AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
IN A SOCIAL STUDIES CLASSROOM
BY
JEFFREY R. KLUGH
A THESIS
Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies
of California University of Pennsylvania in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts Teaching
California, Pennsylvania
2008
CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
California, Pennsylvania
THESIS APPROVAL
Secondary Education
We hereby approve the Thesis of
Jeffrey R. Klugh
Candidate for the degree of Master of Arts Teaching
April 25, 2008
Dr. Joseph Zisk
Advisor
ii
Abstract
In recent years, schools have felt increased pressure to comply with standards imposed in
the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) laws. In Pennsylvania, one aspect that is measured on
state assessment tests is reading comprehension. In addition, current research and
literature state that schools could do more to help their students comprehend what they
read in class. In an attempt to find ways to improve reading comprehension, this study
focuses on using “story web” graphic organizers in a ninth grade social studies classroom
in rural Pennsylvania. This study examines how well students use the graphic organizers
on in-class assignments and analyzes student assessment data to determine if graphic
organizers improve student achievement.
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank a number of people for their patience and assistance
throughout my work on this paper and graduate studies. First, thanks belong to my wife,
Allison, for her continued and unending support over the last two years. I would also like
to thank my parents, Richard and Diane, for their help and open telephone line when I
needed someone to talk to throughout this process. My sister, Alissa, has also been a big
help, especially because of her proofreading abilities. In addition, I would like to thank
Dr. Joseph Zisk for his countless meetings with me concerning this paper as well as the
entire Secondary Education Department at California University of Pennsylvania for their
instruction. Lastly, I want to express gratitude towards the students, administrators, and
colleagues at my high school for allowing this study to take place.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................... iv
I.
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1
A. Purpose Statement..............................................................................................3
B. Importance of the Study.....................................................................................4
C. Definition of Terms............................................................................................4
II.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ..................................................................................7
A. Graphic Organizers in Social Studies ................................................................8
B. Graphic Organizers and Students with Learning Disabilities..........................11
C. Story Map Graphic Organizers .......................................................................14
D. Graphic Organizers and Implementation .........................................................17
E. Graphic Organizers and Their Effectiveness ..................................................19
F. Summary of the Literature ...............................................................................24
III.
METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................25
A. Participants.......................................................................................................25
B. Materials ..........................................................................................................26
C. Research Design...............................................................................................27
D. Data Collection and Analysis...........................................................................28
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IV.
RESULTS ..............................................................................................................31
A. Student Reading/Interest Survey......................................................................31
B. Informal Observations......................................................................................35
C. Test Scores and Analysis .................................................................................37
D. Summary ..........................................................................................................41
V.
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................43
A. Overview of Study ...........................................................................................43
B. Summary of Findings.......................................................................................44
C. Conclusions......................................................................................................48
D Limitations of the Study...................................................................................50
E. Recommendations............................................................................................50
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................53
APPENDIX A....................................................................................................................59
APPENDIX B. ...................................................................................................................61
APPENDIX C. ...................................................................................................................62
APPENDIX D....................................................................................................................63
APPENDIX E. ...................................................................................................................70
IRB APPROVAL (APPENDIX F) ....................................................................................74
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An Analysis of the Effectiveness
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
As the 21st century progresses, schools are under more pressure to comply with
the standards set in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). NCLB is a nationwide
system that, among other things, promises higher accountability for school districts. One
provision of NCLB is that schools must strive to achieve annual yearly progress (AYP).
“AYP is an individual state's measure of progress toward the goal of 100 percent of
students achieving to state academic standards in at least reading/language arts and math”
(U.S. Department of Education, 2007). Since language arts and reading have become
linchpins for a school’s success, districts have looked for new and improved ways to
improve their scores in these areas. Graphic organizers can become a key component in
addressing the standards set forth in NCLB. According to Bellanca (2007), ‘‘Teachers
who integrate graphic organizers into daily lessons can exceed this mandate [using
research-based strategies] in ways that raise expectations for student comprehension to
the highest degree’’ (p. 229). Social studies testing is not included in NCLB testing in
Pennsylvania, however, it can be used to integrate reading into the curriculum and
promote student reading comprehension. Hinde (2005) states “It is clear from the
research that student achievement hinges on the teacher’s ability to integrate content
across disciplines effectively in meaningful ways’’ (p. 107). In this case, ‘‘across
disciplines’’ would mean the integration of reading techniques and graphic organizers
into the social studies classroom.
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
2
Some research has shown that students cannot comprehend what they read
because they do not know how to read effectively. “Readers need to understand the
context and the structure of the text to understand the content, yet many students lack the
necessary skills for text structure identification and comprehension of complex
relationships among concepts, facts, and generalizations often found in social studies
texts” (Ciardiello, as cited in Massey & Heafer, 2004, p. 32).
