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Chapter
2
The Push to Nationhood
Canada Is Invaded
Time: 31 May 1866
Place: Niagara Falls, Canada West
Event: Invasion of Canada by Irish American
soldiers known as Fenians.
Night of 31 May
In the dark of night, about 800 Fenian soldiers
cross the Niagara River from the United
States. They are part of a Fenian Brotherhood
determined to strike at Britain by invading
British North America. Their goal is to free
Ireland, their homeland, from British control.
If their invasion is successful, Canada will
become “New Ireland.”
The Fenian soldiers catch Canadian
forces off guard. The town of Fort Erie falls
without a fight. The Fenian flag is raised over
the town. The Fenian commander orders telegraph lines cut and railway tracks torn up.
When they hear of the invasion, Canadian
generals rush troops to the area.
Battle at Ridgeway
The Fenians march on toward Ridgeway. The
countryside is in terror. Canadian fighters
who meet them are inexperienced volunteers.
They are no match for the experienced Fenian
soldiers, fresh from fighting in the American
Civil War. In a battle at Ridgeway, six Canadians are killed and 30 wounded.
Fortunately, British soldiers arrive from
other parts of the colony. The Fenians are
counting on their own reinforcements from
Buffalo, but none arrive. After a few days, the
invasion is turned back.
Predicting
1. What effect do you think the threat of
invasion would have on people living in
British North America in the 1860s? How
would you react if you were living in
Canada at the time?
2. Do you think the colony was prepared to
deal with an invasion? Why or why not?
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Unit 1: Confederation
Factors Leading to
Confederation
The Fenian raids were only one of many issues
facing the British North American colonies in
the 1860s. It was an unsettling time. The idea of
Confederation had been put forward, but there
were still many obstacles to overcome. What
would make the colonies determined to unite?
In the 1860s, five major problems provided the
final push.
1. The Threat of an American
Takeover
From 1861 to 1865, the Americans fought a
bloody civil war. A civil war is a war between
people who live in the same country. In the
American Civil War, the Northern states were
fighting the Southern states. The issue was
whether North and South should remain united
or whether the South would separate.
The American Civil War had nothing to do
with Canada or Britain. But wars have a habit
of affecting many countries. Britain appeared
to support the Southern states. The South was
a great producer of cotton and British textile
factories depended on this supply of cotton.
Britain’s support of the South did not make
Britain popular with the Northern states.
Canada became involved in the tensions in
1864. A group of Southern soldiers raided the
village of St. Albans in Vermont, a Northern
state. They robbed banks, set houses on fire,
and then dashed across the border into Canada
to escape. The Northern states saw this incident as evidence that Canada was hostile to the
Northern cause.
When the North won the Civil War in 1865,
Canadians really began to worry. They wondered whether the North would now turn its
vast armies against them. Would the North
attack Canada as a way of getting
revenge on Britain?
At the same time, a number
of American newspapers and
politicians had been talking about
the takeover of Canada. Many
Americans believed in Manifest
Destiny. That is, they believed it
was natural that the United
States would one day control all
of North America. Before long,
would the whole continent
belong to the United States?
People in the British North
American colonies took the
threat of an American
takeover very seriously.
Thousands of citizens volunteered for military training
and joined a militia force. By
1870, the militia numbered
over 30 000.This photo
shows the volunteer regiment
of Elora, Ontario in 1862.
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Chapter 2: The Push to Nationhood
THE THREAT OF AN AMERICAN TAKEOVER—
PRESSURE POINTS ON BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 1866–67
ALASKA
(formerly
Russian
territory)
Pressure Point
In 1867, the United
States purchases Alaska
from the Russians.
Would the US begin to
look at the empty
plains of the NorthWest Territories next?
NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES
NE
W
FO
UN
DL
Hudson Bay
BRITISH
COLUMBIA
RUPERT'S
Victoria
RED RIVER
SETTLEMENT
Pressure Point
The discovery of gold
in British Columbia
brings thousands of
Americans into that
colony. When the
Americans buy Alaska
in 1867, British
Columbia is hemmed
in to the north and
south by the United
States.
Pressure Point
D
AN
Pacific
Ocean
LAND
CA
NA
DA
CA
NA
DA
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ST
EA
PEI
Québec
W Ottawa Montréal
ES
T
Kingston
Toronto
American settlers, railways,
and trade are steadily
pressing in on the Red
River Settlement.
NOVA SCOTIA
NEW BRUNSWICK
Pressure Point
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Fenian soldiers plan an
invasion of British North
America from the US.
They make raids on
Canada West, Canada
East, and New Brunswick.
