LOCAL DYNAMICS
OF POLICY BORROWING
PRACTICE
Formulation of ‘Cross-National Attraction’ in a
Borrowing Process of the Botswana Technical
Education Program(BTEP)
Byoung-gyu Gong (M.A., Seoul National University)
Contents
1.
Introduction
2.
Background
3.
Problem Statement
4.
Research Purpose
5.
Analytical Framework
6.
Research Method
7.
Findings
8.
Implications
9.
Further Discussion
2
Introduction(1)
 Background: In spite of its explanatory power on the issue of global educational
convergence trend, the World Culture Theory(WCT) was recently criticized by a group
of scholars who point out its simplistic and deterministic features, which resulted in
insufficient recognition of more dynamics and diversity inside of the educational
phenomenon.
 Purpose: This research aims to bring this debate into the Botswana educational setting,
in an attempt to test the validity of assumptions suggested by the WCT on the case of
educational development in Botswana and suggest complementary points to the WCT
with more critiques on its omission and simplification.
 By doing so, this research aims to complement the academic endeavor toward gaining
more accurate and comprehensive understanding of global educational geography.
3
Introduction(2)
 Framework: This research will examine the case of Botswana educational policy
transformation process by adopting conceptual framework of cross national attraction
suggested by Phillips and Ochs(2004), and compare the findings with the research
conclusion suggested by the world culture theorists of Meyer et al. in 1993.
Proving Sphere
World Culture Theory
Debate
World Culture Theory
Botswana
Case
Findings
Cross-national Attraction
Critiques
Policy Borrowing/Transfer Studies
Implications
4
Background(1): World Culture Theory

The World Culture Theory(WCT) established its academic identity by exploring educational
convergence phenomenon, which is mainly driven by normative power, not by coercive and
mimetic power.

The world educational development can be patterned with some of key assumptions(Ramires, 2012)

The rise and triumph of mass schooling: educational convergence as established fact

The Embedded Character of Actors: It operates at the macro level, rejecting the reductionist
assumption that explains social phenomenon based on collection of individual actors. Thus, it
emphasizes ‘world culture’ and ‘wider world influence’ to the nation states.

The Nature of the World Environment: It minimizes the impact from hegemonic entities such
as global organizations. Rather it assumes that the world environment as “symbolic universe
which influences on legitimizing and identifying oneself” surrounded by great uncertainty.

