PRESENTATION OF RUSSIA AND THE WEST IN MIKHALKOV'S BARBER OF
SIBERIA AND SOKUROV'S RUSSIAN ARK
A Thesis
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Master of Arts in the
Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
Olha Vitaliivna Rudich, M.A.
*****
The Ohio State University
2005
Master's Examination Committee:
Approved by
Dr. Yana Hashamova, Adviser
Dr. Irene Delic
Dr. Alexander Burry
Adviser
Graduate Program in Slavic and East European
Languages and Literatures
ABSTRACT
For centuries Russia and the West were engaged in relations that varied from
positive to negative depending on economic, social, and political conditions. The process
of Westernization strongly affects Russia at the present time, and the interaction of the
two cultures leads to an altering of Russian cultural values. The aim of this thesis is to
demonstrate that the matter of preserving Russian national identity became urgent at the
beginning of the 21st Century. This thesis analyzes two contemporary films and examines
how Russia and the West are presented. Both films glorify the time of Imperial Russia
and the idea of Russia’s unique culture. While one director depicts the mingling of Russia
and the West in a positive way, another director views Russians as superior to other
nationalities. Both films open a discussion about the influence of the West on Russia’s
national identity by emphasizing the importance of preserving Russian culture and its
values.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank my adviser, Dr. Yana Hashamova, for her support and
encouragement while writing this thesis, and for correcting my stylistic errors.
I am grateful to Dr. Delic and Dr. Burry for providing their comments and
suggestions on how to improve this thesis.
I also wish to thank Richard Lanum, Larry Lanum and Carol Ann Duckson for
editing this thesis.
iii
VITA
May 12, 1977 .......................... Born - Chemihiv, Ukraine
2000 .................................... B. A. in History and ESL, Chemihiv State University
2001 .................................... M.A. in Methodology of Teaching Foreign
Languages and Literature, Chemihiv State University
2003 .................................... Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State
University
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgement ................................................................................. .iii
Vita .................................................................................................... .iv
Introduction .......................................................................................... 1
Chapters:
1.
The Russia - West relations from the reign of Peter the Great till the present time
1.1. The Russia - West relations during the reign of Peter the Great ................ .4
1.1.1. The Western perspective on Peter the Great's reforms in Russia ........ .4
1.1.2. The Russian perspective on the reforms conducted by Peter the Great .. 5
1.2. Relations between Russia and the West in the 19th century ...................... 6
1.3. Russia and the West in the 20th century, pre-Cold War period .................. 9
1.4. The Cold War period ................................................................. 12
1.5. Post 1991 period ..................................................................... .14
2.
Presentation of Russian history and culture in the two films ........................ 16
3.
Presentation of the West in the two films ............................................... 28
Conclusions .......................................................................................... 35
Bibliography ......................................................................................... 37
Filmography .......................................................................................... 38
v
INTRODUCTION
Over the centuries Russia's relationship with the West has undergone many
changes. Russian intellectuals have responded to these changes in two distinctly different
ways. One group, the Slavophiles, formed in the 1830s under the leadership of Aleksei
Khomyakov and Ivan Kireyevsky. The second group, the Westemizers, formed in the
1840s and had very different views about Russia's social, economic, and political
direction. Chaadev, in his Philosophical Letters (1828 - 1830), correctly portrayed
Russia as caught between the East and the West, a portrayal that not only showed the
enormous divide between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers of the 19th Century but
remains as valid today as it was then.
Chaadev denounced the Russian people for "creating nothing great in the world
history and fulfilling no great mission" (Berdyaev 26). Nevertheless, he believed that
Russia had potential for a great future, primarily due to the "burden" of its past. The
Slavophiles strongly objected to Chaadaev's theory about Russia's past but supported the
idea of Russia fulfilling "the great mission" in the future. The Slavophiles believed that
Russia's greatness depended on three principles: religious orthodoxy, autocracy, and
nationalism, with religious orthodoxy taking precedence, since, according to the
Slavophiles, the originality of Russian history lies in its adherence to the Eastern
Orthodox Church. Considering the State and government evil, the Slavophils justified
monarchy as a way of having only one person (a Tsar) commit the sin "of possessing
authority" (Berdyaev 30).
If the Slavophils renounced the West and capitalist civilization, the Westemizers
were inclined to support the idea of Russia following the West in its development.
United in their anticlerical beliefs, in politics the Westemizers split into two groups: the
"narodnik" socialists and the liberals. The "narodnik" socialists and their leader, Hertzen,
believed that Russia would find progressive ways to develop, avoiding "the horrors of
capitalism" (Berdyaev 35). The liberals, on the contrary, were convinced that Russia had
to follow the West and adopt more capitalist, market-oriented policies.
The process of Westernization significantly affects Russia at the present time.
Along with the progressive contributions to the development of Russia, such as
innovations in technology, the West also exports questionable cultural products,
inexpensive and usually low quality TV, soap operas and Hollywood blockbusters.
Consequently, preserving cultural values for future generations and keeping Russia's
national identity becomes a more complicated matter.
Therefore, this paper's objective is to demonstrate that preserving Russia's
national identity became urgent at the beginning of the 21st Century, using two examples
of contemporary Russian films, Nikita Mikhalkov's The Barber of Siberia (1999) and
Aleksandr Sokurov's Russian Ark (2002). Both films attempt to reinvigorate Russian
2
national identity by emphasizing the importance of preserving Russian culture and its
values. To understand the importance of these films we must first review the historical
context in which they were created.
3
CHAPTER 1
THE RUSSIA - WEST RELATIONS DURING THE REIGN OF PETER THE
GREAT TILL THE PRESENT TIME
1.1. THE RUSSIA - WEST RELATIONS DURING THE REIGN OF PETER
THEGREAT
1.1.1. The Western perspective on Peter the Great' s reforms in Russia.
The first serious attempt to bring the Western way of life to Russia was made by
the legendary Peter the Great. In world history Peter is best known for his attempt to
modernize Russia, but because of his severe methods Peter was also viewed as a tyrant.