The US government is
slow to stop them.
Atlantic Ocean
Pressure Point
N
0
250
500
750 km
Tensions are high between British and
Americans. During the American Civil War,
a ship from the Northern States stops
the British vessel Trent and takes two
Southerners prisoner. The British
government says the Northern States had
no right to stop a British vessel and
demands an apology. The Northern States
are also angry at Britain for supplying
armed ships to the South during the Civil
War. Will the Northern States try to get
back at Britain by attacking British North
America?
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Unit 1: Confederation
Civics &
Society
Black Settlers and
the Underground Railroad
Underground Railroad. This
“railroad” was not a real railroad. It was the name given to
the network of safe houses and
people who helped escaped
slaves from the US come to
Canada.
Black fugitives considered
British North America a safe
haven. Several Black folk songs
refer to Canada as “the Northern
Star” that runaway slaves
should follow. Well-travelled
underground railroad
routes ran through Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and the
New England states.
Runaway slaves crossed
into Canada at Detroit,
Niagara Falls, or Québec.
Others sailed across
Lake Erie to present-day
Ontario.
One of the most
important settlements
was the Elgin Settlement near present-day
Chatham, Ontario.
Descendants of these
settlers still live there
today. People of colour
have a long history in
Slaves travelled mostly at night and hid during the day.The people
British North America.
who helped them used railroad terms as code words.The houses
that hid the runaway slaves were called “stations.” The path they
followed to Canada was called the “route.” “Conductors” were the
people who gave the slaves food, directions, and places to hide.
A woman named Harriet Tubman was one of the best-known
conductors.
lavery had been abolished in
the British empire in 1834.
Anti-slavery laws had been
introduced in Upper
Canada as early as 1793.
Deep in our history of struggle for
But slavery was still in
freedom, Canada was the North Star.
force in the United States
—Martin Luther King, Jr., CBC Massey
until 1865.
Lectures, 1967
Between 1840 and
1860, about 30 000 Black
slaves from the United States
escaped to British North
America by way of the
S
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Chapter 2: The Push to Nationhood
21
Mary Ann Shadd was a freeborn woman of
colour and a teacher. She moved to
Canada West in 1851. In 1852, she published a pamphlet called Notes on Canada
West.This pamphlet advised Blacks to
come to Canada from the US. Mary Ann
Shadd was also the first woman of colour
newspaper publisher in North America.
Her newspaper, the Provincial Freeman,
spoke out against slavery and was published in Windsor and Toronto.
I’m on my way to Canada
That cold and distant land
The dire effects of slavery
I can no longer stand—
Farewell old master,
Don’t come after me.
I’m on my way to Canada
Where coloured men are free.
1. What advice do you think Mary Ann Shadd
might give Blacks about coming to Canada in
her pamphlet?
2. If you were a slave who wanted to escape to
Canada in the mid 1800s, how do you think
you would find out about the Underground
Railroad? What methods could you use to
hide and get across the border? What dangers do you think you would face?
3. Find out more about some other Black settlers who came to Canada during this
period. How did they get to Canada and
where did they settle? How did their lives
change after settling in their new community?
Here are some web sites to help you get
started: www.ciaccess.com/~jdnewby/
heritage/african.htm (African Canadian
Heritage Tour) and www.ugrr.org.
—A version of the song “The Free Slave”
by American George W. Clark
A historic plaque in
Windsor, Ontario, reads:
Here the slave found freedom. Before
the United States Civil War 1861-65,
Windsor was an important terminal of
the Underground Railroad. Escaping
from bondage, thousands of fugitive
slaves from the South—men, women,
and children—landing near this spot
found in Canada friends, freedom, and
protection under the British flag.
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Unit 1: Confederation
2. The Trouble With Trade
The British North American colonies enjoyed a
special position, called a preference, in trading
with Britain. Under the Corn Laws, Britain
allowed wheat and flour from the colonies to
enter Britain with a very low tax. On the other
hand, Americans who sent their wheat and
flour to Britain had to pay a much higher tax.
Suddenly, in 1846, Britain announced that it
was putting an end to the trade preference.
There would be free trade. Britain would
allow goods from any country into its markets
without a tax. Canadians had invested a great
deal of money in trade with Britain. They had
built a canal system and flour mills to grind
American wheat so that it could reach British
TRADE PREFERENCE WITH BRITAIN
CANADA
EAST
GREAT
BRITAIN
CANADA
WEST
FLOUR
WHEAT
USA
BRITAIN ANNOUNCES FREE TRADE, 1846
CANADA
EAST
CANADA
WEST
markets at the preferred rate. Now they found
themselves in financial trouble. Some angry
Montréal merchants felt they would be better
off breaking away from Britain and joining the
United States.
