2011
Managing Sustainability?
Proceedings of the 12th Management International Conference
Portorož, Slovenia, 23–26 November 2011
REDUCING INDOOR AIR POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES THROUGH DIFFUSION OF CLEAN COOKSTOVE
TECHNOLOGY
Elizabeth Hendrickson, MA, Hawaii Pacific University, USA
[email protected]
Art Whatley, Ph.D., Hawaii Pacific University, USA
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Indoor air pollution (IAP) produced from incomplete combustion of biomass fuel affects three
billion people worldwide and results in two million premature deaths each year. Clean
cookstove technology has been proposed as the most cost-effective method for reducing IAP
and improving health in the developing world. Based on Rogers’ (2003) diffusion of
innovation theory, a model to effectively diffuse clean cookstove technology was constructed.
To increase the likelihood of widespread adoption of improved cookstoves, this model
addresses cross-cultural preferences in cooking practices and commercialization of
innovation through “bottom of the pyramid” market development.
Keywords: Diffusion of innovations, clean cookstove, indoor air pollution, cross-cultural
competency, bottom of the pyramid
In the past two decades indoor air pollution has emerged as an increasingly prevalent cause of
illness and death among women and children in developing countries. Indoor air pollution
(IAP) results from particulate matter emitted from combustion of biomass in traditional
cooking systems. Inefficient combustion of biomass causes smoky, polluted kitchens and
homes; when inhaled, these emissions cause respiratory problems and contribute to an
unhealthy environment, both in the house and in the wider environment. The problem is so
pervasive that IAP has become the fifth most serious health risk in developing countries and
the 9th most serious risk worldwide (WHO 2009, 12).
Around the world three billion people use traditional cooking stoves that burn biomass as the
source of fuel. Indoor air pollution resulting from traditional cooking stoves results in two
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million premature deaths each year, predominately in the developing world (WHO 2009, 12).
Clean cookstove technology has been promoted as the most cost-effective method to reduce
particulate matter emissions and improve household health conditions. While clean cookstove
diffusion initiatives have been on-going for several decades, successful and lasting
implementation of such initiatives across local cultural traditions has been limited (Bates et al.
2005). In this paper diffusion theory, cross-cultural competency theory, and adaptation theory
have been used to identify critical success factors for a plan to implement clean cookstove
innovation diffusion to reduce indoor air pollution in developing countries. Furthermore,
motivation, community engagement, and affordability will increase the likelihood of
widespread adoption.
Since diffusion of clean cookstoves is a multifaceted process requiring field research and
cultural understanding of local cooking traditions, the process itself has to be centered on the
preferences and needs of those who use the technology, not those who provide the
technology. Everett Rogers (2003) has identified six features of client-centered innovation
development: 1. Recognition of a problem: identify and define the need for clean cookstoves;
2. Research: study community need for innovation and analyze previous cookstove diffusion
efforts; 3. Development: create innovative, culturally adapted clean cookstove technology; 4.
Commercialization: establish means for distribution of innovation; 5. Diffusion and adoption:
individuals make decision to accept or reject clean cookstove innovation; 6. Consequences:
identify positive and negative impacts of diffusion. This timeline can be used to guide the
adoption of clean cookstove technology across the cultural landscape.
Although diffusion of innovation theory has been successful for many years, clean cookstove
diffusion has been slow and ineffective. To overcome the high failure rate of clean cookstove
diffusion, implementation plans should emphasize motivational factors, opportunities for
community engagement, and financial needs of cookstove users.
Motivation
Motivation for adopting clean cookstoves is complex and includes extending opportunities to
improve health conditions, which in turn leads to increased household wealth, and reduced
impact of pollutants on the environment. IAP is particularly harmful early in the life of
children. Ezzati and Kammen (2001) found that children under the age of five are more
susceptible than any other age group to contracting acute respiratory infections from exposure
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to IAP. Moreover, children living in homes that use biomass fuel have 2.3 times higher risk of
becoming infected with respiratory infections (Mehta and Shahpar 2004). Exposure to IAP
also increases risk of chronic respiratory illnesses, such as asthma in children and chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease in women (WHO 2009). Aside from children, women are the
other segment of society affected by IAP. Chronic respiratory infections plague women
throughout their lives, lowering productivity and opportunities for employment outside of the
home and ultimately decreasing family wealth.