Hence, there is a dual perspective on Peter's character as a reformer. For example, SaintSimon admired Peter the Great, "this monarch, who wished to raise himself and his
country from barbarism" (quoted in Wolff 203). On the other hand, Voltaire faulted the
Russian tsar for lacking in humanity. "Brutality in his pleasure, ferocity in his manners,
and barbarism in his vengeances mixed with so many virtues" (quoted in Wolff 204). In
Montesquieu's opinion, such measures as the trimming of beards and changing of fashion
4
in clothing were unnecessary for Russia and were imposed by tyrannical methods, "The
violent measures, which he employed, were needless, he would have attained his end as
well by milder methods" (quoted in Wolff204). The success of Peter's reforms was
questioned even before his attempt to impose them on Russia, which lacked adequate
institutions and a population ready for such drastic change. According to Rousseau,
instead of improving the lives of the Russian people, Peter wanted to convert them into
Germans and Frenchmen. Rousseau gave his appraisal of Peter's reforms by writing,
"Russia will never be civilized, because it was civilized too soon. Most of what Peter did
was out of place" (quoted in Neumann 83).
1.1.2. The Russian perspective on the reforms conducted by Peter the Great.
Xenia Gasiorowska studied the image of Peter the Great, which, according to her,
has been created mostly by writers of historical fiction. During the reign of Nicholas I
(1825-55), Peter was glorified for his reforms and attempts to westernize Russia.
Nevertheless, over time the image of Peter the Great "inspires mystical fear, which, while
seldom openly expressed, had always been felt by Peter's contemporaries and fictional
characters" (Gasiorowska 34). Such a dualistic perspective on Peter and his reforms had
already been presented earlier in Pushkin's The Bronze Horseman (1833). On one hand,
Pushkin considered Peter a genius, a great reformer and ruler. We see Peter as a great
creator in the Prologue to the poem and we see that his efforts resulted in the beautiful
city of Petersburg. On the other hand, Pushkin saw Peter's willful nature as tending
toward despotism, which in the poem was protested by Evgenii, when he says, "Uzho
tebe!" A negative, even hostile attitude towards Peter the Great and his attempt to
5
westernize Russia was expressed by Andrey Bely in his novel Petersburg (1914-22). In
Bely's view, during the period of Revolution 1904-1905 Russia became an "intersection"
of two roads, one leading to the West and the other to the East, and he considered both
alternatives a real disaster for the future of Russian development. According to Bely,
Peter the Great tried to bring Western civilization to Russian society, but he brought
nothing more than technical progress with negative consequences, leading to the
destruction of Russian culture and spirituality.
As Gasiorowska pointed out, the perception of the Tsar's image and the appraisal
of his reforms shifted from positive to negative during different periods of Russian
history. For instance, in pre-World War II historical fiction Peter is "neither a demigod
nor a mystical Presence", but after the war, he is portrayed as a progressive reformer
(Gasiorowska 34).
6
1.2. RELATIONS BETWEEN RUSSIA AND THE WEST IN THE 19rn
CENTURY
In the Nineteenth Century both Russia and America 1 showed great support and
understanding for those who struggled against enslavement: of blacks in America and of
serfs in Russia. Russia welcomed the abolition of slavery in America and the victory of
the North. Some books by American writers, such as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's
Songs ofSlavery and Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, were translated into
Russian and became very popular among Russian people. America, in turn, as Y.
Zassoursky points out in his article "Changing Images of the Soviet Union and the United
States," showed less interest in political, social, and economic processes in Russia of this
period. The first American poet who wrote about Russia was Joel Barlow. In 1812 he
went to Russia on a diplomatic mission and showed great compassion and support for the
Russian people in the war against Napoleon, who was viewed by Barlow as a tyrant and
'deserved denunciation' (Zassoursky 12).
Another famous American poet, Walt Whitman, showed a great interest in the
relations between America and Russia. Despite differences in political, social, and
economic conditions in the two countries, he considered the two nationalities very similar
to each other, "they both have their historical and divine mission ... both peoples have
their independent and leading positions to hold, keep and if necessary fight for, against
1
The terms "America" and "the West" are used interchangeably.
7
the rest of the world" (quoted in Zassoursky 13). In addition, Walt Whitman defined the
similarity between the two nationalities by pointing out a territorial unity of America and
Russia and in contrast to Europe where countries were estranged by internal conflicts and
consisted of smaller territories (Zassoursky 13 ).
8
1.3. RUSSIA AND THE WEST IN THE 20rn CENTURY, PRE-COLD WAR
PERIOD
At the beginning of the 201h Century America supported Russia in its struggle
against the Tsarist regime, and that was also reflected in the works of some American
writers and journalists. For example, John Reed in his book Ten Days That Shook the
World and Mark Twain in his essay "The Czar's Soliloquy" (1905) criticized tsarism and
expressed their admiration of the Soviet people and sympathy for the Russian revolution
(Zassoursky 13). Nevertheless, as Yassen N. Zassoursky points out, there were different
views in America on the revolutionary events of 1917 in Russia. Some people, such as
the journalist, John Reed, supported the October Revolution; other authors had an antiSoviet attitude; and some authors portrayed an objective picture of the Revolution but
would not support the Bolsheviks' ideology (Zassoursky 14).
In turn, post revolutionary Russia expressed a two-sided attitude towards
America. On one hand, Lenin emphasized a high level of development of modem
technology in America and the importance of learning the 'American way of working' in
Russia. On the other hand, Soviet Russia denounced capitalism and the division of
society in two conventional stratums of the wealthy and the poor. "America has become
one of the foremost countries in regard to the depth of the abyss which lies between the
handful of arrogant multimillionaires who wallow in filth and luxury, and the millions of
working people who constantly live on the verge of pauperism 0/. I. Lenin, Collected
Works, 1965, pp.62-63, quoted in Zassoursky 15).