Britain’s new free trade policy caused serious problems for the economy of the British
North American colonies. The colonies would
have to find new trading partners. The most
obvious choice was their rapidly expanding
neighbour to the south, the United States.
Reciprocity with the US
In 1854, the British North American colonies
signed a reciprocity agreement with the United
States. Reciprocity is an agreement to allow
trade in certain goods between countries without tariffs (taxes). The
British North American colonies sent
fish, timber, grain, and cattle to US
markets. American coal and pork were
sent north. Reciprocity did not include
manufactured goods. The treaty was
for a ten-year trial period. After that,
either side could break the bargain.
With the trade preference from Britain,
the British North American colonies
were doing a booming business.
Thousands of bushels of grain were
shipped from Canadian ports to Britain
every year. Canadians could also import
American wheat, grind it into flour, and
ship the flour to England at the preferred rate. But when Britain introduced
free trade in 1846, Americans could ship
their own goods directly to Britain at
lower cost.
GREAT
BRITAIN
FLOUR
WHEAT
USA
Cost of shipping one tonne of
wheat to Liverpool in 1849
From Chicago by way
of Montréal
$13.75
From Chicago by way
of New York
$10.50
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Chapter 2: The Push to Nationhood
Fast Forward
Free Trade
e
cattl
tto
po
rk
nw
oo
flo
l
ur
fis
h
tim
be
r
gr
ain
RECIPROCITY WITH THE
UNITED STATES, 1854
co
Strange as it may seem, there was very little trading among the British North American
colonies themselves. When they did exchange
goods with one another, they always charged
high tariffs. When wheat was sent from Canada
into the United States, it crossed tax-free into
that foreign country. But when wheat was
shipped to New Brunswick or Nova Scotia, it
was taxed!
During the 1860s, the colonies began to
worry that the United States might end the
reciprocity agreement. Americans were saying
they were losing money by allowing British
North American goods into their country taxfree. Americans were growing hostile toward
the colonies. They were upset because of the
British support of the South during the Civil
War. In 1865, the United States announced that
it intended to end the Reciprocity Treaty.
The British North American colonies were
thrown into a panic. The only solution seemed
to be free trade among the colonies themselves. If the colonies were united, it would be
easy and logical for them to trade with one
another.
American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) with the United States and
Mexico. This joined North Americans into
a single trading region from the Yukon to the
Yucatan. Canada, Mexico, and the United States
provided open access to each other’s markets for
most goods. Free trade agreements are part of a
growing trend today toward globalization—the
freer exchange of goods and services across international borders around the world.
coal
Canada had free trade with the United
States from 1854 to 1865. Today we have
free trade once again. On 1 January 1989,
Canada and the US signed a Free Trade
Agreement (FTA) allowing many goods to cross
the border without tariffs. Some people saw the
deal as a key to economic prosperity for Canada.
Others warned of a possible American takeover of
the Canadian economy.
On 1 January 1994, Canada entered the North
A Reciprocity Agreement was signed with the US in 1854.The United States could fish in the waters
off the Atlantic colonies. Both countries would allow the products of farms, mines, and sea to cross
the border tax-free.When the Reciprocity Agreement ended in 1865, the British North American
colonies faced economic turmoil.
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Unit 1: Confederation
3. Fenian Raids
The Fenians were another unsettling influence
in the British North American colonies. In addition to the raid on Canada West at Niagara, the
Fenians had planned to invade British North
America at several other points. After the
Battle at Ridgeway in June 1866, a second
group of Fenians invaded Canada East. They
attacked just north of Lake Champlain, but
were again quickly driven off. The same year,
British warships prevented a Fenian attack in
New Brunswick. For the next several years,
people along the United States border lived
in fear. They were always on the alert for
Fenian raids.
John A. Macdonald turned the raids
into an argument for union of the colonies.
A united country would be better able to
resist such invasions. It was time, he said, that
Canadians thought more seriously about
defence. The government voted more money
for defence and more volunteers were trained
for the army.
The Fenian raids also united the colonies in
their resentment against the United States government. Many people in British North America
felt that American newspapers encouraged the
Fenians. They also believed that the United
States government should have stopped the
Fenians at the border.
