Indigenous Peoples in Central Africa:
the Case of the Pygmies
Quentin Wodon, Mohamed Arbi Ben-Achour, and
Prospere Backiny-Yetna
World Bank
Presentation made on December 20, 2010 at the
World Bank’s workshop on Indigenous Peoples,
Human Development and Poverty, Washington, DC
Introduction




The Pygmies are the Indigenous People of
Central Africa (CAR, DRC, Gabon, others)
They are one of the most vulnerable minority in
one of the poorest regions of the world
Therefore it is especially importance to take into
account their specific needs and how they may
benefit/suffer from development projects.
But data sources to assess the pygmies’ wellbeing are scarce - the population is relatively
small and thus not well represented in surveys
Contribution & Today’s Presentation

Part I: First robust estimates of poverty and
human development indicators for the pygmies
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CAR: 2003 national census
DRC: 2004-05 survey
Gabon: 2003 national census & poverty mapping
Part II: Qualitative/institutional analysis, part of
ESW to inform a pygmy strategy for the DRC
 Also: Review of literature (not presented today)
 Summary paper for the global indigenous study,
plus an edited volume with more detailed studies

1. Quantitative Analysis, 3 countries
How many pygmies are there?
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
Census: 3,000 Gabon (<1%), 10,000 CAR (<1%)
DRC: anywhere from 60,000 to 700,000 (1%)
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Previous estimates: 100,000 to 250,000
2004-05 household survey with weights: 63,097
Dynamique Pygmée: 450,000; NGOs for ESW: 660,000
Province
Equateur
Province Orientale
Bandundu
Oriental
Occidental
Maniema
Katanga
Nord Kivu
Sud Kivu
Total
Number
% of total
Name
Lifestyle
172,197
16,804
56,210
n.d
n.d
4,452
320,930
25,871
63,600
660,064
26%
3%
8%
Twa
Mbuti
Twa
n.d
n.d
Twa
Twa
Twa
Twa
Sedentary or semi-sedentary
Nomads in process of sedentarization
Semi-sedentary
Nomads
Nomads
Semi-sedentary
Sedentary
Sedentary
Sedentary
1%
48%
4%
10%
100%
Where do pygmies live? Case of DRC
Mostly rural, some still living in
forests, but sedentarization
 Some geographic concentration,
but still widespread dispersion
in huge country
 Costly to carry census
of pygmy population, but
required for better knowledge

How poor are the pygmies? CAR
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
Asset-based wealth indicator for now (poverty
mapping using 2003 census and 2007 QUIBB
household survey to be conducted soon)
Two “indigenous” groups: Pygmies and Mbororos

90% of pygmies in poorest quintile of wealth
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Total
Mbororos
46.7
14.0
13.1
11.6
14.6
100
Pygmy
89.7
6.2
2.4
0.9
0.8
100
Non-indigenous
21.0
18.7
20.1
20.1
20.1
100
All
21.4
18.6
20.0
20.0
20.0
100
National
How poor are the pygmies? CAR

Education indicators, pop. 15 year and older (%)
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
Five times less likely to be still in school
Twice as likely to have no education at all
Still in school
None
Incomplete
Primary
Complete
Primary
Secondary
University
Mbororo
Pygmy
Non indigenous
Male Female All Male Female All Male Female All
2.6
1.0
1.8 3.6
1.1
2.3 13.5
7.0
10.2
If not in school, highest achievement
93.8
97.3 95.5 86.3
93.6 90.1 41.3
66.1 53.9
2.7
1.3
2.0
11.3
5.7
8.4
19.8
14.5
17.1
1.3
2.1
0.2
0.5
0.9
0.1
0.9
1.5
0.1
1.5
0.7
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.9
0.5
0.1
12.4
24.3
2.2
6.7
12.2
0.5
9.4
18.2
1.3
How poor are the pygmies? DRC
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Very small sample size in household survey (29 out
of 12,000 households), but estimations indicative
Higher poverty, lower schooling/literacy, working
School
enrollment
rate (6-11
years)
Literacy
rate (15+
years)
Labor
force
part. 15+
years)
Unemployment
rate (15+
years)
NonPygmy
56.1
65.0
73.8
6.2
90.2
71.7
32.4
18.1
Pygmy
18.7
30.5
85.9
1.0
100.0
84.8
39.4
25.1
All
56.0
64.9
73.8
6.2
90.2
71.7
32.3
18.0
Share in
Sq.
informal Poverty Poverty poverty
sector incidence
gap
gap
How poor are the pygmies? Gabon
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
Poverty mapping technique using 2003 census and
2005 QUIBB household survey
Squared poverty gap ratio pygmy/non-pygmy: >3
Per capita
consumption
(Fcfa per year)
Poverty
indicators
Pygmy
Non-Pygmy
All
Share of
population
in poverty
70.1
32.7
32.8
Poverty
Gap
Squared
Poverty
Gap
Average
Median
30.0
10.7
10.7
16.4
4.9
4.9
342896
760399
760067
303282
587879
587589
How poor are the pygmies? Gabon