9
During the period of Stalin's leadership an anti-American tendency in the Soviet
policy increasingly grew and reached its peak by 1953. In Stalin's view, America was a
major military rival and the only 'superpower' that opposed the Soviet Union and
threatened the Soviet regime. At the same time the Communist movement was growing
and turning into a political threat to the West. Nevertheless, the Soviet leaders were
always aware of America's technological and industrial achievements and realized the
importance of these innovations for increasing the level of production in the Soviet
Union. Therefore, Stalin dispatched his representatives to the United States to learn from
the American experience. One such representative was Anastas Mikoyan, who visited
many businesses while he was in America in 1936 and learned about many American
products, such as the refrigerator, canned food, ice-cream, and other innovations, and first
introduced them to the Soviets (Shiraev and Zubok 12).
During the Great Patriotic War (1941 - 1945) the attitude of the Soviet Union
towards America shifted from hostile to more positive. The Soviet Union and the US
fought together against Nazi Germany. America's contribution of technical equipment,
aircraft, food, and clothes to the Soviet Union asserted the image of the United States as a
powerful and wealthy country.
When Nikita Khrushchev came to power he took a course on 'catching up and
surpassing America.' As Shiraev and Zubok point out, it led to the Soviet people
constantly comparing their own bleak living standards to the much higher American
ones.
IO
In an attempt to explain why they never reached the American standard of living, the
Soviet citizens blamed the inadequate "existing economic and political system" in the
Soviet Union (quoted in Shiraev and Zubok 14).
11
1.4. THE COLD WAR PERIOD
The relationship between Russia and the West grew tense after Wold War II and
resulted in the Cold War between the two superpowers, America and Russia. It was so
tense that President Ronald Reagan portrayed Russia as an "Evil Empire". One
distinctive difference in this conflict, that Neumann points out, was that "the United
States was a superpower because of its overwhelming capabilities in a number of
different fields, and the Soviet Union was a superpower, first and foremost, because of its
nuclear capability" (Nuemann 104).
A hostile attitude in American - Russian relations during the period of the Cold
War was reflected in film production. As Michael Rogin points out in his book Ronald
Reagan, the Movie and Other Episodes in Political Demonology, the purpose of anti-
Soviet films was to depict Communism as a threat to public stability and politically
dangerous. In addition, Communism was also viewed as a threat to the private lives of
many families, causing ideological discrepancies among family members. Therefore, in
opposition to the Soviet image of family, in which "members turned against each other,"
America represented the image of 'the loving family' (Rogin 247).
In the American film Song of Russia (1943) a romance develops between an
American conductor on Russian tour and a young Russian woman, a pianist. When Nazis
invaded Russia she sacrificed her marriage, left her husband, and went back to her village
to fight the Germans. Evidently, the idea of patriotism prevails over passion. In Never
12
Let Me Go (1953) we see a happier denouement. An American war correspondent
managed to bring his wife, a Russian ballerina, back home after the war was over despite
the fact that the Communists never permitted her to leave her country. Comparing the
two films, a shift of certain values may be observed. Unlike the Russian pianist who
chose her country over romance, the Russian ballerina chose to leave her country for the
sake of her love and family (Rogin 248). I think there is a certain purpose in endowing
the Russian women in both films with the professions of a pianist and ballerina. Dealing
with art, they are more likely to be perceptible and sentimental where values are
concerned. Therefore, the matter of making a choice between patriotism and family is
more than a mere impulsive act of an individual. Besides personal feelings, the decision
is motivated by other factors in connection to the country, such as devotion to it,
recognition of its political and social system, and others.
The end of the Cold War put an end to the idea of Soviet Russia being a political
threat. Presently, Russia is often seen as a learner of Western economic and political
models. One important issue that Neumann raises is whether Russia, as "a learner", will
remain a dominant identity in European political discourse (Neumann 107). Evidently
the possibility of Russia losing its position as a superpower is causing a negative reaction
in Russian.
13
1.5. POST 1991 PERIOD
With the end of the Cold War, America expanded its political and economic
influence in the world. The process of globalization spread over the world and Russia
was not an exception. Initially, westernization penetrated the Russian economy, but
eventually it reflected in the rearrangement of social and political life. During and
shortly after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the legal system failed and mass corruption
became the rule. That explains an observed nostalgia for the "old" life. The Communist
system managed to avoid the extremes of poverty and kept the living standards relatively
equal, although this equality was more on paper than in reality. There was a clearly
privileged class, but recently the striking difference between the poor and the rich has
grown rapidly. As a result, Russians blamed the West for the social conflicts, which
turned into political conflicts.
According to Stiglitz's statement in his book Globalization and its Discontents,
there were a lot of institutions of the Western type in Russia, but their performance in
such procedures as privatization, setting free prices, and opening of private enterprises
was not successful, since they were not carried out on the basis of legal principles
(Stiglitz 161).
There is no doubt that westernization has had some positive influence on Russia,
for example introduction of highly developed technology, such as computers, industry
machinery and other innovations. But it also brought about some discontent in the lives
14
of the Russian people. In particular, westernization effected the lives of Russian artists
who, at the present time, are facing problems that include imitating the West, and having
to struggle with poverty and inadequate working conditions. In his article "Artistic
culture" Daniil Dondurei raised the question of Russia being an artistic colony of the
West. While all attempts are being made to develop the economy, artists and creative
people are not being utilized. Under such circumstances the problem of surviving
becomes urgent and creativity gives place to business. As Dondurei points out, artists
have to adjust to the demands of society and direct their skills and talents to create their
products in accordance to the criteria of Western standards.
Thus, the relationship between Russia and the West can be interpreted on two
levels:
1) Russians accept the Western model as an alternative to the economic gap
that emerged during the Soviet time. Now people feel pleased to have an opportunity
to reach the level of American standards of living. It also gives satisfaction to
Russians to know that they are keeping up with the more developed countries.
2) At the same time Russians blame the West for most of Russia's problems,
one of which is turning Russia into "an artistic colony" of the West. Overwhelming
Western production competes with Russian companies and results in the weakness of
the Russian economy and contributes to economic instability. The Russian feeling of
inferiority grows when they realize that they are no longer a super power. It would be
wrong though to blame only the West for westernization taking over Russia. Russians
and their reaction, whether it is positive or negative, are a part of this process as well.