Institutional Isomorphism and Loose Coupling: It emphasizes ‘commonality’ rather than
‘difference’.
5
Background(2): Critics of the World Culture Theory
 A group of scholars suggested critiques toward the World Culture Theory in the journal
of Globalisation, Societies and Education titled with “Beyond the world culture debate in
comparative education: critiques, alternative, and a noisy conversation” in 2015.
 The summary of the critiques on the WCT present omissions and neglect of(suggested
by Silova and Brehm, 2015):
A. explaining disconnect between policy and practice(Anderson-Levitt, 2003; SteinerKhamsi, 2004; Silova, 2006)
B. power dynamics caused by political and economic
education(Stromquist, 2015; Griffiths and Arnove, 2015)
dimension
of
C. ideological foundation, methods, evidence(Carney, Rappleye, and Silova, 2012)
D. diverse perspectives and approaches that can better explain the phenomenon –
WCT is lopsided toward normative and deterministic approach(Silova and Brehm,
2015)
6
Background(3): Policy Borrowing/Transfer Studies as an alternative
 What does “dynamics” mean in this research?
 This research uses the term, “dynamics” as a antonym of the terms such as “simplicity” and
“determinism”, which adopted to criticize the World Culture Theory.
 The term “dynamics’ entails more detailed and complicated process of educational transfer and
transformation, which accompanies with various actors, processes and motivations with multiple
dimensions of economy and politics.
 What is the Policy Borrowing/Transfer?
• Micro-approach
• Clear Attention to
‘why(political-economical)’,
‘what(agents)’, and
‘how(process)’
• Focusing on the ‘difference’ and
‘gap’ between global and local
meaning of education.
Policy
Borrowing
/Transfer
Studies
World
Culture
• Macro-approach
• Attention to
‘world culture(invisible entity)’
Finding ‘worldwide pattern’
Theory
• Emphasize ‘commonality’ between various
educational settings rather than ‘difference’.
7
Problem Statement(1)
 “The Expansion of Mass Education in Botswana: Local and World Society
Perspectives” written by a group of world culture theorists Meyer, Nagel and
Snyder(1993) attempts to deduce generalized assumption and conclusion on the issue
of global educational convergence, by establishing general feature of Botswana
education system pervasive to the external stimuli.
 Although, this research is considered to be one of the critical empirical evidence to
sustain the rationale of the World Culture Theory, some of the research conclusions
and assumptions seem to have limited explanatory power to the reality setting of
Botswana as it paid less attention to the real policy actors, process and practice.
 Also, there is a possibility that the educational phenomenon and policy mechanism
had been changed since this research was conducted in 1993, so that this research
may not hold explanatory power to the change in educational mechanism for reform
after 1993.
8
Problem Statement(2)
 Some of the conclusions and explicit assumptions adopted to justify their
generalization toward the Botswana education, suggested below, seem to require
more close scrutiny:
 The assumption on causality between social demand and educational supply
Simplistic
(p. 462 and p. 463).
Assumption
 The assumption on the logics of external stimuli – assuming voluntary passivity
Normative
&
Deterministic
Assumption
(p. 469)
 The assumption that the westernized education system was accepted by the
Botswana people because it is beneficial to them (p. 470)
9
Research Purpose
 According to the problem statement, this research is designed to test validity of the
generalization and assumptions established by the world culture theorists on the
Botswana education setting of different time period:
 Assumption on Causality
 Assumption on The Logics of External Stimuli
 Deterministic and Normative Assumption
 Through the alternative lens of ‘policy borrowing/transfer’ studies, the researcher
expects to deduce findings from the Botswana case and provide feedback of these
findings into complementing and seeking alternatives to the world culture theory.
 By doing so, this research aims to contributing to the academic endeavor toward
gaining more accurate and comprehensive understanding of global educational
geography.
10
Analytical Framework(1)
 Target of Analysis:
 Education reformation process in Botswana from 1993 to 1997.
 Education Sector: TVET
 Education Level: Tertiary education
 Description:
 In 1997, the Botswana Technical Education Program(BTEP) was transferred from
the Scottish Qualification Authority(SQA) to the technical colleges in Botswana.
The BTEP introduction can be understood as one of measures to promote TVET
reformation, which was actively sought after the second National Commission on
Education(NCE) – organized in 1993, mandated educational reform geared toward
TVET and skills development.
 This research examines this policy reformation process, which spans from 1993 to
1997, accompanied by the educational borrowing/transfer. This reformation
process is analyzed with social, political and economical perspectives, and
described in detail.
.
11
Analytical Framework(2)
 “Cross-national Attraction” by Phillips and Ochs(2004)
 Definition: According to Phillips and Ochs(2004), the cross-national attraction is triggered by
stimulus or catalyst and results in policy transfer from one context to the others. This is
considered to be one of the stages among four stages of policy borrowing/transfer:
4.
Internalization
3.
Implementation
1. Crossnational
Attraction
2.
Decision
Impulse
(=cause of borrowing/transfer)
Internal dissatisfaction
Systemic collapse
Negative external evaluation
Economic change/competition
Political and other imperatives
Novel configurations
Knowledge/skills innovation
Political change
Externalizing Potential
(=target of attraction)
Guiding Philosophy or ideology
“Ambitions” Goals
Strategies
Enabling Structures
Process
Techniques
12
Research Method
 Document Analysis
 Ministry of Finance and Development Planning(2006), Mid-term Review of NDP9. Gaborone: Government Printer.
 Ministry of Finance and Development Planning(2000), Mid-term Review of NDP8. Gaborone: Government Printer.
 Ministry of Commerce and Industry(1998), Industrial Development Policy for Botswana. Gaborone: Government Printer.
 Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs(1997), National Policy on Vocational Education and Training. Gaborone.
 Republic of Botswana(1994), The Revised National Policy on Education April 1994. Gaborone: Government Printer.
 Republic of Botswana(1993), Report of the National Commission on Education 1993. Gaborone: Government Printer.
 Republic of Botswana(1993), National Commission on Education Report on External Study Tours. Gaborone: Government Printer.
 Republic of Botswana(1977), Report of the National Commission on Education. Gaborone: Government Printer.
 Semi Structured Interview
13
Findings(1): Impulse
 The structure of ‘cross-national attraction’: Multi logics of policy reform and borrowing/transfer
Politicians
Contract
(TOR)
Consultation
National Commission
for Education
Mandate
Technocrats
Consultation
Impulse for reform
Impulse for borrowing/transfer
Political Impulse
Delegitimation Crisis
Internal Dissatisfaction
Systemic Collapse
Substantive policy reform
International Recognition
Marketability
Global Economic Crisis
14
Findings(2) : Impulse
 Politicians– delegitimation crisis
The second NCE(1993) was organized by the
president who deeply concerned about losing
next election.
The timing of the appointment of the commission,
the latter’s submission of the report and of the
release of White Paper, the Revised National
Policy on Education(1994), all give credence to
the political interpretation of events. I am
advancing here; the commission was appointed in
1992, submitted its report in 1993, and
government released the White Paper in April
1994, eight months before the General
Election(Tabulawa, 2011, p.439)
15
Findings(3) : Impulse
 National Commission for Education

The second NCE(1993) was organized by the presidential resolution and worked on a
contract based with TOR which specified their mandate.