Lake Ontario
Ft. Niagara
Ft. George
Lewiston
St. Catharines
Queenston
Niagara River
Grand
Island
Battle Site
Ft. Erie
Buffalo
Ridgeway
Lake Erie
N
FENIAN ATTACK AT RIDGEWAY, 1866
0
10
20 km
Fenian raiders
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Chapter 2: The Push to Nationhood
4. The Need For Rail Links
Many people thought that the only way the
Grand Trunk could be completed to Halifax
would be if the colonies were united. Then
expenses could be shared. The railways would
also provide a communication and trade link
between the colonies. Some even dreamed of
one day extending the railway right across the
continent to British Columbia and the Pacific.
A railway connection with the Atlantic
colonies was essential for the defence of Canada.
Suppose Canada was attacked by the United
States during the winter. Troops from Britain
could be rushed to Halifax. But the St. Lawrence
River would be blocked by ice. There would be
no way British troops could get to Canada from
the Maritimes by rail without crossing through
the United States. A railway link between the
colonies was essential for trade and defence.
It was another reason for Confederation.
If there was going to be trade among the
colonies, there had to be a railway link. In 1850,
there were only 106 km of track in British
North America. In comparison, there were
14 484 km in the United States. Much of the
railway business was going to the American
railways. It was time, Canadians thought, to
build their own railways.
Between 1850 and 1867, 3570 km of track
were added in the colonies. The most ambitious railway project was the Grand Trunk
Railway. It was to be an all-British route linking
Canada West with the Atlantic Ocean at
Halifax. By 1860, the Grand Trunk had
stretched from Sarnia only as far east as
Rivière du Loup. It cost a tremendous amount
of money to build and it was on the verge of
being bankrupt.
NE
W
FO
UN
DL
RAILWAYS IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA, 1865
AMERICAN
MARITIME
GREAT WESTERN
NORTHERN
INTERCOLONIAL
(project)
0
250
500
D
AN
GRAND TRUNK
750 km
CANADA
EAST
PEI
Riviéredu Loup
Saint
John
RED RIVER
SETTLEMENT
Charlottetown
Halifax
NOVA SCOTIA
Montréal
CANADA
WEST
Toronto
St. Paul
Hamilton
Sarnia
UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA
NEW BRUNSWICK
Portland
Windsor
Chicago
Kingston
Boston
Buffalo
London
New York
N
List the railways you would have to travel on to reach Toronto from Saint John, New Brunswick.Why
is this trip not possible by rail in 1865? What other route could you take? What problems do you
see with this route?
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Unit 1: Confederation
The first railway in Upper Canada in 1839 started with horse-drawn carriages. In the 1850s
steam engines were rolling along the railway lines.This painting shows part of the Canada
Southern Railway near Niagara Falls in the 1860s.The railway boom was in full swing.
5. Changing British Attitudes
Britain’s free trade policy in 1846 was a crushing blow to the economy of the colonies. To
raise money for canals and roads, Canadians
decided to place tariffs on all goods coming
into the colonies. British manufacturers were
furious. Tariffs would raise the cost of British
goods in the colonies.
Support for the colonies was weakening in
Britain. A small but vocal group called the
Little Englanders believed that the colonies
were a great burden to Britain. They said it was
time the colonies began to pay their own way.
John Bright expressed these views in the
British Parliament with the following speech:
I think it is natural and reasonable to hope
that there is in the North American
provinces a very strong attachment to
Britain. But if they are to be constantly
applying to us for guarantees for railways,
and for grants for fortresses, and for works
of defence, then I think it would be far better for them and us—cheaper for us—that
they should become independent. They could
maintain their own fortresses, fight their
own cause, and build up their own future
without relying on us. . . . I say the time has
come when it ought to be clearly understood that the taxes of England are no
longer to go across the ocean to pay
expenses of any kind.
Many people in Britain agreed with the Little
Englanders. This was bad news for the colonies.
It came at the very time that the Fenians were
raiding their borders and the Americans were
threatening to expand into the West.
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Chapter 2: The Push to Nationhood
27
Skill Building: Cause and Effect Relationships
All of the problems you have been reading about
can be seen as “causes” of Confederation. A
cause makes something happen. An effect is the
result or consequence. For example, if your team
does not practise, if your star player is hurt, or if
luck is not with you, your team may lose the basketball championship. Several causes may lead to
the final result—the loss.
Suppose a new highrise office building is being
built right next door to your home.What effects
might this event have? What final change or decision might result? Let’s consider the possibilities.
Examine the diagram below.
Historians examine causes and effects to
help them understand how and why major
Cause
A new highrise building is
constructed next door to
your home.
events happened. Confederation was a major
decision in Canadian history. It had many causes,
each with several effects. All of these causes and
effects together pushed the colonies to unite.