Despite these problems, some research has found that graphic organizers can help
to increase reading comprehension. Katims & Harmon (2000) have implemented graphic
organizers with success, particularly at the middle school level. They believe,
“Implementation [of graphic organizers]…indicated an academically significant increase
in reading comprehension for all students, improved metacognitive ability, attention to
information contained in texts, and confidence in ability to grapple with ideas in authentic
texts” (p. 280). Using these organizers in social studies has also been found to be
beneficial. “Using a graphic organizer aids comprehension of the social studies text by
making the patterns clear. Designed as a means of organizing text material into
relationship patterns, the graphic organizer centers attention on the key information
contained in the text” (Farris, 2001, p.148). Massey & Heafer (2004) have found that
outlines and graphic organizers assist social studies students because they are a visual
representation of the text (p.33).
In fact, multiple authors have cited the 2000 Report of the National Reading Panel
as evidence that graphic organizers can help students become better readers and students.
Bellanca (2007) reminds teachers that the Report states that graphic organizers are one of
the seven most effective ways to improve reading comprehension (p. 234). Tate (2003)
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3
says, “Using systematic visual or semantic graphs regarding the content of social studies
or science passages facilitates memory and content area achievement” (p. 28). Graphic
organizers can be a tool to increase their reading comprehension and achievement in high
school.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to determine if graphic organizers improve a
student’s ability to comprehend social studies readings and perform better on
assessments. Since reading is the basis of instruction in a social studies classroom,
students must be able to comprehend the main ideas and themes of what they have read.
Unfortunately, many students are unable to differentiate between what is important and
what is not when they read primary or secondary source materials in class or for
homework. Much of the literature states that graphic organizers are often seen as useful
tools to promote student reading ability. This study will implement organizers for the
students to use during their reading. These organizers will come from the enumeration
category, listed as one of the six major categories of organizers: enumeration,
description, sequence, comparison, cause and effect, and problems and solutions
(Dangel, 2006, p. 38).
The specific research questions are:
1. Do graphic organizers contribute to the students completing in-class readingbased tasks with more regularity?
2. Are graphic organizers effective tools to increase student achievement on
assessments?
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Importance of Study
Students need to learn how to analyze and interpret the material that they read.
“Many authors suggest that there is a coming crisis in U.S. middle and secondary schools
(Moje, Young, Readence, & Moore, 2000). This crisis comes in the form of reading
difficulties” (Massey & Heafner, 2004, p. 26). Reading critically is a skill that students
need to learn – regardless of what their future holds. In this era of high-stakes testing, it
is crucial that students learn to read well at an early age. Many ninth graders at the school
being used in the study are susceptible to these same problems – they have difficulty
understanding what they read. Because of this, many of these students have low grades
and fail their freshman level courses.
One of the reasons that students may become frustrated is because they have
difficulty comprehending the material they read. Myers and Savage (2005) concur,
“Students who are able to decode are not necessarily able to make inferences and arrive
at common understandings of the content” (p. 18). Graphic organizers could be used as a
tool to help promote student reading, whether they read inside or outside of the content
areas. In turn, student achievement should increase.
Definition of Terms
Graphic Organizer: ‘‘Graphic organizers are visual models (Ausubel, 1960, n.p.,
as cited in Gallavan & Kottler, 2007) that provide teachers and students with tools,
concepts, and language to organize, understand, and apply information to achieve a
variety of purposes and outcomes’’ (p. 117).
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Assessment: Techniques used to analyze student accomplishment against specific
goals and criteria. A test is one type of assessment. Others include clinical interviews (as
in Piaget’s work), observations, self-assessments, and surveys. The implication is that in
an assessment the teacher makes thoughtful observations and disinteresting judgments,
and offers clear and helpful feedback. (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, pg. 337)
Hierarchical Organizers: organizer that presents main ideas and supporting details
(Marchand-Martella, Miller, & MacQueen, 1998, p. 46)
Individual Education Plan: Developed for a specific student; “must include a
statement of the student’s level of functioning, both short-term and annual goals,
projected dates for initiation and duration of special services and evaluation, descriptions
of special services to be provided, and the extent to which the student will participate in
regular education programs” (Gillet & Temple, 1994, p. 382)
Main-Idea-and-Detail-Charts: ‘‘Once the main idea has been established, students
then provide supporting details which highlight the main idea’s importance’’ (Baxendell,
2003, p. 51)
Mean: ‘‘the arithmetic average of a set of scores or numbers’’ (Johnson, 2008, p.
217)
Performance Task: Also called ‘‘performance.’’ A task that uses one’s knowledge
to effectively act or bring to fruition a complex product that reveals one’s knowledge and
expertise. (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, p. 346)
Quiz: Any selected-response or short-answer test (be it oral or written) whose sole
purpose is to assess for discrete knowledge and skill. (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, p. 348)
Standard Deviation: ‘‘The square root of the variance. It is the most frequently
used index to describe variability or the dispersion of scores. Whereas variance tells you
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
6
how tightly the scores are clustered, standard deviation tells you how tightly the scores
are clustered around the mean in a set of data’’ (Johnson, 2008, p. 219).
Story Map: ‘‘Typically, in story maps a web-like design is created in which the
main idea or topic is located in the center and supporting details are placed as branches
extending from that central point’’ (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006, p. 582).
