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DOI 10.1007/s12109-015-9425-4
Digital Textbook Program in Malaysia: Lessons
from South Korea
M. A. Hamedi1 • S. M. Ezaleila1
Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract The popularity of e-book led to the need to re-evaluate of education
system that is traditionally based on the printed textbooks. While the use of printed
books have a lot of constraints in terms of cost and efficacy in learning, many
studies highlight the advantages of digital textbooks. As a learning medium of the
21st century, digital textbooks are said to be able to solve various problems of
teaching and learning. Malaysia does not want to miss in exploring the possibility of
making digital textbooks as a medium of teaching and learning for the future. As a
result, a digital textbook program is launched in 2014, although many stakeholders
in education such as teachers, students, parents, publishers and officers are not ready
while the infrastructure is generally incomplete.
Keywords E-textbook Digital textbook Teaching and learning Learning system
Introduction
The education system is facing a major challenge in adapting to the technological
developments of the 21st century. This is the era in which technology affects all
activities of our lives, especially the younger generation who were born postInternet. In the United States, educational leadership from government and private
institutions have raised their concern about the irrelevance of education today.
According to them, the education today is increasingly building a gap between what
is being experienced by students with what is learned by them in school. They assert
& M. A. Hamedi
[email protected]
1
Department of Media Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya,
50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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that the system of teaching and educational contexts in America today is the same as
what was a century ago. The system is not able to provide students with the current
needs of the world that is increasingly centered on technology. As such, they
demanded a transformation of school system with a paradigm shift so that students
can be better prepared to enter the global labour market characterized by driving
technological change, rapid acquisition of knowledge and the increasingly fierce
global competition.
In South Korea, a country that is far ahead in the application of technology in the
education system, reforms have been carried out with the use of latest technology as
a spur. Digital textbook program was implemented in the country since 2007. By
2015, digital textbooks will completely replace printed textbooks in schools.
Digital textbooks fundamentally changed the basic instructional practice; enable
students to learn content that is tailored to their abilities and interests. Besides
maintaining the characteristics offered by the printed textbook, digital also provides
a variety of interactive functions while also providing reference books, workbooks,
dictionaries, and a variety of multimedia content such as video clips, animations and
virtual reality [8]. Furthermore, students can enjoy the digital textbooks at school or
at home, anywhere, anytime; without limitations of time or space. In other words,
digital textbooks are always alive and moving; developing and producing
knowledge, not only to the individual students, but also to others, in addition to
support and assist the teaching activities. Students can produce their own
‘‘textbook’’ while using digital textbooks by making notes, comments, marking,
tagging and improvements from the original contents.
Traditionally, education systems rely on printed materials. Because publishing
process takes time and money, printed textbooks are targeted for use in a certain
time period, for example five to 10 years. However, changes and latest development
often makes the content in textbooks become stale and irrelevant once the book is
published. As such, printed textbooks is not an effective tool to be used in
educational system, especially in the context of rapid changing in science and
technology.
Furthermore, there are no books that are physically able to bear all the necessary
information in any subjects. Digital textbooks introduced to overcome all these
constraints. With a compact storage capacity, a digital textbook can save
information from thousands of printed books. Digital textbooks can be equipped
with multimedia files, and it effectively improves the production and dissemination
of information. The text can be equipped with a variety of other media such as
video, audio, animation, games, apps, and others. With the increasing sophistication
of technology, interactive features become increasingly important component in
digital technology and this feature brings great benefits in ensuring the effectiveness
of the learning system [20].
This paper discusses the concept of digital textbooks and its characteristics. In
addition, the strengths and weaknesses of the use of digital textbooks resulting from
various studies will be presented. As a case study, the status of digital textbooks in
South Korea will be presented. Finally this paper will discuss the current state of the
implementation of digital textbook program in Malaysia.
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Introduction to Digital Textbook
Digital textbooks are digital books or electronic books used as texts in the
classroom. Digital textbooks are also known as electronic text books or electronic
text (e-textbook or e-text). This textbook is the main component in technologybased education reform that is now increasingly dominating the world of education
in developed countries. This electronic book acts as a text to be used in teaching
face-to-face in classrooms, and as a tool for online teaching.
