistestwasevencarried
out. However, two words like goat and horse were almost unknown, probably
because before the session the children were not familiar with them. In spite of
that, it is interesting to notice that 6 of those words (chicken,goat,horse,rabbit,
sheepandcow)attheendwerebetterknownthaninitially,soitmeansthatthe
repetition and the practice of the words in different activities may have helped,
andthatrepetitionisbeneficialforchildren’svocabularyacquisition.Ifwefocus
our attention to Figure 5 many of the words were identified at the beginning
exceptforthewordhills(0%),whichdoesnotseemtobepartoftheircommon
foreignvocabularyrepertoireinitially.However,attheendonlythepercentageof
answersforthewordhillsrisestogetherwithmotherduck,sointhissessionfew
words seem to be remembered or acquired finally. According to Figure 6, at the
beginningalmostallthewordswereknownbutafterthefinaltest,only5ofthem
were recognised more than initially (parrot, zebra giraffe, bear, and kangaroo).
33
Finally,inFigure7,whichshowstheresultsofsession4,mostofthewordswere
initially relatively unknown maybe because the vocabulary that appears in The
three little pigs story is not as usual to them as the vocabulary of farm or wild
animals. Nevertheless, it is the session from which children seem to know or
remember the most words in comparison to other sessions (3littlepigs,farmer,
woodcutter, straw, sticks, bricks, wolf, chimney and blowing) as 9 words
experimentanimportantgrowthcomparingthemtotheinitial.This,mightbedue
tothefactthatbetweenthesession4andtheDelayedVocabularyTesttherewere
only3weeksso,childrencouldbetterrememberorrecognisethewordsbecause
there was a shorter period of time between the session and the Delayed
VocabularyTest.Ebbinghausprovidedanexplanationtothat,calledTheCurveof
Forgetting.(Seesection2.2.1inthisproject).Hedemonstratedthatthemoretime
passes without reinforcing vocabulary, the more we tend to forget the
information. Therefore, the less time between the information’s reinforcement,
thebetterthestudentswereabletorememberorrecalltheinformation.Inorder
tounderstandthis,weshouldalsoconsidertheroleoftheshort-termmemory.It
refers to the process of temporarily storing small bits of information for a short
period of time. The information stored quickly disappears with time unless a
consciouseffortismadetoretainit.Thesetwoaspectsmayprovideanevidence
which demonstrates that time seems to influence children’s vocabulary
acquisition since learning a word requires long time, plenty of exposure, and a
consciousefforttotrytoretainit.
2. For some other words, the children’s final word knowledge is equal to the
children’sinitialwordknowledge.This,itmeansthat,forsomewords,vocabulary
does not increase and it just remains the same. In Figure 4 this aspect is clearly
appreciableinwordslikeduckandpigandinFigure5wordssuchasgirl,uglyand
swan. This fact may have been caused because not enough repetition was
provided.AsNation(1900)said,awordneedstobemetatleastfiveorsixtimes
beforeithasanychanceofbeinglearntsorepetitionisacrucialfactortoacquirea
word. Moreover, learning a word requires a long time and plenty of exposure.
Therefore, the more frequently language learners are exposed to foreign
vocabulary,themorelikelytheyaretorememberit.
34
3. Finally, the third find shows that, for some words, the children’s final word
knowledge is less than the children’s initial word knowledge. So, there is a
decreaseinvocabulary,aschildrenseemtoknoworrecogniselesswordsatthe
end than initially. Actually, it is a curious fact because some words that initially
seemedtobeacquired,attheendtheywerenotrecognizedbythechildren.This
aspectwasnoticed,inthepost-sessionstest:forinstance,inFigure4withwords
likedogandcat,inFigure5with1-5littleducks,quack,swimming,boyandeggs,in
Figure 6 with elephant, lion, crocodile, monkey and tiger, and finally in Figure 7
with only one word; house. However, with all those words, the percentage
decreasesverylittle.Inordertoexplainandgiveareasontothisfact,weshould
considerthefollowingquestion:“Whatdoesknowingawordmean?”.Knowinga
word does not just mean remember or recalling the word in different contexts
when needed, it is more than this. Some general considerations described and
mentioned before by Cameron (2001) should be also considered when we say
thatawordisknown(seesection2.2.2inthisproject).Indeed,learningwordsis
notaneasytaskthatisdoneandfinishedinashortperiodoftimesinceknowing
aboutawordincludeslearningaboutitsform(howitsounds,howitisspelt,the
grammaticalchangesthatmighthave),knowingaboutitsmeaning(itsconceptual
content),anditsuse(itspatternswithotherwordsandtypesoflanguageuse).So,
wecannottakeforgrantedthatchildrenknowwordsifwejustfocusonmemory,
other aspects should also be taken into account. We should also consider other
possible facts that could interfere and give a reason why the percentage in
children’s answers in the Delayed Vocabulary Test was lower for some words
than the number of answers in the Initial Vocabulary Test. Concentration could
provide a possible explanation in this case: children were not as much
concentrated as in other vocabulary tests because the Delayed Vocabulary Test
was carried out in the afternoon so they were a little bit tired and maybe 40
words tested at the same time were too many words for such young learners.