15
CHAPTER2
PRESENTAITION OF RUSSIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE IN THE TWO
FILMS
To resist westernization, the filmmakers Mikhalkov and Sokurov suggest that
Russians should build their future by looking to their past. Mikhalkov's film is based on
two main plot lines: the first, a love story between Jane, an American woman, and
Andrey Tolstoy, a Russian cadet; the events take place in Russia, in the period of 1885,
and are told by Jane in the form of flashbacks. Second, the conflict of principles between
the young solder Andrew McCracken and his sergeant in their "battle" over the greatness
of Mozart, and the events unfold in America in 1905. Although both plot lines develop
simultaneously in the cinematic narrative, representing Russian-American contacts and
exchanges, the main focus, nevertheless, is on Imperial Russia, which Mikhalkov tends to
idealize. The romance story created at the background of an epic cinematic presentation
of Russian history, culture, and traditions.
Sokurov' s Russian Ark is unique in its time-and-space frame representation. It
also recreates Russian cultural space, it is intimate and lyrical compared to the epic
ambitions of The Barber of Siberia. The film was shot in a single relentless take and
shows the Hermitage as an "ark" where the past is preserved for future generations.
16
Every door in the Hermitage leads to a different period of Russian history. Sokurov is
the Voice behind the camera and he accompanies the Marquis de Custine on his journey
through the Hermitage and Russian history and culture. The "real" Marquis de Custine
visited Russia in 1839 under the watch of a government official. His impressions of
Russia were influenced by his own experience of the French Revolution. In Russian Ark,
the Marquis de Custine visits Russia again, although this time he travels in time and
Russian history is presented as one entity of different non-chronological historical
periods. As a matter of fact, people in the Hermitage are always aware of the Marquis de
Custine's presence: he communicates with them and even dances with ladies at the ball of
1913. The narrator, on the contrary, is always invisible to them and never reveals himself
to the viewers. ,The Voice is merely an observer: the viewers can see what he sees, they
can hear what he says, but he does not participate in the events. Nevertheless, it is clear
that the narrator is Russian since the Marquis asks him to show the way when they are
lost before they enter the museum: "You are in your motherland," the Marquis addresses
the Voice. "You should know where to go." The fact that the Voice is familiar with the
political system of the 20th century, "Our Convention lasted eighty years, a real
revolution!" suggests that he is a contemporary Russian.
Moving from one room of the Hermitage to another, the Marquis, representing the
West, and the Voice, representing Russia, engage in a dialogue about Russia's art,
culture, and history. Thus, the main matter of their discussion is Russian identity and
influences of the West on the development of Russian culture.
17
The collection of the Hermitage paintings was started by Catherine the Great, who
in 1764 acquired over 200 paintings in order to create a great museum. Over time the
collection has grown and now includes numerous pieces from European artists. But can
the art, preserved in the Hermitage, be a part of Russian culture since it was founded in
European art, and to what extent would it reflect Russian identity? The theme of imitating
the West is traced throughout Russian Ark. The Marquis de Custine contends, "Russians
can copy the West so well, because they have no ideas of their own". In the book
Inventing Eastern Europe ( 1994), Wolff emphasizes an important fact about de Custine.
The Marquis insisted on distinguishing the Russians from himself and his readers: "I do
not reproach the Russians for being what they are, what I blame in them is, their
pretending to be what we are" (quoted in Wolff 364). The Marquis might seem to be too
judgmental of Russian people for not resisting the influence of the West, but on the other
hand, his criticism brings attention to the essential problem whether Russian people
should withstand such influence. Or instead, Russians should contribute to the
development of Russian culture themselves, and thus maintain their Russian identity.
The two directors Sokurov and Mikhalkov show certain values of Russian culture
and history, contrasting them to Western ones, although they use different approaches.
Mikhalkov portrays Russia through the Russian people (narod), cadets, and Russian
traditions. Sokurov, on the contrary, dwells on legendary figures representative of
different historical periods: Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, Nicholas I, and Nicholas
II. The monarchs are not idealized; on the contrary, their images are brought down to
18
normal humans who create Russian history. For instance, Catherine II is shown in an
informal situation when she teaches children how to bow; she also feels sick and limps
when she walks.
Peter the Great is portrayed as a tyrant who brutally treats his servants and
punishes them when they do something wrong. He has no mercy even to his wife when
she tries to stop him from punishing the servant. The Marquis de Custine uses the term
"tyrant" referring to Peter the Great, emphasizing that the more a tyrant is vicious with
his people the more they honor him. For the Marquis Peter the Great is a man who
"killed his son, built the city on marshes and established primeval manners." The Voice
brings to the discussion about Peter some positive tsarist deeds during his reign,
emphasizing that he was the first tsar who "allowed people to have entertainment."
Despite the fact that the monarchs are portrayed as normal humans with their
flaws, nostalgia for the monarchy and Imperial Russia is still present in the film. It is
evident from the scene when Nicholas II and his family are dining, and Nicholas is
portrayed as a loving and solicitous father, forgiving his daughter for misbehaving.
Glorifying the past of the Tsarist regime, the presentation of the Romanov family
suggests the idea of Russian nationhood. On the other hand, four of the Tsar's daughters
appear in the film as angels, thus it is clear that they are doomed as well as the Tsarist
reign (Gillespie and Smimova 61). According to Pamela Kachurin and Ernest Zitser, the
nostalgic presentation of the monarch's time in Russian Ark is one-sided and inclined to
portray only the positive traits of the Tsar's regime. Such a presentation of Imperial
Russia cannot be considered consistent since the important events from Nicholas II' s
19
reign, such as firing at the demonstrators protesting the war, exploitation of the working
class and others were omitted, and the family of Romano vs is depicted solely as 'saint
victims' (Kachurin and Zitser 17). In polemics between the Marquis and the Voice about
the political systems in Russia, de Custine gives preference to monarchy and states that
he never thought that "a republic was suitable for a country as large as Russia." When the
Voice suggests to the Marquis de Custine to continue their journey in time and go
forward, the Marquis makes the decision to stay in 19th Century Russia, because he sees
nothing positive and promising in its future. "What will we find over there? I am
staying," says the Marquis de Custine. He seems to be disappointed that "everyone can
see the future, but no one remembers the past."