Advantages of digital textbooks are often contemplated by the researchers in
educational technology. Digital textbooks can reduce costs, simplify the monitoring
tasks of student progress, and cheap and easily updated when necessary. Open
electronic textbook provides an opportunity to create free textbooks, which can be
modified, and allows teachers to create their own electronic texts for classroom use.
For this reason and also for technological and economic reasons, digital textbooks
are increasingly in preference to the more traditional textbook.
Many countries are still taking a wait and see attitude before engaging any policy
towards digital textbook in schools. Although there is no denying that digital
textbook is the path to the future of modern education technology, many countries
are still cautious, including Malaysia to determine policies towards it. However
there are countries that drastically formulate policies to explore this technology of
digital textbooks. South Korea is the leading country who wishes to use digital
textbooks completely by 2015. It aims to become explorer of digital textbook and
eventually become a leader in providing future technology and digital textbooks.
The others are the United States, driven by the commitment of the President Barrack
Obama who wants the younger generation to use digital textbooks by 2017.
The educational system of the 21st century must provide lifelong learners who
are able to process large amounts of knowledge every day. In the traditional
education system, students receive knowledge transmitted by the teacher. Thus, the
good students are those who have good listening skills, summarizing content, take
notes, and passed in the test. In contrast, in the 21st century, students need to lead
them self, react actively to solve the problem, and acts as a generator of knowledge
that should be adjusted to their own learning goals.
Current research in education is tending to give more attention to the question of
how students generate and share knowledge in an educational environment. This
self-control students (self-regulated) feature is the key to the definition of Net
generation, one more term than Y Generation who lately appear in information
technology. According to Shaffer and Kaput [55], computing media is now produces
a form of cognitive activity and a new cognitive culture. Experts argue that personal
computers, personal digital assistants, games and the Internet may replace formal
school education as a key to develop thinking skills [17, 48, 54]. Video games and
word processors may change the focus of the literary and language from reading and
writing of print based to participation in multimodal literacy spaces [17, 26, 43]. As
a result, a simple understanding of whom and how we teach are becoming
increasingly complex and complicated.
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Furthermore new media computing requires students who have a habit of mind
which is also new, and the ability to master new skills such as programming and
algorithmic thinking [14, 47]. As such digital textbooks play a key role as a cultural
tool in the world which support of new thinking and a new cognitive culture [13].
Furthermore, in digital textbooks students control their own support by facilitating
the characteristics provided by multimedia and hypertext, such as elements of a
flexible, interactive, manipulative, constructive, active, and searchable to construct a
self- regulation learning environments. Self-control students can be characterized as
effective problem solvers and inventor’s information and manager who carry out its
activities effectively, as to identify, locate and utilize information, synthesize, and
evaluate information in an authentic learning environment.
Traditionally, the goal of education is to impart and acquire knowledge through a
curriculum framework that is stable and does not change quickly. Knowledge
acquired in school should be relevant to the work environment when they graduate.
However, this simple process of knowledge acquisition is no longer relevant in the
21st century. Students are required to build knowledge to solve problems in a world
that is increasingly based on information technology in the new century. Since the
environment in which students must function is changing, so is the goal in their
education. The question now becomes: Is the goal in education today is appropriate
to students who are confronted with unpredictable situations?
School should be able to help students hone their ability to produce, to
synthesize, and to integrate knowledge [24]. Because the goal of education has
changed, the method of education should also be revised. Before this, the goals can
be achieved by memorize, drill and practice. However, practice alone cannot
stimulate students, and no longer appropriate. Similarly to the enforcement and
punishment system that is now obsolete. With the fast-paced and constantly
changing basic education today, understanding and application of knowledge is the
key. What is needed is a method of teaching that can shape students to develop their
understanding and skills to improve their ability to apply that knowledge. This can
be achieved through participation in discussion groups, and through contextual
learning based on experience, problem-based and project-based. This is the new
approach which translates the belief of experts that digital textbooks can be a
powerful tool that can connect students with current world demands through the
Internet and multimedia.
Basic Theory of Using Digital Textbook
Most theories in learning technology are still centered on how and under what
circumstances learning can be maximized. Of course it is vital that educational
theory that can support the use of digital textbooks be identified. It is still too broad
though theories that could be geared to the specific characteristics of digital
textbooks as hypermedia, multimedia, interactive reliability, and learning selfcontrol is already in abundance.