The evidence is clear: incomplete combustion of biomass in traditional cooking stoves
releases toxic smoke into the air. Rehfuess et al. (2006) reported that comprehensive studies
conducted in Asia, Africa, and the Americas found that 24-hour mean levels of PM10 in
households using biomass for fuel had a range of 300 to 3,000 µg/m3. As a reference point,
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has set an ambient (indoor) air pollution standard
of less than 150 µg/m3 for PM10 in a 24-hour period (Ezzati & Kammen 2001). Given this
data, biomass combustion can result in concentration of particulate matter that is 20 times
higher than is considered healthy in developed countries.
Increased healthcare costs and lowered household productivity caused by IAP is particularly
burdensome on the poorest families and communities. In addition to the two million
premature deaths each year, IAP-related diseases result in 33 million disability-adjusted life
years (DALYs) across the developing world (WHO 2009, 12). Disability Adjusted Life Years
is a common measurement of healthy life lost due to illness. It is calculated by the difference
between ideal health conditions and the current health status. Measurement of DALYs can be
used to calculate the burden of a specific disease on morbidity and mortality across age
categories. It is well established in the literature that increases in IAP is correlated with high
level of DALYs (Smith and Mehta 2003).
Traditional cooking stoves have deleterious effects on the environment outside the home as
well. Carbon monoxide and particulate matter emissions from traditional cooking stoves are 2
to 5 times higher than in improved, fuel-efficient cookstoves (MacCarty et al. 2008). In
addition, particulate emission from household consumption of biomass has also been linked to
global climate change. When released into the atmosphere, black carbon (BC) congregates
and forms atmospheric brown clouds (ABCs), which are basically a layer of air pollution
comprised of various aerosols, including black carbon. ABCs influence the absorption of
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direct and reflected solar radiation, and exacerbate other negative issues, such as Earth surface
dimming and visible pollution. ABCs and BC particulate matter have been found to influence
changes in the global hydrologic cycle, including retreat of Himalayan glaciers, reduction in
annual rainfall, and weakening of monsoon systems (Ramanathan et al. 2005). These changes
in the global hydrologic cycle will ultimately influence weather patterns, climate, and societal
concerns with particular impact on agricultural production and availability of fresh water. In
another study, USAID (2010) determined that household combustion of biomass in Asia is the
leading source of atmospheric BC in the region, contributing about half of atmospheric BC.
Based on this data, USAID researchers determined that distribution of clean cookstove
innovation is the most cost effective approach to stemming the global warming trend caused
by BC (USAID 2010, 31).
Widespread adoption of clean cookstoves has been limited, but in instances where improved
stoves are used IAP is significantly reduced and mortality rates are lowered. Larson and
Rosen (2002) and Chengappa et al. (2007) have found that prolonged use of improved
cooking stoves results in a 45 to 85 percent reduction in IAP. Correspondingly, this reduction
in IAP would lower the mortality rate from IAP-related diseases by 10 percent for each
member of a household (Larson and Rosen 2002).
Laboratory testing of clean cookstoves show drastic reductions in both fuel consumption and
particulate emissions. Table 1 shows the results of an energy use test of four cooking stoves.
In a water-boiling task, MacCarty et al. (2008) found that improved cookstoves used half the
amount of biomass as traditional stoves for the same cooking task. Additionally, clean
cookstoves heated faster, thus reducing the amount of time needed for household cooking
tasks. In another test of fuel consumption, CO emission, and particulate emission, researchers
at The Aprovecho Research Center found significant reductions in fuel use and emissions
between traditional stoves and clean cookstoves. Results from their research are depicted in
Table 2 (Still 2010). Between the rocket stove and a traditional stove, the improved rocket
stove recorded 70% reduction in CO emissions and 67% reduction in particulate matter (PM)
emissions. The fan-style stove showed a 91% reduction in CO emissions and 88% lower PM
emissions. The gasifier also recorded significant emission reductions with 88% and 87%
reduction in CO emissions and PM emissions, respectively.
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Based on these results the potential for health improvement, reduction in fuel consumption
and particulate emission are large. However, great technology must be accompanied by a
thoughtful diffusion plan, that engages potential adopters and addresses the cultural needs of
different users.