The concept of fatherhood, presented in the image of the Tsar, is also present in
Mikhalkov's film, projecting the main idea of Russia being one big family 2 . As Birgit
Beumers writes, Alexander III is portrayed in The Barber of Siberia like a loving father
who brings his son to the parade, and acts more like a human than a "god-like" monarch
(Beumers 200). For example, Alexander III covers his son's mouth when he wanted to
greet the cadets the second time. At such a formal event as a parade the situation looked
quite funny and caused smiles on the cadets faces. Hence, such a representation of the
Tsar has a dual function: on one hand, he is a caring father of his children, and on the
other hand, he is a father of the Russian nation (Beumers 201). Mikhalkov, like Sokurov,
connects the idea of nationhood to the idea of fatherhood, and the Tsar fulfills the role of
a father of all Russian people. Thus, the representation of Alexander III is one-sided, as
2
As Birgit Beumers points out in her article "Sibirskii tsiriul'nik'', Mikhalkov's obsession with the theme
of fatherhood and family resulted in the involvement of almost his entire family in The Barber of Siberia.
20
was the portrayal of Nicolas II in Russian Ark. The reactionary nature of Alexander III' s
reign is not reflected in the film, such as increasing censorship of the press, dismissing
any liberal proposals in government, and sending thousands of revolutionaries to Siberia.
As discussed above, both Sokurov and Mikhalkov present Imperial Russia with
nostalgia. Russians should cherish the values from their past, reinvent them in the
present, and focus on developing their national culture, keeping national traditions and
thus maintaining Russian identity. A significant part ofthis process, according to the
Marquis de Custine, is the preservation of the values of national culture, such as the
national language, music, and art. In Russian Ark, much of the art that is presented is the
work of famous European artists, yet it is considered the "property" of Russian culture.
Russians are proud to have the mission of preserving European art and consider it their
achievement. To demonstrate this achievement, Sokurov brings attention to the painting
Danae, which in 1985 was attacked by one of the Hermitage's visitors. After he had
slashed the painting and poured acid on it, Russian Conservators labored twelve years
restoring the painting so it could be exhibited in 1997. Therefore, Russians are the ones
who take credit for preserving Western art (Kachurin and Zitser 20).
Throughout the film there are many close-ups of the paintings, emphasizing how
much the Marquis de Custine was fascinated with the works of Raphael, Rubens, Van
Dyck, and others. The Marquis is very interested in the story of how the paintings were
created and their subject matter. Since de Custine is educated in the arts and is
knowledgeable of nearly every painting in the Hermitage, he criticizes younger
generations of Russians for not being familiar with the history of the paintings.
21
The Marquis de Custine was critical of a young Russian male who did not know
anything about the apostles Peter and Paul, yet admired the Saints for their beautiful
hands, thinking, sometimes all people will become like them. De Custine was indignant
that the young man was ignorant of the Scriptures yet spoke about all of mankind.
Evidently, de Custine's perception of art is different from that of the young man.
Whereas the Marquis is focused on the subject matter of the paintings, the Russian man
perceives the entire painting as an aesthetic object.
For Russians, the European paintings are not merely objects of admiration, but
also a means for the people to express themselves. For example, the ballerina Alla
Osipenko would come to the Hermitage to talk to a particular painting, as she said, to
"express herself'. She could reveal her secret to no one, except to the painting. Another
example is a blind woman who easily recognizes art pieces with the touch of her fingers
(Gillespie and Smimova 60).
Although Russians admire European art, they are proud of their own ability to
create magnificent pieces of music. Because de Custine feels that European art is
superior to Russian art, however, he thinks Russians are more likely to "copy the West"
than create original masterpieces. When he hears the beautiful music played by the
Mariinskii Theatre Orchestra, he assumes that Glinka must be German and the orchestra
European.
Also, de Custine does not highly regard Russian literature. He points out that he
was not impressed by Pushkin's works when he read them in translation and did not
22
consider him as a brilliant poet. Besides the fact that literary works can be appreciated
only in their original language, Sokurov shows de Custine clearly bias against Russian
culture.
In Mikhalkov's The Barber ofSiberia, Russian culture and traditions disappear
over time and need to be preserved as a part of Russia's identity. One such tradition is a
fair that occurs during Maslenitsa. Jane, who is ignorant of Russian culture and
traditions, is impressed by the outdoor celebration with its Russian food and national
clothes and rituals. Before Jane's visit to Russia she knew only that there were a lot of
"vodka, beer and bears." While visiting Russia, Jane is fascinated by Russian life. At the
fair she tries Russian traditional food and clothes and enjoys both. She is astonished and
amazed by the tradition of fistfights between Russian men, for whom it is merely an
entertainment. Even bruised, they departs screaming, "Oh, so good!" No less is she
surprised to see how much vodka General Radlov drinks at the fair and how he then eats
the glass he drinks from. Yet, she is mostly puzzled by the incomprehensible "Russian
soul."
In an interview about The Barber ofSiberia, Mikhalkov pointed out that his goal
was to create images of Russian people with a "Russian soul" and show "Russian
extremes" - often are viewed as absurd and nonsensical by other nationalities. For
example, Jane, an American who had an affair with the Russian cadet Andrey Tolstoy,
understood neither Andrey's actions nor his soul. Following his feelings for Jane and his
impulses, Tolstoy had enough courage to challenge General Radlov and compete for
Jane's heart. During the performance at the theater Tolstoy openly attacks the General
23
with a violin bow, being aware that the consequences of his act could be fatal.
Mikhalkov used an interesting device in conveying the atmosphere of growing tension
before the moment of Tolstoy's attack. The camera switched from Tolstoy's figure to a
violin bow, which actually Andrey used as a weapon to attack General Radlov. As
Tolstoy's rage increased, so did the pitch of the violin (shown in close-up). The moment
the violin music stopped, Tolstoy rushed at the General and cut his ear with the bow.