One benefit of digital textbooks is its non-linear characteristic called ‘‘hypertext.’’ A hypertext environment provides different ways to use the content. The non-
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linear characteristic of digital textbooks enables different individuals to interact by
using the same information through different processes. Users are free to use the
structure and sequence of reading. Even the hypertext changes the conventional
process in organizing and understanding knowledge [9, 42, 51].
Compared to traditional printed textbooks, digital textbooks allow more
flexibility in the delivery of teaching by allowing users to select hypertext links.
It offers students flexibility with their environments to explore and encourage them
to navigate. In this way, students can build their own knowledge structure with
cross-referenced on the topics that will strengthen their knowledge base. Students
still follow the set route through subject content generated by designers, but they
can also build their own path according to their respective abilities and interests
[28].
There are several studies that show the advantages of learning through
hypermedia compared to the information presented in linear [12, 16]. However it
was recognized that the non-linear presentation prowess in these studies are due to
their familiarity with hypermedia system. Jonassen [22, 23] may rightly argue that
hypermedia should facilitate learning due to its suitability to the structure of human
memory. In other words, it is connected to human nature in encoding and obtaining
information. When a student is given the freedom to move freely through
hypermedia presentation, he or she will build a pattern of personal navigation that
reflect his or her cognitive. The flexibility offered by hypermedia, Jonassen argued,
should improve learning. Differences in individual cognitive style should lead to
distinctive patterns of navigation and this will produce varies learning outcomes
[49].
Different theoretical perspectives give us several benefits of learning through
hypermedia. Some of the benefits gained from teaching from the perspective of
different theories. This perspective focuses mainly on the fact that the hypermedia
environment enables active learning, constructive, flexible, adaptive, and selfcontrol [1, 53]. Lawless and Brown [29] assume that when hypermedia is used as a
learning tool, the freedom to specify access information allows students to actively
control the learning process than directed by the teacher or by the textbook structure
(cf. [13]).
In addition, digital textbooks also involve learning through multimedia. Digital
textbooks are designed to facilitate the production of various multimedia such as
interactive games, videos, audio, animation, apps, 3D, and other functions. Study on
multimedia learning shows that multimedia can stimulate cognitive changes [31]
and facilitate the processing of information in learning [34, 52]. According to
Mayer’s [32] theory of multimedia learning, the ability of students to form mental
representations of external information will be enhanced if information presented
through various sensory channels and this assumption are consistent with Paivio
theory of dual coding. According to Paivio [46], two different modes are used in
multimedia to describe the contents of knowledge: verbal and non-verbal.
Therefore, in principle mode of instructional design [30, 32, 33, 38–40], the most
effective learning environment that combines knowledge representation is nonverbal oral presentations using mixed mode. However, there are also limitations to
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the effectiveness of multimedia, and thus emphasizes the importance of design and
format combination with the mode [45]; also see [34].
Digital textbooks are also seen in terms of interactive learning. Digital textbooks
ability to provide interactive features and feedback provide many possibilities in
learning. It is believed that the provision of interactive functions and manipulative
in multimedia will enhance students’ problem-solving skills by way of (a) encourage
the promotion of their self efficacy and (b) reduce the cognitive load involved in the
problem solving process [60, 61]. Carefully designed interactive multimedia
components will provide visibility in learning. The user can ‘‘see’’ the action
directed to them at any point options, and they can receive direct feedback about the
newly created action. They also can obtain instant information about the effects of
their actions [19, 44].
Researchers of education stressed the importance to incorporate interactive
features with feedback in learning. Despite its ability to interact with teaching
materials (behaviour), learning will not occur if the opportunity to obtain feedback
and to think (cognitive) is denied. Thus, the principle of interactivity should be
considered in incorporating the principles of counselling and thinking. For example,
new students are often frustrated and eventually take the path of trial-and-error
which is less effective when asked to find any scientific principle without guidance
[41].
There are five common types of interactive multimedia environment, namely
dialogue, controlling, manipulating, searching, and navigating. With dialogue,
students can ask questions and get answers, or can provide answers and receive
feedback. When in learning, students can get help from agents on the screen or just
click on a particular word in hypertext to obtain additional information. Interactivity
allows students to determine the pace or the order in their own learning process. For
example, they can control the speed of animation by using the command of pause or
play, or continue or forward. In addition, students can also control the structure by
using instruction such as forward and back, rewind, and so on. Interactive features
allow students to control the presentation such a set of parameters before playing a
simulation, zooming in or zooming out, or move objects around the screen.