Thus,thetestitselfmayhavehadaninfluenceontheresultsobtained.
35
R.Q.1.2: Are there differences in vocabulary acquisition when comparing the
initial knowledge of the students and their vocabulary knowledge after each
session?
When comparing the initial knowledge of the students and their vocabulary
knowledgeaftereachsession,inwhichthechildrenhadbeenrepeatedlyexposedto
words in a didactic way, the vocabulary increases. Short-term memory plays an
importantroleinthisvocabularygrowth;asitwasmentionedbefore,theVocabulary
Testsaftereachsessionswerecarriedout3daysafterthechildren’sexposuretothe
words, so between the session and the test there was a short period of time that
facilitated and allowed the children to remember or recall those words better.
Therefore, time is an important factor in our memory process; the less time passes
betweenbeingexposedtosomething,themorewewillbeabletorememberit.The
more time passes between being exposed to something, the less we will be able to
rememberit.
R.Q.1.3:Aretheredifferencesinvocabularyacquisitionwhencomparingthe
knowledgeaftereachsessionandtheknowledgeattheend?
Regardingtheresultsonemainaspectisobservableinallthegraphswhencomparing
the knowledge after each session and the knowledge at the end; the vocabulary
decreases. According to what was mentioned before, children were tested 6 weeks
fromthefirstsession,5weeksafterthesecondone,4weeksafterthethirdoneand3
weeks after the last session. Therefore, there was a longer period of time without
reinforcement of the words from the first session to the last in relation to the final
test.Apossiblereasonmaybethatchildrentendtoforgetthewordsquickly,sothe
vocabularywhichseemtobeacquiredafterthesessiondecreases.
AnothervisiblefeaturecanbeobservedifweanalyseFigure4wordslikehorseand
rabbit. The percentage of the words at the end rise even more than after being
practicedandtestedoncethesessionwasdone.Thereseemstobeanexplanationif
webelievethatthosewordswerereinforcedoutsidetheschoolsetting.Therefore,in
ordertoestablishvocabulary,buildingonandstrengtheningit,constantrepetitionis
keytoensurevocabularyacquisition.
36
6.Conclusions
In this section the main conclusions reached after doing the entire research
procedurewillbeexposed.Thisprojectaimstofindoutthroughavocabularytestif
time is an influential factor in vocabulary acquisition as far as young learners is
concerned.
The first conclusion that can be drawn from the whole research is that vocabulary
acquisitionwithveryyounglearnersisanon-goingprocessthattakestime,practice
and plenty of exposure. Time is a key factor in the process of learning words.
Accordingtotheresultsobtained,childrencouldrecallorrememberbetterthewords
thatweretestedafterashortperiodoftimefromitsinitialexposure.Inotherwords,
the less time between vocabulary reinforcement the more children will be able to
rememberthewords;thereforetheirvocabularyknowledgewillincrease.Thismight
be related to the use of their short-term memory; our brain stores small bits of
information for a short amount of time but they quickly disappear unless there is
plenty of repetition and a conscious effort to retain it. On the other hand, as was
observedinthisproject,childrencouldnotrecallorrememberthewordsthatwere
tested after a long period of time from its initial exposure. Therefore, the longer
withoutvocabularyreinforcementthemoredifficultitwillbeforthechildrentobe
abletorememberthewordsandvocabularyknowledgewilldecrease.Thismightbe
linked to The Curve of Forgetting provided by Ebbinghaus (see section 2.2.1 in this
project).Hedemonstratedandexplainedhowquicklyinformationisforgottenifwe
do not frequently use it. As it was mentioned before, repetition and frequency are
essentialaspectstoconsiderinordertoacquirevocabulary.