After Andrey's arrest, he made his choice not to involve Jane's name in the matter of the
Grand Duke's attack, thus leaving her out of the investigation. Sacrificing his own
welfare for his beloved, Andrey pleaded guilty to attempting to assassinate the Grand
Duke and was exiled to Siberia. Tolstoy accepts his exile with courage and remains
steadfast. When the fetters were put on his wrists his last words were "thank you." Jane
is astonished by Andrey's sacrifice for her and realizes that she does not know anything
about Russia or its people. On one hand, she is shocked that Tolstoy is ready to die for
her. On the other hand, after watching the young cadet being exiled and punished for a
crime he had never committed, she concludes that "a human life means nothing in this
country."
Even in insignificant conflicts between Andrey and other cadets or his
commanding officers, Tolstoy demonstrates a strong spirit and persistence and he always
takes responsibility for his acts without hesitation. Tolstoy's pride prevents him from
dodging his punishment; instead he ignores the guard's offer to spare him his punishment
and endures it till the end. Undoubtedly, Tolstoy is a strong character: he has enough
courage to challenge a higher-ranking officer and accept exile because of a woman. Still,
24
it would be difficult for him to face all this without his cadet friends. When Tolstoy is
departing for Siberia, they all come to the station to see him off. Unable to see Tolstoy
on the train, they say goodbye to him by singing a song. Many cried, since they are
seeing off not only a cadet who served with them, but also their "brother." Tolstoy felt
the same way about them, and his last words before departing were, "Farewell, brothers!
I love you, cadets!"
The brotherhood of the cadets is not unique to this group, because Captain Mokin
most likely remembers the brotherhood from his days as a cadet. Therefore, he always
protects his cadets, risking his rank and position, even when they violate the rules. The
day Andrey is going into exile, Captain Mokin is at the station saluting Tolstoy, which is
the most he can do for his former cadet. Captain Mo kin's devotion to his cadets and the
cadets' loyalty to each other reflect their Russian soul.
A "Russian soul" is not something that you may acquire in life, but is inherited
and passed down genetically. Many years later Andrey's Russian soul reveals itself in
his son, Andrew McCracken, when there is a conflict between Andrew and Sergeant
O'Leary over Mozart's name. Among Andrew's division he is the only one who opposes
the Sergeant and does not execute his order to repeat the words, "I do not give a shit
about Mozart." Love for Mozart's music is passed down to Andrew from his father, and
in the conflict with O'Leary he stands up for his conviction that Mozart is a great
composer, even though as his punishment he has to wear a gas mask while exercising
during a hot day. Neither does he remove it when he goes to bed. Andrew's
insubordination makes the Sergeant wonder what is so magnificent about Mozart's
25
music. The conflict between the Sergeant and McCracken results in Andrew's triumph.
Having heard Andrew playing Mozart's music, the Sergeant shouted in front of everyone:
"Mozart is a great composer!" The Sergeant finds the clue to Andrew's behavior in his
Russian origin. When Jane tells him that Andrew's father is Russian, his reply is, "That
explains a lot!" Andrew's principled stand reminds the viewer of Tolstoy's refusal to
implicate Jane in the attempt to assassinate the Duke, suggesting that high ethical
standards have passed from father to son.
Another character who reflects a "Russian soul" is Dunyasha, for her desperate
love and devotion to Andrey. Even though her love is not at first returned, she always
loves and supports Andrey, no matter what misfortunes he faces. Dunyasha, a servant in
Tolstoys' house, gives her last rubel to Andrey when his mother ignores his request.
Evidently, Andrey thinks Dunyasha is more than a servant; he loves her as a sister, shares
with her his joy and sorrow, and counts on her to always be there for him. Her love for
Andrey is so strong that she never shows disrespect to Jane, who is her rival. Instead,
Dunyasha always stands by his choice as long as it makes him happy. Dunyasha' s
Russian soul is expressed in her "acceptance of suffering" for Tolstoy (Beumers 199).
Only a woman with genuine feelings would follow a man to Siberia and accept the severe
living conditions to be with her beloved. Dunyasha is the one who follows Tolstoy to
Siberia. Jane could have done it, but she did not.
In Russian Ark, as David Gillespie and Elena Smimova point out, "the film
visualizes the Russian soul in dialogue with itself, discussing its identity and future"
(Gillespie and Smimova 62). In their view, the Russian soul is represented by a
26
combination of European art and Russian music. Therefore, the journey of de Custine
and the Narrator through the Hermitage is an exploration of the Russian soul and its
prospects for the future. According to Gillespie and Smimova, the future of the Russian
soul is rather uncertain, because of the struggle between the influences of the West and
East. Nevertheless, the last words "Farewell, Europe" at the end of the film suggest that
the Russian soul will be searching for its own course, apart from Europe. The last words
as the Voice leaves de Custine and continues his way alone are, "it is for us to sail on
forever and to live forever," implying that the Russian soul is immortal and that its
destiny will be self-determined.
27
CHAPTER3
PRESENTATION OF THE WEST IN THE TWO FILMS
The western characters are opposed to the Russian characters because of the vast
differences in their images, values and cultures.
In The Barber ofSiberia, the West is represented by the inventor McCracken,
who has created a tree-cutting machine, and by Jane, who comes to Russia to get
financial help from the Grand Duke so that McCracken can achieve his goal. McCracken
comes to Russia motivated by his ambition to accomplish a life-long goal, and he sees
Siberia as the most suitable place to introduce his invention. Jane, in turn, comes to
Russia motivated by her practical goal of making money by fulfilling the contract signed
with McCracken.
Mikhalkov emphasizes Jane's foreign origin in her first scene, when he shows her
aboard a train (a Western invention) that penetrates the Russian forest. Jane's brightly
colored dresses and blonde wig also separate her from the Russian crowd. Even though
many Russian women have blonde hair, it is a significant aspect of Jane's image, since
we discover that she is wearing a wig to attract men and conceal her true self. Even her
behavior, compared to other female characters in the film, significantly distinguishes her
28
from Russian women. For example, compared to a female principal and girls who are
brought to the ball from a boarding school, Jane acts more freely and at the same time
more naturally with men. Jane's smile never leaves her and men find her flirting
irresistible. She intends to use her charm and irresistibility to achieve her goal.