Interactivity also allows students to assess their learning content when clicking the
menu.
Digital textbooks can also provide online assessment tool as well as learning
material support. With the assessment components provided, teachers can use
assessment data to measure whether the learning objectives were achieved or
otherwise. Formative assessment refers to activities used to help students learn [11].
Learning environment with formative assessment will be beneficial to students. A
lot of studies have concluded that integrating e-learning environment with webbased assessment brings positive effects [18]. Zakrzewski and Bull [59] stated that
the online tests format is beneficial to students because they can make an assessment
at any time and repeatedly. Feedback can be readily obtained and thus susceptibility
improved. Besides student’s concerns may also be reduced by taking formative
assessment before they take summative test.
Bransford et al. [6] also suggested that the learning environment include
centralized assessment. Formative assessment, according to them, should be able to
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attract the attention of students and stimulate their commitment to self-assess, to
improve the effectiveness of learning. Buchanan [7] also suggested that the Webbased formative assessment strategies can enhance student interest in learning and
helps in getting better results.
Learning using digital textbooks requires students to control of their own. They
must make decisions on what to learn, time allocation, how to access learning
materials, and determine whether they understand or not of such material [2, 3].
Learning self-control or Self-Regulated Learning is defined as learning that involves
an understanding of a topic or domain using the strategies and goals; control and
monitor cognitive aspects, certain attitudes and motivation; and adjust the attitude to
achieve the desired goals [50]. Studies found that students need to take control of
their learning with hypermedia, including monitoring how much time is allocated to
the various representations of information and when and how to adjust the strategy
used in hypermedia environments [2, 56, 58].
Digital Textbooks in South Korea
In 2008 the South Korean government announced the government’s intention to
replace printed textbooks with electronic tablet at all public schools by 2015. This
move will enable students to download digital textbooks in a variety of platforms,
including computers, smart phones and tablets. This digital shift is part of a project
to develop ‘‘smart schools’’ across the country, namely by combining features such
as video, animation, virtual reality, and hyperlinks into the education curriculum.
Korean digital textbook program aims to develop future students-centered learning
environment in school, at home and everywhere in society. The program also wants
to establish overseas market for telecommunications equipment and mobile display
industry, expand the electronic book market, and diversify domestic digital content
now limited to games and movies. Eventually, the program wants to connect the
digital and learning gaps that hit low-income families. It also wants to encourage
changes in the industry and promote market-based paper in the online tutorials and
books [20].
The use of digital textbooks is an innovative project carefully designed,
implemented with the full support from the government and supported by various
studies on various issues related. The main goals of using digital textbooks are for:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Meeting the needs of a paradigm shift in education in line with the learning
style of the new millennium.
Improving the understanding and skills to apply the latest knowledge.
Providing equal opportunities to all students, regardless of their socioeconomic
background.
Reducing the cost of private lessons
If that goal can be achieved, digital textbooks will hopefully be able to develop
and produce human resources that can compete in the global economy [20]. The
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digital textbooks programme in South Korea is implemented by using several
phases from 2007 to 2011.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Choosing a school to test the effectiveness of digital textbooks in the actual
application in the classroom.
Training teachers and consultants using digital textbooks in the way of effective
pedagogy. Various training will be given either online or in the traditional way
of face-to-face session.
Building infrastructure to support the use of digital textbooks. A tablet will be
provided to all students in the classroom. Schools are equipped with Internet
line, wired so students could access the Internet.
Building a digital textbook distribution system and a standard quality
management system to be implemented.
Associated with legal and regulatory aspects of the implementation such as
copyright, protection from hacker, etc.
Establishing an assessment system to analyze the effectiveness of digital
textbooks.
Effectiveness of digital textbooks has been studied in various investigations. In
South Korea, Kim [26] found that students feel happy and be independent, in their
academic performance after using digital textbooks. Song et al. [57] also found that
the test group using digital textbooks show higher academic achievement than the
control group who use printed textbooks. Students who live in small and mediumsized cities showed significant differences in the level of their academic
achievement, compared to students who live in a big city. However, there is no
difference between the test group with the control group which their parents have a
first degree, while there are differences between the two groups whose their father
only received a high school diploma [25].