The second NCE decided to organize international policy tour visiting 13 countries, to find
external reference that could provide implication for the new policy reform. Hence, it can be
said that the political impulse to change educational policy was converted into
borrowing/transfer impulse by the expert group of the NCE.
The National Commission, as part of the overall programme of work, decided to undertake
external study tours to some 13 countries. The need for such visits was realised very early in the
work of the Commission. Given the demands of the terms of reference which call for a very
innovative look at the education system, that is comprehensive vocationalisation of the education
system which has hitherto not been implemented in Botswana in any serious manner(The second
National Commission on Education, 1993)
16
Findings(4) : Impulse
 Technocrats

The interviewed technocrats insisted that they worked according to the mandates
suggested in the reports from the NCE, and following national strategy papers, thus it can
be said that more or less they follow the logic of NCE in pursuing educational reform.

However, they also considered other factors which was not illuminated on the reports of
NCE such as 1) global recognition of the educational system and 2) marketability which
enable Botswana to be the exporter of their educational policy. This seems to be the logic of
the technocrats which triggered impulse for policy borrowing/transfer.

Accordingly, there is a gap between the NCE external policy tour and real policy
borrowing/transfer from the Scotland. It was recognized that the technocrats were highly
autonomous group in policy establishment and implementation as they provided consulting
to the politicians with their expertise on education sector. They undertook multi-roles such
as research, administrative work and networking with the foreign experts, thus orchestrating
substantive procedure for the policy reform and borrowing/transfer.
17
Findings(5) : Externalizing Potential
 Insufficient Attention to the Externalizing Potential

Phillips(2006) insists that the thorough review and consideration on the externalizing
potential is critical for the success of the policy borrowing/transfer, in that through this
process the borrowable components, which can fit for the local context, can be identified.
However, in Botswana case, there were not much heed onto the externalizing potential and
contextualizing issues.
Externalizing Potential(=target of attraction)

Most of the attention was paid onto the
technical components of goal setting,
strategy, enabling structures, and process,
while more fundamental philosophy of the
policy and real practice were relatively
marginalized.

Therefore, there are gap between policy
discourse and real practice in the field.
Guiding Philosophy or ideology
“Ambitions” Goals
Focus of
Strategies
Enabling Structures Attention
Process
Techniques(practice)
18
Implications(1)
 The assumption on causality between public demand and modernized educational provision –
insisting that the social demand for the modernized education system is led to adoption of the
modernized education system(p. 462 and p. 463).)

The research findings indicate that there is no absolute ground to assert that public
demand created modernized educational policy provision. Rather, it was close to the
truth that the technocrats and experts group led the process of borrowing modernized
foreign educational policy with their own preference and logics.
 The assumption on the logics of external stimuli – assuming voluntary passivity of the
Botswana government in seeking for substantive solution from the external influence(p. 469)