Compared to Dunyasha's saintly character, Jane is more pragmatic. She comes to
Russia on a mission, and she is determined to succeed by any means. Jane's tragic life as
a teenager, having been raped by her father and forced to sexually please his clients,
turned her into a cold-hearted person who plays with other people's feelings in pursuit of
her business goals. Nonetheless, Jane is not without sensitivity and genuine feelings; her
character changes under the influence of Russian life and her romance with Tolstoy. She
reveals her true self to Andrey and relieves "the burden of her life" that she has carried
inside for many years. As she says, she knows the truth only with him and thinks that
there are no people like him anymore. She is not, however, strong enough to give up her
business and devote herself entirely to Tolstoy and their love. Spending a night with
Andrey does not stop her from pursuing her business goal and trying to convince General
Radlov that her love affair with Tolstoy is nothing more than a fling with a "na'ive boy".
As a result, Tolstoy distrusts her. He continues to love her even when he is exiled to
Siberia, but still he knows that she is the cause of his misery and the end to their
happiness together.
Birgit Beumers sees the western characters, particularly Jane, as lacking morality
and motivated solely by their business goals:
Jane and McCracken represent a world that is largely deprived of any spiritual ideals, while the
Russian cadets are endowed with a sense of honour and love for the Fatherland The western
29
characters acknowledge only success in business or the achievements of goals, while most of the
Russian characters surrender to a fatalistic vision of their life, accepting suffering and solitude.
(Beumers 199)
This statement fits the characteristics of the inventor McCracken, who never
reveals any of his personal feelings, but only his interest in his machine. Jane, however,
is tom between her business duty and feelings for Tolstoy. I believe that she is a more
sensitive character than McCracken and her feelings for Tolstoy were genuine for the
following reasons: first, her affair with Tolstoy could only interfere with her goal of
marrying General Radlov. Secondly, the fact that she took off her wig, revealing her true
physical appearance, when she confessed her past to Tolstoy makes it believable that she
was sincere. Finally, she is remorseful the rest of her life, knowing that she was the
reason for Tolstoy's exile. Even after so many years of being apart, Andrey's and Jane's
feelings for each other never vanish and their love is embodied in their son Andrew.
After Jane failed to get permission to travel across Russia for many years, she sacrifices
herself to a marriage with McCracken. The story of Jane's and Andrey's love does not
have a happy ending; she leaves without seeing him and revealing her secret to him, and
he does not stop her when he sees her going away. And all that is the expression of their
strong personalities: Jane realizes that there is no place for her in Andrey's life after she
saw the pictures of him and his family.
I disagree with Birgit Beumer's statement that Jane never "understood Tolstoy's
pride and honour." When Tolstoy humiliates himself by confessing his love for Jane, she
points out to McCracken that Andrey sacrificed his honor and future for her. At that
moment she is crying, because she realizes that punishment is inevitable
30
for Tolstoy and she feels helpless, bound by the contract with McCracken. In addition,
Jane has no practical reason to cry after Radlov left other than to express her true
feelings.
Along with his presentation of western characters, such as Jane and McCracken,
Mikhalkov also brings some Western elements into the film. One matter of interest is the
way Russians communicate with Westerners. Jane is surprised to discover that Russian
cadets are fluent in English and speak English even between themselves when foreigners
are not around. For instance, in the scene when the cadets are returning from the ball and
discuss Jane they speak English. Moreover, although General Radlov is not considered
very intelligent he knows French, German, and a little English, while Jane and
McCracken speak only English. Overuse of English in the film could be interpreted
differently. First, speaking English or any other foreign language should not be more
prestigious than speaking one's native language. Thus, an important issue of valuing and
appreciating the native language becomes essential and urgent. Foreigners, like
McCracken, do not even consider learning the language of the country they live in and
run their business as if there is no need for it since most people surrounding them speak
English. Such a statement might seem superficial, since McCracken is the single
example of a foreign businessman in the film and he is preoccupied only with his
machine. Jane does try to learn some Russian words, particularly the ones that refer to
things typical only of the Russian culture, such as "bliny" or the set expression "Bog
31
prostit". On the other hand, overuse of English in the film by Russian native speakers
even a prison guard speaks English) is an unrealistic historical representation of Russia of
that time.
In the presentation of the West, McCracken is a character who introduces Western
technology to Russians. His highly developed mechanism, "The Barber of Siberia,"
created for cutting down trees, is undoubtedly a great achievement for the time, but
produces only fear in the Russian people. When the machine is tested in Siberia, the
Russian people who live and work in the taiga and who use only simple implements,
such as axes, spades, and pitchforks, are at first amazed by the extraordinary look of the
machine. But as soon as huge rotating saws start cutting the trees down, people rush
away from the machine, their faces expressing horror and helplessness before the giant
machine. One could say that they see the machine as destructive and a threat, or that they
are simply scared of "the Barber" as something entirely unknown and new to them.
Arguably, while inventions such as "the Barber" could be beneficial, they could also
threaten Russian nature.
While Mikhalkov depicts the interaction of Western technology and characters
with Russian people and culture, Sokurov presents the West through its influence on
Russian culture, primarily through the paintings of European artists. In addition to
admiring the paintings in the Hermitage, de Custine criticizes Russia for acquiring
elements of Western culture that only damage its originality. De Custine suggests that by
embracing European culture Russia also borrows its mistakes. Undoubtedly, creating
original Russian art is preferable to merely copying Western styles, but the Marquis's
32
statement can still be disputed. Interaction of different cultures is inevitable with
advances in communication and transportation, thus it is common for one culture to adopt
a part of another culture as its own. Although the Western paintings originated outside
Russia, Russians preserved them in the Hermitage as a part of their culture.