Using a cause and effect organizer can help
you to understand the complex reasons for
Confederation. Consider the example on the next
page.The first cause listed is the American Civil
War.The effects of this war on the British
American colonies are outlined in an organizer.
Complete the organizer by filling in the effects of
the other causes listed.When you have finished,
look over all of the causes and effects. Can you see
how all of these events together might lead to the
major decision that brought Canada into being?
Effects
1. Traffic will increase on your street.
2. The noise level will rise in your
neighbourhood.
3. The highrise will block out the sunlight you receive in the afternoons.
4. There will be less privacy in your
backyard.
5. The neighbourhood will not be as safe
for your little brother to play in
because of the increased traffic.
DECISION
Your family decides to
sell the house and move
to a new neighbourhood.
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Unit 1: Confederation
Cause
1. American Civil War, 1861-1865
Effects
1. Britain appears to support the South and this causes resentment
among the Northern states.
2. Northerners stop a British vessel and take two Southerners prisoners. Britain is outraged.
3. Britain sells armed cruisers to the South and the North demands
payment for damages.
4. Southern soldiers stage raids on Northern states and escape to
Canada.The North believes Canada is hostile to its cause.
DECISION
The British North American colonies
fear the North may try to get back at
Britain by attacking them.They begin
to think about uniting to put up a
strong defence.
Other Causes
2. American expansionism
3. Fenian raids
4. Britain’s free trade policy
5. End of Reciprocity with the US
6. Railway building
7. Changing British attitude to colonies
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Chapter 2: The Push to Nationhood
Activities
Understanding Concepts
1. Add the following new terms to your Factfile.
Fenians
civil war
Manifest Destiny
Underground Railroad
Corn Laws
free trade
Reciprocity
tariff
globalization
Little Englanders
cause
effect
2. Explain the reasons for the strained relations between Canadians and
Americans and between the British and Americans in the 1860s.
3. a) Who were the Fenians?
b) What were their goals?
c) How did they try to achieve these goals?
d) How did the Fenians help the cause of union for the British North American
colonies?
4. Explain how the British gave preference to Canadian flour over American flour
in the British markets.When and why did this preference stop?
5. Why was the building of railways so essential for Canada?
6. a) Who were the Little Englanders?
b) What were their main beliefs?
c) Why did they cause Canadians to worry?
Digging Deeper
7. CHECK PREDICTIONS Go back to the predictions you made on page 3 at the
beginning of Chapter 1. How do your predictions compare with the problems
and advantages of a united country that you have read about in these first two
chapters? Did anything surprise you? If so, why?
8. THINK/DISCUSS George-Étienne Cartier said: “When all colonies are united,
the enemy will know that if he attacks any province he will have to deal with
the combined forces of the Empire.”
a) Who was “the enemy?”
b) Who were “the combined forces of the Empire?”
c) Why were British troops stationed in the colonies?
d) Why would it be difficult for an individual colony to defend itself?
9. WRITE Imagine you are a concerned citizen of Canada.You have just read an
article in an American newspaper that stated all of North America will one day
29
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Unit 1: Confederation
belong to the United States.What is your reaction? Write a letter to the
editor of the newspaper expressing your thoughts and feelings.
10. ROLE PLAY In groups of four, have each individual choose one of the following
roles. Imagine you have all met on a street corner and get into a lively discussion over whether or not the British North American colonies should unite.
Consider your arguments beforehand and then role play the scene.
a) a merchant who had a thriving business in Montréal until Britain introduced
free trade
b) an American trader who believes in the idea of Manifest Destiny
c) a New Brunswick farmer whose home was attacked by the Fenians
d) a Canadian trader who is doing a thriving business in the United States with
Reciprocity
Making New Connections
11. INVESTIGATE/FIELD TRIP Find out if there are any historic sites, plaques,
museum displays, or artifacts from the Confederation period in your area.
Work in groups.Visit the sites and report back to the class on what you
discover.
12. CURRENT EVENTS Throughout history Canadians have at various times felt
threatened by our much larger American neighbour to the south. Do you think
Canadians still feel threatened today? Present some specific examples of where
you see a strong American influence over Canadian affairs (consider the arts,
media, the economy, etc.). Look for examples in your everyday life and scan a
newspaper.
13. DISCUSS a) With globalization, we receive many more goods and services in
Canada today than we did at the beginning of this century.The world has
become much more interconnected. How does globalization affect your everyday life? Give some specific examples (consider travel, exchange of goods and
information, etc.).
b) What do you think are some advantages and disadvantages of
globalization?
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Chapter 2: The Push to Nationhood
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