Dirty Words, Pig Latin, and the Structure of
Language
Michael Hammond
Dept. of Linguistics, U. of Arizona
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.1/24
What do linguists do?
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.2/24
What do linguists do?
We want to understand people.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.2/24
We want to understand people.
What do linguists do?
What makes people unique?
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.2/24
We want to understand people.
What do linguists do?
What makes people unique? Our minds
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.2/24
We want to understand people.
What makes people unique? Our minds
What do linguists do?
What makes our minds unique?
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.2/24
We want to understand people.
What makes people unique? Our minds
What do linguists do?
What makes our minds unique? Language
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.2/24
Ernie
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.3/24
Ernie
Birds, bees, dogs, etc. all “communicate”
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.3/24
Ernie
Birds, bees, dogs, etc. all “communicate”
. . . but is it language?
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.3/24
What don’t linguists do?
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.4/24
What don’t linguists do?
We don’t tell people how they should talk.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.4/24
We don’t tell people how they should talk.
What don’t linguists do?
We don’t tell people what the rules of
language should be.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.4/24
We don’t tell people how they should talk.
We don’t tell people what the rules of
language should be.
What don’t linguists do?
. . . and we do not necessarily speak a lot of
languages.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.4/24
So what do linguists do?
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.5/24
So what do linguists do?
We look at how languages work and how they
vary.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.5/24
We look at how languages work and how they
vary.
So what do linguists do?
These tell us how the mind works.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.5/24
We look at how languages work and how they
vary.
These tell us how the mind works.
So what do linguists do?
In particular that there is a rich invisible
structure underlying language that reveals
itself in different ways
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.5/24
We look at how languages work and how they
vary.
These tell us how the mind works.
So what do linguists do?
In particular that there is a rich invisible
structure underlying language that reveals
itself in different ways, even in language
games and dirty words.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.5/24
High tech
Frequency (Hz)
5000
0
0
2.36898
Time (s)
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.6/24
High tech
Frequency (Hz)
5000
0
0
2.36898
Time (s)
“Ernie, Ernie, bo-bernie. . .
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.6/24
Low tech?
Two language systems that tell us about that
“invisible” structure:
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.7/24
Low tech?
Two language systems that tell us about that
“invisible” structure:
the “Name Game”
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.7/24
Low tech?
the “Name Game”
Two language systems that tell us about that
“invisible” structure:
Expletive Infixation
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.7/24
The “Name Game”
Ernie
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.8/24
The “Name Game”
Ernie, Ernie, bo-Bernie,
Banana, fana, fo-Fernie,
Me, my, mo-Mernie,
Er-nie.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.8/24
Another name
Jonah
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.9/24
Another name
Jonah, Jonah, bo-bonah,
Banana, fana, fo-Fonah,
Me, my, mo-Monah,
Jo-nah.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.9/24
How to play
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.10/24
How to play
Replace any word-initial consonants with [b],
[f], and [m].
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.10/24
Replace any word-initial consonants with [b],
[f], and [m].
How to play
If there’s no word-initial consonant:
Ernie/Anna
bernie/banna
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.10/24
Replace any word-initial consonants with [b],
[f], and [m].
If there’s no word-initial consonant:
Ernie/Anna
bernie/banna
How to play
If there’s just one consonant, replace it:
Todd/Bonnie
bodd/bonnie
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.10/24
More than one consonant
If there’s more than one consonant, replace them
all:
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.11/24
More than one consonant
If there’s more than one consonant, replace them
all:
Steve/Stella
beve/bella
Brad/Brenda
bad/benda
Dwight/Gwen
bight/ben
Strom/Sprague
bom/bag
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.11/24
More than one consonant
If there’s more than one consonant, replace them
all:
Steve/Stella
beve/bella
Brad/Brenda
bad/benda
Dwight/Gwen
bight/ben
Strom/Sprague
bom/bag
But:
Beula/Buford
b[y]eula/b[y]uford
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.11/24
Names that work fine
one syllable
Bob
Anne
Strom
Ed
two syllables
Joseph
Robert
Jonah
Mıchael
three syllables
Chrıstopher
Madeline
Catherine
Sergio
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.12/24
Stress matters
one syllable
Bób
Ánne
Stróm
Éd
two syllables
Jóseph
Róbert
Jónah
Míchael
three syllables
Chrístopher
Mádeline
Cátherine
Sérgio
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.13/24
Two syllables (final stress): Daniélle
Three syllables (second syllable stress):
Amánda
Three syllables (third syllable stress):
Adriénne
Names that don’t work!