The study also identifies the advantages and positive features with the use of
digital textbooks. Among them, the practice of making preparations in teaching is
increasingly recedes. By using conventional textbooks, teachers need to spend the
time preparing teaching materials to enhance students’ motivation to learn.
However, since the digital textbook is equipped with materials that stimulate
students, teachers could use more time to design and build the teaching strategy,
instead of just providing materials. As such, teachers can give attention to providing
instructional feedback than just checking homework.
Korean Education Research Information Service or KERIS [25] was also
conducted a study on the impact of digital textbooks. Data from schools that used
digital textbooks was cited by MEST. The survey was conducted in 7 months from
May to December 2008. A total of 4284 students from 24 schools were participated
in this study. Academic achievement is selected as the main independent variable to
identify the effectiveness of digital textbooks. Other variables were also measured
to obtain a better understanding of the impact of digital textbooks. Among them are
attitude towards learning in certain subjects, problem solving skills, self-regulatory
learning ability, and the effects of digital textbooks. For academic achievement, the
study found that there was no significant difference between groups of digital
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textbooks users with the consumer groups of printed textbook, while the difference
between rural and urban schools students is significant. Significant differences were
found among the weak students and in different subjects.
Urban students who use digital textbooks also recorded a higher mean in science,
social studies and Korean language than their counterparts who use printed
textbooks. The group of rural students who use digital textbooks recorded higher
results compared to the group of printed textbooks user in all subjects. Furthermore,
the weak students who use digital textbooks recorded higher results than the group
user of printed textbook in urban or rural areas [25].
By taking the model in, South Korean digital textbooks transformation program
is planned, researched and implemented with the support and supervision by the
government. In this respect, Malaysia can expect the responsibility of the Ministry
of Education to act as their counterpart in South Korea. However, commitment from
the government alone is not sufficient for the transformation to digital textbooks
requires commitment, support and the support of all stakeholders.
Textbook Digital Program in Malaysia
Malaysia launched its digital textbook program on February 1, 2014. All of the 10,094
primary and secondary school students in this country have access to over 300 digital
versions of textbooks for free using 1BestariNet system. It can be accessed online by
students, parents and teachers who have the password at any time (Berita Harian,
February 1, 2014). 1BestariNet project is implemented by the Ministry of Education
through Malaysian Education Development Plan (MECC) to enhance teaching and
learning process and to bridge the digital divide between rural and urban students.
Through this digital textbook program, all schools are connected in a single
learning database using high-speed 4G internet. Users are given access to the
program list for the Virtual Frog learning applications, Google Apps for education
and the Frog Store. According to the Minister, The implementation of the system
enables mobile learning or m-learning and learning in any place or u-learning are
two trends to enhance e-learning initiatives. In the first wave (2013–2015) program,
ministry upload 313 titles accessed free of textbooks via the portal 1BestariNet. For
the second wave (2016–2020), the ministry plans to produce the interactive
textbooks for the selected subjects, which contains elements of text, graphics, audio,
video and animation to help students in teaching and learning. The third wave
(2021–2025) will see the publication of digital textbooks for all subjects including
for students with special needs (Berita Harian, February 1, 2014).
This program is not free from criticism, including from the opposition parties.
Zairil Khir Johari, a representative from Democratic Action Party (DAP, one of the
opposition party in Malaysian parliament) in the debate in Parliament stated that this
program is part of the ICT infrastructure mega projects awarded to a company,
YTL. Among the projects being implemented by the Ministry through YTL is 4G
broadband installation in all 10,000 schools under 1BestariNet program, providing
Virtual Learning Platform, which includes digital textbooks as well as the supply of
Chrome book laptops to schools. He criticized the implementation of the approach
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of ‘‘one size fits all’’ by not taking into account the various differences in student
background. He also questioned the willingness of teachers to implement this
program since the use of ICT among teachers and students are very limited. Most
teachers (approximately 80 percent) only use ICT as much as an hour a week, while
the UNESCO report in 2012 revealed that there was no evidence to suggest the use
of ICT managed to foster creativity, problem solving, critical thinking and
communication skills among students.