Secondly, learning words is not an easy task that is done and finished in a short
period of time, especially if we are dealing with young learners. Vocabulary
acquisition requires continuous repetitions in order to achieve effective vocabulary
learning. Moreover, very young learners are very slow learners in learning a
second/foreign language as they are still building up their first vocabulary
knowledge. Furthermore, the fact that they receive limited input in the foreign
language, as they are not very much exposed to it, makes the process of acquiring
37
vocabularydifficultandlong.Inthelightoftheresultsobtained,sessionswithplenty
ofrepetitionsshouldbecarriedoutinordertohelpstudentssettletheirvocabulary.
Aftercarryingoutthisresearchprojectlinkedtomydidacticinterventionduringmy
placement, I am convinced that techniques and resources such as games, songs and
stories are good strategies to use for teaching vocabulary to very young learners.
They provide meaningful contexts, as well as variation to a lesson and raise the
motivation of the learners by encouraging them to use the target language in a
creative and communicative manner. Thus, they are useful tools in learning
vocabularyastheygiveopportunitiestopracticeandreinforceit.Someoftheresults
of the beneficial use of these techniques can be noticed in the graphs that show
children’s vocabulary knowledge after being exposed to vocabulary through games,
songs, and stories: they show an increase regarding the initial knowledge of most
words.
Another meaningful aspect to consider after this research project is that we cannot
quicklyandeasilysaythatawordisknown.Firstofall,weneedtotakeintoaccount
that the knowledge of a word entails general considerations. Therefore, we should
wonder and ask ourselves as teachers “What does it mean to know a word?”. Once
this research was carried out I realised that knowing a word requires much more
thanrecallitwhenneededsomemoryonlyplaysaminorrole.Weshouldnotassume
thatchildrenknowawordifwejustfocusonmemoryskills;otherknowledgeshould
be also considered, as well as external factors such as concentration, motivation…
thatmightinterferewithchildren’sanswers.
Finally,Iwouldliketomentionthatallthethingsdescribedabove,whichIobserved
andlearntwhileandafterduringthisresearch,theyaregoingtobeusefulandkeptin
mind for my future as a teacher. Now I realise that when it comes to teaching or
introducingnewvocabularyinEnglishIcannottakeforgrantedthatpresentingthe
wordsjustoncechildrenwillrememberthemforalongtime.Infact,therearealways
somewordsthatwithoutanyexplanationchildrenfinditdifficulttoretain.Teachers
should pay attention to those words because they might be a sign that constant
repetitionisneededuntilvocabularyisfirmlyestablished.
38
7.Bibliography
•
Allen,V.(1983).TechniquesinTeachingVocabulary.Oxford:OxfordUniversity
Press.
•
Brewster,J&Ellis,G&Girard,D.(1991).ThePrimaryEnglishTeacher’sGuide.
London:PenguinBooks.
•
Cameron,L.(2001).TeachingLanguagestoYoungLearners.Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress.
•
Cross,D.(1991).APracticalHandbookofLanguageTeaching.London:Cassel.
•
Eken,D.K(1996).IdeasforusingpopsongsintheEnglishlanguageclassroom.
EnglishTeachingForum,34,46-47.
•
Ellis,G&Brewster,J.(1991).TheStorytellingHandbookforPrimaryTeachers.
Penguin.
•
Harmer,J.(1993).ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching.Essex:Longman
GroupUKLimited.
•
Hatch,E&Brown,C.(1995).Vocabularysemanticsandlanguageeducations.
Cambridge:CUP
•
Hill,D.(1900).VisualImpact:Creativelanguagelearningthroughpictures.
Essex:LongmanGroupUKLimited.
•
Lewis,G.&Bedson,G.&Maley,A.(1999).Gamesforchildren.Oxford:Oxford
UniversityPress.
•
Lo,R.&Li,H.C.(1998).Songsenhancelearnerinvolvement.EnglishTeaching
Forum,36,pp.3:8-11.