Four syllables+ (any stress): Agamémnon,
Ábernathy
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.14/24
Two syllables (final stress): Daniélle (cf.
Dániel)
Three syllables (second syllable stress):
Amánda (cf. Ágatha)
Three syllables (third syllable stress):
Adriénne (cf. Ádrian)
Names that don’t work!
Four syllables+ (any stress): Agamémnon,
Ábernathy
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.14/24
The generalization
The game can be played with names that are
composed of a “stressed” syllable followed by at
most two (unstressed) syllables.
yes
no
Bób
Daniélle
Jóseph
Amánda
Chrístopher Adriénne
Agamémnon
Ábernathy
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.15/24
The generalization
The game can be played with names that are
composed of a “stressed” syllable followed by at
most two (unstressed) syllables.
yes
no
Bób
Daniélle
Jóseph
Amánda
Chrístopher Adriénne
Agamémnon
Ábernathy
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.15/24
Don’t be offended!
Minnesota
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.16/24
Don’t be offended!
Minnesota
Minne–f*–sota
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.16/24
Don’t be offended!
Minnesota
Minne–f*–sota
Not: *Mi(n)–f*–nesota
Not: *Minneso–f*–ta
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.16/24
Some more
Tennessee
Montana
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.17/24
Some more
Tennessee
Tenne–f*–ssee
Montana
Mon–f*–tana
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.17/24
Some more
Tennessee
Tenne–f*–ssee
Not: *Te(n)–f*–nessee
Montana
Mon–f*–tana
Not: *Monta–f*–na
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.17/24
Multiple options
Timbuktu
Apalachicola
Alamagordo
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.18/24
Multiple options
Timbuktu
Tim–f*–buktu and Timbuk–f*–tu
Apalachicola
Apa–f*–lachicola and Apalachi–f*–cola
Alamagordo
Ala–f*–magordo and Alama–f*–gordo
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.18/24
Some words don’t work at all!
These work
Mınne–sota
Tenne–ssee
Mon–tana
Tım–buk–tu
Apa–lachi–cola
Ala–ma–gordo
but these don’t
Missouri
Florida
Georgia
Connecticut
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.19/24
Stress patterns
These work
Mìnne–sóta
Tènne–ssée
Mòn–tána
Tìm–bùk–tú
Àpa–làchi–cóla
Àla–ma–górdo
but these don’t
Missóuri
Flórida
Geórgia
Connécticut
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.20/24
What’s the pattern?
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.21/24
What’s the pattern?
The expletive must have at least one stressed
syllable on either side.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.21/24
The expletive must have at least one stressed
syllable on either side.
What’s the pattern?
If there’s one or more stressless syllables in
between, at least one of those must be to the
left of the infix.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.21/24
The trochaic foot
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.22/24
The trochaic foot
There is an invisible grouping of syllables that
controls the “Name Game” and Expletive
Infixation.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.22/24
There is an invisible grouping of syllables that
controls the “Name Game” and Expletive
Infixation.
The trochaic foot
This invisible grouping includes a single
stressed syllable and up to two following
stressless syllables.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.22/24
There is an invisible grouping of syllables that
controls the “Name Game” and Expletive
Infixation.
This invisible grouping includes a single
stressed syllable and up to two following
stressless syllables.
The trochaic foot
This is called the trochaic foot.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.22/24
Confirmation
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.23/24
Confirmation
Nicknames tend to be of this form as well,
e.g. Bóbbie, Cáthy, Jóey, etc.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.23/24
Nicknames tend to be of this form as well,
e.g. Bóbbie, Cáthy, Jóey, etc.
Confirmation
Children tend to reduce longer words to just
this pattern as well, e.g. banána
’nána
(Gerken, Carter).
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.23/24
Conclusions
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.24/24
Conclusions
There are hidden structures in language.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.24/24
There are hidden structures in language.
Conclusions
These can only be detected by looking at how
language works in various contexts.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.24/24
There are hidden structures in language.
These can only be detected by looking at how
language works in various contexts.
Conclusions
Here a language game and dirty words
converge on the same hidden structure.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.24/24
There are hidden structures in language.
These can only be detected by looking at how
language works in various contexts.
Here a language game and dirty words
converge on the same hidden structure.
Conclusions
People don’t learn how to play this game or
insert the expletive in school.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.24/24
There are hidden structures in language.
These can only be detected by looking at how
language works in various contexts.
Here a language game and dirty words
converge on the same hidden structure.
People don’t learn how to play this game or
insert the expletive in school.
Conclusions
Poetry and literature may be satisfying to
read, but sometimes the most revealing
language is of a very different sort.
Dirty Words/Hammond – p.24/24