Community Engagement
Communication
Diffusion is more than the transfer of knowledge; communication over time is integral to
diffusion. Through communication, individuals can share information to reach a consensus on
the topic. Successful communication in diffusion opens a communication channel that allows
information to pass between individuals to aid in evaluation and persuasion for adoption of
the innovation. Communication feedback loops will allow researchers to incorporate the
needs and desires of stove users in the design of new stoves. Engaging community members
in the process of diffusion will assist in creating communication channels that allow for freeflow of ideas, needs, and desires. Given the cross-cultural nature of clean cookstove diffusion,
open and inclusive communication is an important element to addressing potential pitfalls in
diffusion of clean cookstove technology (Rogers 2003, 18-19). Open communication and
positive feedback loops create a respectful environment where stove creators and potential
adopters both have the opportunity to achieve their goals of diffusion and adoption
successfully.
Education
Education about the innovation is important in assisting women to make the changes
necessary to switch to clean cookstove innovation. Communication networks and feedback
loops will be helpful in developing opportunities to educate potential adopters about the
cookstove, its benefits, and how to use the new stove. Rogers (2003) divided knowledge
systems into three categories: awareness, how-to, and principles. Each type of knowledge is
important for successful diffusion and adoption. Awareness education raises the issue within a
community of IAP and the potential benefits of clean cookstove technology. How-to
knowledge incorporates local cooking traditions with cooking methods for clean cookstove.
How-to knowledge allows potential users to test the stove and learn how the new stove
functions. Through trial use and observation of the stove, users will be able to practice and
adjust to the new appliance. Finally, principles knowledge teaches the basic function of the
stove and how the system works. Knowledge and education help users to feel more
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comfortable with the stove and understand the necessity of the innovation. Without proper
education the stove will be just another appliance, but with education the stove will be
adopted into the household.
Cultural Understanding and Diffusion Success
Historically, efforts to diffuse clean cookstove technology have failed to adequately address
the cultural needs of local village and community adopters. Promoters of this technology have
often held a pro-innovation bias with little consideration of the expressed needs of the user.
User input and feedback is largely ignored, thus critically important feedback loops are not
created. Overall learning and improvements in the diffusion process cannot occur.
Fortuitously, Rogers (2003) and others (Hart 2007; Troncoso et al. 2007) have pointed
towards a diffusion model in which indigenous knowledge systems are utilized to connect the
innovation to existing societal practices. We argue that cross-cultural understanding is an
imperative if clean cookstove technology is to be effectively diffused. For example, through
careful observation and communications with adopters in Mexico, it was learned that
cookstove innovation must not only burn cleanly but also should have an area for cooking
tortillas - a staple in Mexican diet. In a similar way, after careful consultation with Philippine
villagers, it was learned that two large cooking surfaces are preferred to prepare rice and
entrée simultaneously. By designing local preferences into new clean cookstove design,
developers can enhance the likelihood of successful long-term adoption rates. This approach
values feedback from adopters in the context of cross-cultural understanding as they gain
experiences with the innovation in the context of cultural traditions and societal traits. By
honoring and respecting local knowledge and customs, adoption rates can grow. Failing to do
so will lead to low adoption rates or covert resistance to the innovation.
Affordability
According to the WHO (2002) half of the world’s population lives on less than $2 per day.
Low income levels do not allow the poor to participate in traditional markets related to
cookstoves or clean fuel. Empirical evidence (Arcenas et al. 2010; Bruce, Perez-Padilla, and
Albalak 2000; WHO 2002) confirms that those most affected by indoor air pollution are those
living in extreme poverty in developing countries. Because fossil-based cooking fuel is not
commonly available at low cost, biomass as a fuel source is relied on heavily. When other
health risk factors remain the same, if daily incomes of the poor increase from less than two
dollars a day to more than two dollars per day, the health impact of IAP could be reduced by
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50 percent (WHO 2002, 51). As income levels among the poor rise, households are able to
invest in more efficient cooking stoves or switch to cleaner fuel sources. Recent evidence,
however, reveals income levels are stagnant; thus the overall global use of biomass as a fuel
among the world’s poor is increasing (IEA 2008). This growing reliance on biomass as a fuel
source makes it imperative that inexpensive and efficient clean cookstove technology be made
available and diffused effectively if the health condition of the world’s poor is to be
improved.