39
Locke,J.(1993).Thechild’sPathtoSpokenLanguage.Cambridge,MA:Harvard
•
UniversityPress.
McCallum,G.(1980).101WordgamesforstudentsofEnglishasaSecondor
•
ForeignLanguage.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
•
Murphey,T.(1992).Musicandsong.Oxford,England:OxfordUniversityPress.
•
Nation,P.(1990).TeachingandLearningVocabulary.NewYork:Heinleand
Heinle.
•
Nunan,D.(2011).TeachingEnglishtoYoungLearners.USA:Anaheim
UniversityPress.
•
Palmer,H.E.(1917).TheScientificStudyandTeachingofLanguages.London:
Harrap.
•
Richards,J.(1976).Theroleofvocabularyteaching.TESOLQuarterly,10(1),
77-89.
•
Thornbury,S.(2002).HowtoTeachVocabulary.NewYork:Longman.
•
Uberman,A.(1998).Theuseofgamesforvocabularypresentationandrevision.
•
Wright,A.&Betteridge,D.&Buckby,M.(1979).Gamesforlanguagelearning.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
•
Yolageldili,G.&Arikan,A.(2011).EffectivenessofUsingGamesinTeachingto
YoungLearners.ElementaryEducationOnline,10(1),219-229.
40
8.Webreferences
•
Alban.D(2012).Short-termMemoryLossCausesandSolutions.RetrievedApril
18, 2016 from Be Brain Fit website: http://bebrainfit.com/stop-short-termmemory-loss/
•
Mastin, L. (2010). Short-term (working) memory. Retrieved April 15, 2016,
from
The
Human
Memory
website:
http://www.humanmemory.net/types_short.html
•
Pappas,C.(2014).TheForgettingCurveineLearning.RetrievedApril11,2016,
from eLearning Industry website: http://elearningindustry.com/forgettingcurve-in-elearning-what-elearning-professionals-should-know
•
Roth, J. (2011). The Curve of Forgetting. Retrieved April 9, 2016, from:
http://ol.scc.spokane.edu/jroth/Courses/English%2094study%20skills/MASTER%20DOCS%20and%20TESTS/Curve%20of%20Forg
etting.htm
41
9.Appendices
Appendix1
ChartusedandresultsobtainedintheInitialVocabularyTest
NamesP4-A/Voc.
Student1( 4.04.2011)
DOG
CHICKEN GOAT
X
DUCK
PIG
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student3(26.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student4(7.10.2011)
X
Student2(6.08.2011)
Student5
Student6
Student7
Student8
Student9
Student10
Student11
Student12
Student13(
Student14
Student15
Student16
Student17
Student18(
Student19
Student20
Student21
Student22
Student23
Student24
Student25
24
TOTAL
14
2
20
23
96% 56% 8% 80% 92%
%
ZEBRA
GIRAFFE ELEPHANT LION
NamesP4-A/Voc. PARROT
X
X
X
X
Student1( 4.04.2011) X
X
X
X
Student2(6.08.2011)
X
X
Student3(26.04.2011)
X
X
X
Student4(7.10.2011) X
X
X
X
X
Student5(26.12.2011) X
X
X
X
Student6(31.03.2011)
X
X
X
Student7(9.04.2011) X
X
Student8 (3.10.2011) X
X
X
Student9(20.09.2011)
X
X
Student10(14.12.2011)
X
X
Student11(28.08.2011) X
X
X
X
Student12(12.10.2011) X
X
Student13( 6.12.2011)
X
X
X
Student14(4.03.2011) X
X
X
X
Student15(27.06.2011) X
X
Student16(13.07.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student17(4.01.2011)
X
X
X
Student18( 6.12.2011) X
Student19(29.10.2011) X
X
X
X
X
Student20(21.04.2011)
X
X
Student21(3.06.2011)
X
Student22(12.02.2011) X
X
X
X
Student23(17.02.2011) X
X
X
X
Student24(17.11.2011)
X
Student25(2.06.2011) TOTAL
12
11
24
22
5
%
20% 48% 44% 96% 88%
X
HORSE
RABBIT
CAT
X
SHEEP
X
X
X
X
1-5LITTLEDUCKS
QUACK
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(26.12.2011)
X
X
(31.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
(9.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
(3.10.2011)
X
(20.09.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
COW
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
HILLS
SWIMMING BOY
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(28.08.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(12.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
6.12.2011)
X
X
X
(4.03.2011)
X
X
X
(27.06.2011)
X
X
X
(13.07.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
(4.01.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
6.12.2011)
X
X
X
(29.10.2011)
X
(21.04.2011)
X
X
X
(3.06.2011)
X
(12.02.2011)
(17.02.2011)
(17.11.2011)
X
(2.06.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
6
4%
BEAR
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
14
13
56%
21
TIGER
84%
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
52%
20
0%
STRAW
15
80%
STICKS
9
60%
BRICKS
X
17
36%
WOLF
3
68%
CHIMNEY
2
12%
BLOWING
X
8%
HOUSE
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
13
96%
3LITTLEPIGS FARMER WOODCUTTER
X
X
X
24
52%
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
20
80%
19
76%
20
80%
5
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
20
24%
X
X
X
X
6
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
80%
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
CROCODILE KANGAROO MONKEY
X
X
X
20
24%
X
X
X
10
X
X
X
X
X
X
SWAN
X
X
X
X
X
UGLYDUCK
X
X
(14.12.2011)
X
EGGS
X
X
X
X
GIRL
X
X
X
X
MOTHERDUCK
3
80%
12%
X
X
X
X
0
20%
1
0%
4
4%
X
2
16%
8%
X
X
15
60%
42
0
1
0%
4%
14
56%
Appendix2
ChartusedandresultsobtainedintheDelayedVocabularyTest
NamesP4-A/Voc.
DOG
CHICKEN GOAT
Student1( 4.04.2011)
X
X
Student2(6.08.2011)
X
Student3(26.04.2011)
X
X
Student4(7.10.2011)
X
X
Student5(26.12.2011)
X
Student6(31.03.2011)
X
Student7(9.04.2011)
X
DUCK
PIG
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