The perception of Russia by the two characters Jane and de Custine is completely
different because of the differing nature of their interaction with the Russian culture and
Russian life in general. Unlike de Custine, who travels in time through two centuries of
Russian history and merely observes it, Jane lives in a concrete period of time (in 1885)
in Russia, and her experience with the Russian people and culture drastically change her
life and become an intricate part of it. Also, Jane's and de Custine' s previous
experiences with Russia are quite different. The historical figure Marquis had already
been in Russia once before and wrote about Russia and its culture. Therefore, he has a
keen knowledge about Russian history and art. In his previously mention book, de
Custine is a harsh critic of Russia and writes about the cruelty and mismanagement of
Russian rule (Hortan 2). De Custine appears in casual clothes and with uncombed hair as
a protest against the aristocratic system. Sokurov's choice of the Marquis's character is
not accidental, he wants to dispute de Custine's claims and support his own statement
that "Russia has love for Europe, but this attachment is not shared by Europe" (quoted in
Hortan 3).
For Jane it is her first visit to Russia. Evidently, she discovers for herself a
country and people of a unique culture, due to its traditions and such a phenomenon as
the Russian soul. Jane is amazed by the "extraordinary country", where people "go to
33
wars singing and to weddings with tears" and despite all her efforts to understand it, she
never does. Maybe foreigners are not supposed to understand the nature of Russian
culture, but simply accept it.
Both de Custine and Jane are affected by their experiences with Russian culture.
Although comparing to Jane, who is exposed to a heartbreaking personal drama, de
Custine's personality is only slightly altered. Evidently, the Marquis is affected by the
discussion with the Voice and consequently refuses to travel in the tragic twentieth
century, the time of Revolution (1917), the time of the Soviet power, which is
characterized as an 80-year-long Convention, and the time of wars (Gillespie and
Smirnova 61 ). Jane changes drastically from a strong, practical businesswoman to a
woman whose heart is broken and overwhelmed by emotions. The love affair with
Tolstoy causes her to realize the importance of high morals, which stir her soul and make
her reevaluate her own principles. She learned one truth about Russia: that your word is
worth more than "any official paper with a wax seal," even if it might have fatal
consequences.
34
CONCLUSIONS
Both films glorify Imperial Russia by emphasizing nationhood, which is
presented by the idea of fatherhood. The Tsars, Nikolas II and Alexander III, fulfill the
father's role and the Russian people are viewed as one family.
The presentation of Russia and the West in these two films reflects the ideas
debated by the Slavophiles and Westernizers discussed at the beginning of this paper.
The Slavophiles' idea of Russia's unique culture prevails in both films; nevertheless, both
Sokurov and Mikhalkov show the influence of Western elements on Russian life and
culture. In Russian Ark, the West both influences Russian art and contributes the
paintings preserved in the Hermitage. In The Barber ofSiberia, Mikhalkov glorifies
Russian traditions and portrays the Russian people as having high values, but he also
shows that they still interact with the West, although the West often negatively influences
Russian culture.
The two films differ in their nature and structure. Russian Ark can be
characterized as a "national" film, based on a complex discussion of Russia's identity.
The Barber of Siberia, referred to as "nationalistic" by Birgit Beumers, is a "celebration
of the physical expanse of Russia and the generosity of the Russian soul" (Gillespie and
Smimova 62).
35
Sokurov sees the mingling of Russian and Western cultures in a positive light, while
Mikhalkov elevates nationalistic ideas so that Russia appears superior to the West.
Adopting the Western way of life affects the social, economic, and political
systems of Russia and inevitably alters national values as a result of the interaction of the
two cultures. Film production is one way of "inculcation a coherent sense of national
identity" (Beumers 197). Both Sokurov's and Mikhalkov's films open a discussion about
the West's influence on Russian culture and raise the question of the current dilemmas of
Russian national identity.
36
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beumers, Birgit. "Sibirskii tsiriul'nik (The Barber of Siberia)." European Cinema: an
introduction. Ed. Jill Forbes and Sarah Street. New York: PALGRAVE, 2000.
Consuming Russia. Ed. Adele Marie Barker. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999.
Dondurei, Daniil. "Artistic Culture." Russian Culture at the Crossroads: Paradoxes of
Postcommunist Consciousness. Ed. Dmitri N. Shalin. Boulder, Colo.: WestviewPress,
1996.
Gasiorowska, Xenia. The image of Peter the Great in Russian Fiction. Madison: The
University of Wisconsin Press, 1979.
Gillespie, David and Smimova, Elena. "Alexander Sokurov and the Russian soul."
Studies in European Cinema 1.1 (2004): 57-65.
Horton, Andrew James. "Elegy to history. Aleksandr Sokurov's Russkii kovcheg."
< http://www.filmlinc.com/fcm/online/filmtitleindex.pdf> [Cited on April 15, 2005]
Kachurin, Pamela and Zitser, Ernest. "After The Deluge: Russian Ark and the (Ab)uses
of History." NewsNet 3.4 (August 2003): 17-20.
Neumann, Iver B. Uses of the Other: "The East" in European identity formation. Ed.
Iver B. Neumann. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999.
Rogin, Michael Paul. "Ronald Reagan," the movie: and other episodes in political
demonology. Ed. Michael Rogin. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
Shiraev, Eric and Zubok, Vladislav. Anti-Americanism in Russia From Stalin to Putin.
New York: PALGRAVE, 2000.
Wollf, Larry. Inventing Eastern Europe: the map of civilization on the mind of the
enlightenment. Ed. Larry Wolff. Standford, Calif.: Standford University Press, 1994.
Zassoursky, Yassen. Beyond the Cold War: Soviet and American media images. Ed.
Everette E. Dennis, George Gerbner, Yassen N. Zassoursky. Newbury Park: Sage, 1991.
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FILMOGRAPHY
Never Let Me Go (UK, Delmer Daves, 1953)
Russian Ark (Germany, Russia, Alexander Sokurov, 2002)
Song ofRussia (USA, Gregory Ratoff, 1943)
The Barber ofSiberia (Russia, France, Italy, Check Republic, Nikita Mikhalkov, 1999)
38