Education indicators, pop. 15 year and older (%)
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More than four times less likely to be still in school
Almost four times more likely to have no education at all
Still in school
Male
6.7
None
Incomp. Primary
Complete Primary
Secondary
University
66.4
23.4
7.4
1
0.3
Pygmy
Non-Pygmy
Female
All
Male
Female
All
3.4
5
21.9
22.3
22.1
If not in school, highest achievement
67.4
66.9 14.1
21.4
17.7
24.2
23.8
11.3
15.7
13.5
1.4
4.3
13.3
16.3
14.8
0.5
0.7
43.4
34.7
39.1
0
0.1
9.6
3.9
6.8
All
22.1
17.8
13.5
14.8
39
6.8
2. Qualitative/Institutional Analysis, DRC
World Bank ESW –Complex set of issues
Some of the main issues are:
Citizenship and registration
 Access to health services
education, potable water and sanitation
 Access to land, agriculture and livestock
 Environmental protection, forest zoning
 Pygmy leadership capacity
 Improvement of housing, quality of life
 Sensitization of the public authorities
(nationally, regionally and locally)
to Pygmy-related issues

Evolution of localization, lifestyle
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Traditionally nomadic hunter-gatherers
Pocess of semi-sedentarization under way since the 1960s, with
today only about 20 000 still being nomad hunter-gatherers
Socioeconomic and cultural specificity eroding over time
Forests as natural habitats to which they are closely attached, but
threatened by expansion of agricultural activities in forests,
uncontrolled mining and logging, unplanned settlements (e.g. war)
Many abandon traditional lifestyle and seek shelter along main
roads and next to larger villages and towns.
No land ownership and limited use rights and access to farm land and
natural resources (Bantu customary law)
Horizontal societal organization (absence of hierarchy)
Speak own dialect; Have separate customary rules-regulations.
Perceive themselves and are perceived by Bantu as a distinct
cultural and ethnic group
Relations with social environment
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Land acquisition depends on consent of Bantu traditional
“owners” and the payment of tributes
Limited know-how and experience with agriculture
Pygmies compelled to offer their labor to Bantu farmers for
low wage rates or in exchange for basic food
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Limited income opportunities and povert
Malnutrition and marginalization
Historically harmonious trade relationships between Bantus
and Pygmies gradually deteriorating and evolving towards
Bantu domination and Pygmy subservience
Pygmies suffer from discrimination and abuse, then
interiorize negative attitudes

Lack of confidence, Shame, Negation of own culture
Citizenship – De jure and de facto

De jure
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Equal citizens according to Constitution
Equal rights (to justice, education, healthcare,
judiciary, freedom of association and expression)
No special status as Indigenous Peoples, but
protection of minorities in Art. 51 of Constitution
De facto
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Majority does not know their rights, often not
registered citizens, No ID, birth certificate etc.
Low participation in elections up until recently
Number of obstacles for candidacies
Access to judiciary and customary laws
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Very limited access to judiciary, legal system
Own customary law not recognized
Land ownership and administrative land division
(districts, sectors etc) regulated according to Bantu
customary law
Reinforced by recent legislation, e.g Forestry Code
Makes land ownership, community forest
concessions and administrative representation
nearly impossible
However, new form of Pygmy representation
through localité chiefs and emergence of small
number of Pygmy and support organizations
Education and health
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High illiteracy rates: 80% and up to 100% for women
Low schooling rates (20% for primary education)
Alarming health care indicators (high infant and
maternal mortality, high prevalence of infectious
diseases, parasites, AIDS and other STDs)
Obstacles to better schooling/health outcomes
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Lifestyle (nomadic intervals, hygiene)
Discrimination by teachers/fellow students, healthcare officials
Distance to schools, health centers, vaccination campaigns
Child labor, fees and high costs of books/material
Illiterate parents, alcoholism, lack of information, endemic
malnutrition, isolation
Conclusion
With limited resources and opportunities, the Pygmies are facing
increasing marginalization, and social and economic
impoverishment
(e.g., poor health, alcoholism, loss of idenity, social fragmentation,
and limited access to schooling)
Pygmy culture has been internationally recognized as a universal
patrimony, but unless this process can be reversed, it will lead to
the loss of the Pygmies’ identity and cultural memory.
Recommendations
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Capacity building
Access to education (alternative learning/teaching
techniques adapted to semi-nomad lifestyle), healthcare
Improve Pygmy representation in the administration,
relationship between communities (Pygmy and Bantu)
15 year, phased program, based on national consensus,
to be developed by government and funded by donors
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Creation of Interministerial Committee and implementing
agency for recommendations in various sectors of concern
Pygmy Act endorsing their status as an indigenous people,
special needs and rights