HORSE
Student9(20.09.2011)
X
X
Student10(14.12.2011)
X
X
Student11(28.08.2011)
X
X
Student12(12.10.2011)
X
X
Student14(4.03.2011)
X
Student15(27.06.2011)
X
Student16(13.07.2011)
X
Student17(4.01.2011)
X
Student18( 6.12.2011)
X
Student19(29.10.2011)
X
Student20(21.04.2011)
X
X
Student21(3.06.2011)
X
X
Student22(12.02.2011)
X
X
Student23(17.02.2011)
X
X
Student24(17.11.2011)
X
X
Student25(2.06.2011)
X
CAT
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student8 (3.10.2011)
RABBIT
X
SHEEP
X
X
X
X
X
X
COW
1-5LITTLEDUCKS QUACK MOTHERDUCK
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
HILLS
SWIMMING BOY
GIRL EGGS
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
UGLYDUCK SWAN
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student13( 6.12.2011)
TOTAL
%
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
23
18
12
20
23
16
17
19
17
18
19
23
18
9
12
10
9
16
3
2
92%
72%
48%
80%
92%
64%
68%
76%
68%
72%
76%
92%
72%
36%
48%
40%
36%
64%
12%
8%
NamesP4-A/Voc. PARROT ZEBRA GIRAFFE ELEPHANT LION
X
X
X
X
Student1( 4.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student2(6.08.2011)
X
X
Student3(26.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student4(7.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student5(26.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student6(31.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student7(9.04.2011)
X
X
Student8 (3.10.2011)
X
X
X
Student9(20.09.2011)
X
X
Student10(14.12.2011)
X
X
Student11(28.08.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student12(12.10.2011)
Student13( 6.12.2011)
X
X
X
Student14(4.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student15(27.06.2011) X
X
Student16(13.07.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student17(4.01.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student18( 6.12.2011)
X
Student19(29.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student20(21.04.2011) X
X
X
X
Student21(3.06.2011)
X
X
X
Student22(12.02.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student23(17.02.2011) X
X
X
X
Student24(17.11.2011) X
X
X
Student25(2.06.2011)
TOTAL
8
21
17
22
21
%
32%
84%
68%
88%
84%
X
BEAR
X
CROCODILE KANGAROO MONKEY
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
CHIMNEY BLOWING
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
HOUSE
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
18
72%
9
16
64%
18
72%
22
88%
12
36%
X
X
X
X
X
32%
WOLF
X
X
X
X
X
8
BRICKS
X
X
X
X
X
STICKS
X
X
X
X
X
3LITTLEPIGS FARMER WOODCUTTER STRAW
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
TIGER
X
X
4
48%
5
16%
20%
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
13
52%
7
21
84%
3
28%
X
43
X
X
12%
13
52%
12
48%
Appendix3
ChartusedandresultsobtainedintheVocabularyTestafterSession1
NamesP4-A/Voc. DOG
CHICKEN
GOAT
DUCK
PIG HORSE
RABBIT CAT SHEEP
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student1( 4.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student2(6.08.2011) X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student3(26.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student4(7.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student5(26.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student6(31.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student7(9.04.2011)
X
X
Student8 (3.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student9(20.09.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student10(14.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student11(28.08.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student12(12.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student13( 6.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student14(4.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student15(27.06.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student16(13.07.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student17(4.01.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student18( 6.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student19(29.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student20(21.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student21(3.06.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student22(12.02.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student23(17.02.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student24(17.11.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student25(2.06.2011)
TOTAL
25
21
18
24
23
14
14
24
21
%
100%
84%
72%
96%
92%
56%
56%
96%
84%
Appendix4
ChartusedandresultsobtainedinTheVocabularyTestafterSession2
1-5LITTLEDUCKS
QUACK
MOTHERDUCK HILLS
SWIMMING BOY GIRL EGGS
UGLY