This assumption needs to be carefully reviewed on account of the research findings, as
it was revealed that the borrowing/transfer process is composed of multi-logics of
various actors. The technocrats were not just a passive recipients but rather an active
seeker and researcher who explored international policy reference through various
channels of network. They also wanted to take more active role of policy exporter, not19
just remaining at importing position.
Implications(2)
 The assumption that the westernized education system was accepted by the Botswana
people because it is beneficial to them – that is, it relies on deterministic position that
westernized education was introduced into Botswana because it brings substantive
improvement on their educational system(p. 470).
 This normative approach by the World Culture Theory also needs to be critically reviewed
based on the research findings. In this study, it was discovered that the process of policy
reform was initiated because of the political concerns and ended up with the policy
borrowing/transfer focused on raising international recognition and marketability. There
was not enough evidence of substantive improvement on their education system as there
were sever gap between the policy discourse and policy practice.
20
Further Discussion
 Changing Trend of Global Educational Sphere
 The nation states have evolved into different stage
 Nation-building stage -> Competition State(Cerny, 1997)
The prevailing marketization trend
Public education -> Privatization
The institutionalization of global educational governance system
PISA, TIMMS, EFA, and SDGs
21
Thank You
22
Reference
Arnove, R. F. (1980). "Comparative Education and World-Systems Analysis." Comparative Education Review 24(1): 48-62.
Benavot, A. (1997). "Institutional approach to the study of education." International encyclopedia of the sociology of education: 340-345.
Benavot, A. and M. Amadio (2004). "A global study of intended instructional time and official school curricula, 1980-2000." Background paper
commissioned by the International Bureau of Education for the UNESCO-EFA Global Monitoring Report (2005): The Quality Imperative.
Geneva: IBE.
Benavot, A. and L. Gad (2004). "Actual Instructional Time in African Primary Schools: Factors that Reduce School Quality in Developing
Countries." Prospects 36(3).
Benavot, A. and D. Kamens (1989). "The Curricular Content of Primary Education in Developing Countries. Policy." Planning and Research
Working Paper 237.
Benavot, A. and N. Köseleci (2015). "Seeking Quality in Education: The Growth of National Learning Assessments.”
Benavot, A. and P. Riddle (1988). "The expansion of primary education, 1870-1940: Trends and Issues." Sociology of education: 191-210.
Benavot, A. and E. Tanner (2008). "The growth of national learning assessments in the world, 1995-2006." Background paper for EFA Global
Monitoring Report.
Boli, J., et al. (1985). "Explaining the Origins and Expansion of Mass Education." Comparative Education Review 29(2): 145-170.
Cerny, P. G. (1990). The changing architecture of politics: Structure, agency and the future of the state, Sage.
Cerny, P. G. (1997). "Paradoxes of the competition state: the dynamics of political globalization." Government and opposition 32(02): 251-274.
Cerny, P. G. (2009). "The competition state today: from raison d’État to raison du Monde." Policy Studies 31(1): 5-21.
Griffiths, T. G. (2009). "Fifty years of socialist education in revolutionary Cuba: A world-systems perspective." Journal of Iberian and Latin
American Research 15(2): 45-64.
Kamens, D. H. and A. Benavot (2007). World models of secondary education, 1960-2000. School Knowledge in Comparative and Historical
Perspective, Springer: 135-154.
Kamens, D. H. and A. Benavot (2011). "National, regional and international learning assessments: trends among developing countries, 1960–
2009." Globalisation, Societies and Education 9(2): 285-300.
Kamens, D. H., et al. (1996). "Worldwide Patterns in Academic Secondary Education Curricula." Comparative Education Review 40(2): 116-138.
23
Reference
Meyer, J. W. (2010). "World Society, Institutional Theories, and the Actor." Annual Review of Sociology 36: 1-20.
Meyer, J. W., et al. (1997). "World Society and the Nation‐State." American journal of Sociology 103(1): 144-181.
Meyer, J. W., et al. (1993). "The Expansion of Mass Education in Botswana: Local and World Society Perspectives." Comparative
Education Review 37(4): 454-475.
Meyer, J. W., et al. (1977). "The World Educational Revolution, 1950-1970." Sociology of education 50(4): 242-258.
Meyer, J. W., et al. (1992). "World Expansion of Mass Education, 1870-1980." Sociology of education 65(2): 128-149.
Najafizadeh, M. and L. A. Mennerick (1988). "Worldwide Educational Expansion from 1950 to 1980: The Failure of the Expansion of
Schooling in Developing Countries." The Journal of Developing Areas 22(3): 333-358.
Ochs, K. and D. Phillips (2002). "Comparative Studies and 'Cross-National Attraction' in Education: A typology for the analysis of
English interest in educational policy and provision in Germany." Educational Studies 28(4): 325-339.
Phillips, D. (1989). "Neither a Borrower nor a Lender Be? The Problems of Cross‐national Attraction in Education." Comparative
Education 25(3): 267-274.