Establishing a formal market for clean cookstoves is tricky. Prices of clean cookstoves vary
widely, and even the most inexpensive are often out of reach of the target adopter. Several
financial plans are viable, including government subsidy, microfinance, and philanthropic
distribution. Each of these options has helped to induce purchases, however, given the large
demand for clean cookstoves, each of these options fall short. An innovative approach has
been promoted by Hart (2007). He was the original developer of the “bottom of the pyramid”
(BOP) business models. Figure 1 shows the global economic pyramid, dividing population
based on purchasing parity. The BOP is comprised of four billion people who subsist on
$1,500 or less each year. BOP business models would fuse the needs of four billion resource
poor consumers with the financial resources of global corporations. Honoring the needs of
both groups, a BOP business model will be social and environmentally beneficial for
consumers and profitable for companies.
Re-thinking the Traditional Business Model
To establish a formal market for clean cookstoves among the four billion people at the bottom
of the economic pyramid, providers must make major modifications in the traditional business
model. Figure 2 shows the flow of investment in a traditional business model. This model
shows a unidirectional flow of money, focused on economic growth through maximizing
profits and shareholder return, without consideration of environmental impact or consumer
wellbeing. It largely ignores those at the “bottom of the pyramid” (Hart 2007). Alternatively,
London (2009) proposed a “bottom of the pyramid” business model for those who are
otherwise excluded from the traditional “ability to pay” market system. He theorized that
BOP business model must not only be economically profitable but also be culturally
appropriate and environmentally sustainable in ways that are highly adapted to the needs and
desires of the customer base. Failure to meet one or more of these dimensions increases the
likelihood of a failed venture. Long unanswered is this question: How to design a diffusion
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plan for clean cookstoves that meets the cultural, environmental, and health needs of those at
the bottom of the pyramid? This approach to diffusion requires cultural adaptability,
environmental sustainability, and a commitment to product cost-effectiveness. Figure 3
illustrates a business model for diffusion of clean cookstove technology at the bottom of the
pyramid that meets all three of these dimensions. Because the business community has large
financial resources and significant political influence, they must lead the way to the
development of an affordable and culturally sensitive clean cookstove as urgently as possible
if IAP leaves are to be reduced and the health of the world’s poor is to be improved.
CONCLUSION
Clean cookstove technology is known to be the most cost-effective method for reducing
indoor air pollution in developing countries. Although widespread adoption has been limited,
there are cases where clean cookstove diffusion has resulted in lower levels of IAP, with
corresponding health improvements and reduced healthcare expenditure. Prolonged use of
clean cookstoves reduces IAP between 45 and 85 percent (Larson and Rosen 2002;
Chengappa et al. 2007). Furthermore, Larson and Rosen (2002) calculated that use of clean
cookstoves would lower annual IAP mortality risk by 10 percent for each household member.
By lowering morbidity and mortality the financial burden of disease will result in an average
savings of between five and six hundred dollars for each year of healthy life gained. In Asia
and Africa, the regions most affected by IAP, cost saving would reach 1.3 billion dollars
(Mehta and Shahpar 2004). These improvements, however, will only be achieved with
thoughtful and culturally sensitive planning to guide the clean cookstove innovation diffusion
process. The six steps suggested by Rogers (2003) provide a universal model for accessing,
addressing, and persuading potential cookstove adopters. The likelihood of widespread
adoption will be enhanced if the diffusion plan addressed motivation, community
engagement, and affordability, while incorporating indigenous knowledge, establishing
communication feedback loops, and accessing bottom of the pyramid commercialization
models for clean cookstove technology.
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Figure 1: Global economic pyramid. Four billion people constitute the bottom of the pyramid,
and live on $1,500 or less per year.
Figure 2: Flow of investment in traditional business model.
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Figure 3: “Bottom of the Pyramid” business model for clean cookstove technology.
Table 1: Energy consumption (expressed in kJ/l) and amount of time needed to boil 2.5 liters
of water in four types of cooking stoves. From research conducted by MacCarty et al. 2008.
Traditional
Rocket
Fan
Gasifier
Energy used (kJ/l)
6,553
2,470
2,973
3,721
Time to boil (min)
22
17
7
25
Table 2: Results of cookstove efficiency tests conducted by Aprovecho Research Center (Still
2010).
Traditional
Rocket
Fan
Gasifier
Fuel use (kJ/l)
1253
650
614
734
CO emissions (g/l)
65
20
6
8
Particulate emissions (g/l)
2363
783
293
317
198
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