NamesP4-A/Voc.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student1( 4.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student2(6.08.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student3(26.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student4(7.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student5(26.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student6(31.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student7(9.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student8 (3.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student9(20.09.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student10(14.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student11(28.08.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student12(12.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student13( 6.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student14(4.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student15(27.06.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student16(13.07.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student17(4.01.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student18( 6.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student19(29.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student20(21.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student21(3.06.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student22(12.02.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student23(17.02.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student24(17.11.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student25(2.06.2011)
TOTAL
25
25
24
11
22
20
15
25
9
%
100%
100%
96%
44%
88%
80%
60%
100%
36%
44
COW
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
21
84%
SWAN
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
7
28%
Appendix5
ChartusedandresultsobtainedinTheVocabularyTestafterSession3
PARROT ZEBRA GIRAFFE ELEPHANT LIONBEAR
CROCODILE KANGAROO
NamesP4-A/Voc.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student1( 4.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student2(6.08.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student3(26.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student4(7.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student5(26.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student6(31.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student7(9.04.2011)
X
X
X
Student8 (3.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student9(20.09.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student10(14.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student11(28.08.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student12(12.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student13( 6.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student14(4.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student15(27.06.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student16(13.07.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student17(4.01.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student18( 6.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student19(29.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student20(21.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student21(3.06.2011)
X
X
X
Student22(12.02.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student23(17.02.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student24(17.11.2011)
X
X
X
Student25(2.06.2011)
TOTAL 14
22
21
25
23
10
22
11
%
56%
88%
84%
100%
92%
40%
88%
44%
MONKEY
TIGER
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
23
92%
22
88%
Appendix6
ChartusedandresultsobtainedinTheVocabularyTestafterSession4
3LITTLEPIGSFARMERWOODCUTTER STRAW STICKSBRICKS
WOLF
CHIMNEY
NamesP4-A/Voc.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student1( 4.04.2011)
X
X
X
Student2(6.08.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student3(26.04.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student4(7.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student5(26.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student6(31.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student7(9.04.2011)
X
Student8 (3.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student9(20.09.2011)
X
Student10(14.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
Student11(28.08.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student12(12.10.2011)
X
X
X
Student13( 6.12.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student14(4.03.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student15(27.06.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student16(13.07.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student17(4.01.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student18( 6.12.2011)
XX
X
X
X
X
Student19(29.10.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student20(21.04.2011)
X
X
X
Student21(3.06.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
Student22(12.02.2011)
XX
X
X
X
X
X
Student23(17.02.2011)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Student24(17.11.2011)
X
Student25(2.06.2011)
X
TOTAL
25
16
7
10
22
16
23
10
%
100%
64%
28%
40%
88%
64%
92%
40%
BLOWING
HOUSE
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
20
21
80%
45
84%
Appendix7
FlashcardsusedintheVocabularyTests
Session1
46
Session2
47
Session3
48
Session4
49