Phillips, D. (1994). "Periodisation in historical approaches to comparative education: Some considerations from the examples of
Germany and England and Wales." British Journal of Educational Studies 42(3): 261-272.
Phillips, D. (2000). "Beyond Travellers' Tales: Some nineteenth-century British commentators on education in Germany." Oxford
review of Education 26(1): 49-62.
Phillips, D. (2002). "Comparative Historical Studies in Education: Problems of Periodisation Reconsidered." British Journal of
Educational Studies 50(3): 363-377.
Phillips, D. (2004). "Toward a theory of policy attraction in education." The global politics of educational borrowing and lending: 54-67.
Phillips, D. (2005). Comparative EDucation: An Approach to Educational Inquiry. The SAGE Handbook for Research in Education:
Engaging Ideas and Enriching Inquiry. SAGE Publications, Inc. Thousand Oaks, CA, SAGE Publications, Inc.
Phillips, D. (2005). Policy Borrowing in Education: Frameworks for Analysis. International Handbook on Globalisation, Education and
Policy Research. J. Zajda, K. Freeman, M. Geo-Jaja et al., Springer Netherlands: 23-34.
Phillips, D. (2006). "Investigating policy attraction in education." Oxford review of Education 32(5): 551-559.
Phillips, D. (2009). Aspects of Educational Transfer. International Handbook of Comparative Education. R. Cowen and A. Kazamias,
Springer Netherlands. 22: 1061-1077.
24
Reference
Phillips, D. (2011). The German Example: English Interest in Educational Provision in Germany Since 1800. New York, London,
Continuum International Publishing Group.
Phillips, D. and K. Ochs (2003). "Processes of Policy Borrowing in Education: some explanatory and analytical devices." Comparative
Education 39(4): 451-461.
Phillips, D. and K. Ochs, Eds. (2004). Educational Policy Borrowing: Historical Perspectives. Oxford Studies in Comparative
Education. Oxford, Symposium Books.
Phillips, D. and K. Ochs (2004). "Researching Policy Borrowing: Some Methodological Challenges in Comparative Education." British
Educational Research Journal 30(6): 773-784.
Ramirez, F. O. (2009). "World society and the socially embedded university." Social Science Review 40(2): 1-30.
Ramirez, F. O. (2012). "The world society perspective: Concepts, assumptions, and strategies." Comparative Education 48(4): 423439.
Ramirez, F. O. and J. Boli (1987). "The Political Construction of Mass Schooling: European Origins and Worldwide
Institutionalization." Sociology of education 60(1): 2-17.
Rappleye, J. (2006). "Theorizing educational transfer: Toward a conceptual map of the context of cross-national attraction." Research
in Comparative and International Education 1(3): 223-240.
Rappleye, J. (2009). Decline of the Tokyo Technocrats in Educational Policy Formation? Exploring the lost of Ministry autonomy and
recent policy trends with reference to 'globalisation' and educational transfer. Shiga, Afrasian Centre for Peace and
Development Studies.
Rappleye, J. (2011). "Catalysing educational development or institutionalising external influence? Donors, civil society and
educational policy formation in Nepal." Globalisation, Societies and Education 9(1): 27-49.
Rappleye, J. (2014). "Revisiting the metaphor of the island: challenging ‘world culture’ from an island misunderstood." Globalisation,
Societies and Education: 1-30.
Rappleye, J., et al. (2011). "Towards ‘thick description’ of educational transfer: understanding a Japanese institution's ‘import’ of
European language policy." Comparative Education 47(4): 411-432.
Resnik, J. (2008). The production of educational knowledge in the global era, Sense Publishers.
Schofer, E. and J. W. Meyer (2005). "The Worldwide Expansion of Higher Education in the Twentieth Century." American
25
Sociological Review 70(6): 898-920.
Reference
Silova, I. and W. C. Brehm (2015). "From myths to models: the (re) production of world culture in comparative education."
Globalisation, Societies and Education 13(1).
Silova, I., et al. (2012). "Contested Meanings of Educational Borrowing." World Yearbook of Education 2012: Policy Borrowing and
Lending in Education: 229-245.
Silova, I. and J. Rappleye (2014). "Beyond the world culture debate in comparative education: critiques, alternatives and a noisy
conversation." Globalisation, Societies and Education: 1-7.
Soysal, Y. N. and D. Strang (1989). "Construction of the First Mass Education Systems in Nineteenth-Century Europe." Sociology of
education 62(4): 277-288.
Steiner‐Khamsi *, G. and I. Stolpe (2004). "Decentralization and recentralization reform in Mongolia: tracing the swing of the
pendulum." Comparative Education 40(1): 29-53.
Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2002). Reterritorializing educational import. Fabricating Europe, Springer: 69-86.
Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2009). "Knowledge-based regulation and the politics of international comparison." Nordisk Pedagogik 29(1): 6171.
Steiner‐Khamsi, G. (2006). "The economics of policy borrowing and lending: a study of late adopters." Oxford review of Education
32(5): 665-678.
Steiner-Khamsi, G. and Hubert O. Quist (2000). "The Politics of Educational Borrowing: Reopening the Case of Achimota in British
Ghana." Comparative Education Review 44(3): 272-299.
성열관 (2010). "교육정책 전이 및 차용 연구의 종합적 분석틀에 대한 이론적 고찰." 비교교육연구 20(2): 1-24.
26