Existing studies on the use of digital textbooks in Malaysia are pessimistic about the
success of the program if implemented. Mira Faizura [36] found the lack of teachers
proficient in the use of CD-ROM, and due to lack of experience, the learning syllabus is
slowly completed. In addition, the infrastructure and facilities are inadequate to be
used with active application. However study by Jamaludin and Mohamed [21] showed
that the electronic book project is successful in achieving the goal of fostering a culture
of searching and modification of information among students.
Following are some thoughts pros and cons of using digital textbooks that should
be considered.
1.
2.
3.
‘‘What we have seen, although the use of e-Book is not reach the level of 100
per cent, there is progress in the use of ICT. The E-Book Project implemented is
not only in the form of hardware alone, it also contains textbooks, al-Quran,
Islamic teaching, dictionary and other applications. (Ghazali Taib, Terengganu
state Chairman of the Education Committee, Higher Education, and Innovation,
30 September 2013).
Since 2009, the Terengganu state government has distributed a total of 23,000
units of e-book computer gradually to Year Five students in primary school;
Teachers in Terengganu still use the blackboard when teaching although
students were given e-book laptops; E-Books distributed to students in Year
Five students, disrupted after 2 years of use; When the computer is damaged, it
cannot be repaired, because no one knows.
I have little doubt of the effectiveness of e-book in helping the learning process.
Firstly, students are feared cannot concentrate to the lesson for a long time.
Staring at a computer screen for too long will affect health. The text on
computer screen is made of pixels which is not good for the eye and affects
concentration. Second, many low quality computers emit radiation and toxic
vapors. This leads to the indoor environment and many students also harm your
computer. Third, is the security aspect of e-book in school or at home. What if
the e-book is lost or damaged? (Father, Besut, Terengganu)
Conclusion
Digital textbooks is not the perfect solution to enhance learning among students.
Although many studies tend to show its effectiveness in the learning system
compared to printed text book, its implementation in Malaysia should be planned
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carefully. Most students, parents, teachers, schools, government, and other
stakeholders in the education system are generally not ready to move to digital
textbook. In South Korea, which so far ahead in the exploration of digital textbooks,
the weakness of the book is often admitted. Some studies show that digital
textbooks have their drawbacks [8, 26] and it can be summarized as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Since many features of e-learning are combined in digital textbooks, no clear
boundary is clear between digital textbooks with websites related to teaching
content and structure.
Parameters in digital textbooks are quite comprehensive, makes it difficult to be
built and maintained. The time required and the cost constraints also make
digital textbooks difficult to publish, especially if the target readership is
limited.
Digital textbooks may also be unable to provide content or images that are
similar to printed text book, so students may have to refer to the printed version.
Since the model of teaching and learning through digital textbooks are still rare,
the role and effectiveness in the classroom is still unclear [8].
However, the use of textbooks in the education system appears to bring
advantages in many aspects, including the effectiveness of teaching and learning
and is more economic in the long term. Digital textbooks allow students to learn
content that can be tailored to their abilities and interests. This new textbooks is also
not heavy, easy to update and provide learning experiences by utilizing multimedia.
The use of digital textbooks in the education system provides opportunities and
challenges to the wider student and interested parties such as teachers, schools,
parents, publishers, government and so on.
However, it should be recognized that the effectiveness of digital textbooks are
not yet clearly proven. Studies by stakeholders such as publishers or service
providers apparently exaggerating the greatness of digital textbooks and tends to
give the impression that the use of printed textbooks as outdated and not helpful in
the current education system. Studies from academics are more focused on the
extent of whether digital textbooks can replace printed textbooks as the main
vehicle for learning.
For Malaysia, the move to shift to digital textbooks should be undertaken after
careful research and consideration. Among the issues to be considered by the
government before implementing this program are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Does the use of digital textbooks can increase the interest, understanding,
satisfaction and effectiveness in learning?
The digital divide between rural and urban students
Willingness of school system in implementing digital textbooks such as
schools, teachers, and parents
Availability of technology
The willingness of all parties in publishing.
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The digital textbooks program should not be implemented in Malaysia if it only
benefits a handful of stakeholders, rather sacrifice the interests of other parties such
as students, teachers, schools, and parents.
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