Structured Overview: ‘‘With this visual outline, the teacher presents, in
hierarchical fashion, important information from a chapter or other segment of text’’
(Fordham, Wellman, & Sandmann, 2002, p. 149).
T-test: “statistical procedure used to determine whether the difference between
two means is statistically significant” (Johnson, 2008, p. 220).
Understanding: An insight into ideas, people, situations, and processes
manifesting in various appropriate performances. To understand is to make sense of what
one knows, to be able to know why it’s so, and to have the ability to use it in various
situations and contexts. (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, pg. 353)
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
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Chapter 2
Review of Literature
A preliminary review of the literature focused mainly on journal articles and
books. Journals common to the literature review were Social Studies and Reading
Teacher. Articles were taken from these and a number of other academic journals. A
variety of books concerning graphic organizers were also used as part of the research.
Most of the reviewed research describes ways for students to overcome problems
with reading comprehension. A number of methods have been studied --- from partner
reading to reading logs to graphic organizers. Nearly every study on the topic of reading
comprehension in the content areas concluded that giving students an outside device to
aid in their reading helped them to better grasp what they were reading and learning. In
fact, Myers & Savage (2005) stated that students need to be able to read in the content
areas for a number of reasons, ‘‘content literacy recognizes that reading is not simply a
technical skill; students who are able to decode are not necessarily able to make
inferences and arrive at common understandings of the content” (p. 18). Graphic
organizers are a means for students to arrive at this end.
The preliminary research has found that the majority of researchers agree that
helping students organize what they read is a crucial step in a child’s development – but
they each have their own views, opinions, and methods to achieve this goal. The
following section details some of these researchers and their findings.
This chapter will provide a review of the literature concerning the use of graphic
organizers in the classroom. The researched literature can be divided into five categories:
(A) the use of graphic organizers in a social studies classroom, (B) how graphic
organizers can help students with learning disabilities, (C) story map graphic organizers,
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
(D) methods of implementing graphic organizers, and (E) the effectiveness of graphic
organizers.
Graphic Organizers in Social Studies
Social Studies Ideas and Concepts
According to the literature, there is value in using graphic organizers in a social
studies classroom. Some of the research has suggested that students better learn social
studies concepts as a result of using graphic organizers. Gallavan & Kottler (2007)
suggest that teachers use organizers to help social studies students become ‘‘more
motivated, demonstrate faster short-term recall, and show greater long-term
achievement’’ (p. 117). In addition, they argue that ‘‘graphic organizers allow teachers
and students to isolate, summarize, and manipulate social studies information in ways
that are student centered, developmentally appropriate, active, challenging, and
productive (National Council for the Social Studies 1994). They can make learning
social studies terminology, structures, and functions manageable and memorable” (p.
118).
This study has found that graphic organizers can work in a variety of classroom
situations. No matter what the setting, organizers helped the students “readily connect
with the content and processes” (p. 117). Fordham, Wellman, & Sandmann (2002)
believe that graphic organizers are better than other, more traditional classroom routines
like ‘‘in-class round robin reading or assigning chapters from the social studies book for
homework….’’ They have found that these methods are ‘‘insufficiently motivating and
instructive’’ (p. 149). Instead of using these methods, graphic organizers can be used to
help make learning more “manageable and fun’’ (Gallavan & Kottler, 2007, p. 119). In
8
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
9
fact, a study by Guzzetti (1992) found that activities that focused on ‘‘concept
acquisition’’ like graphic organizers helped teachers ‘‘effectively use literature to teach
social studies’’ (p. 121). These authors assert through their research that social studies
concepts and ideas can be strengthened by the use of graphic organizers.
Reading in Social Studies
Reading materials are a core component of a social studies class, and teachers of
social studies need to be ready to teach their students core reading concepts. “Writing-tolearn strategies invite students to think about and interact with texts, encouraging more
thoughtful reading while creating more conscientious learners. The development of
reading and writing skills cannot be left [only] to the language arts teacher” (Knipper &
Duggan, 2006, p. 469).
Myers & Savage (2005) promote the idea of helping students comprehend what
they read (content literacy) by using a variety of methods. In particular, they want
readers to realize that reading in the content areas is “not simply a technical skill” (p. 18)
– it is something in which students need extra assistance. In fact, Guzzetti (1992)
believes that social studies texts can be “dull, disjointed, and so well sanitized that they
lack message or meaning” (114). Students need to be given the necessary tools to make
sense of social studies books. Graphic organizers can be one of these tools.
A number of authors suggested that graphic organizers can be used to help the
reader develop a relationship with the text. “Interacting with the text is of critical
importance if students are to learn social studies content’’ (Myers & Savage, 2005, p. 18).
Many of the strategies that they outline deals with helping the students arrange their
thoughts and ideas about the text through concept maps and graphic organizers. Farris
(2001) agrees, ‘‘By setting the focus for learning the graphic organizer gives the student
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
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control over the text and assistance in comprehension” (p. 150). “Readers need to
understand the context and the structure of the text to understand the content, yet many
students lack the necessary skills for text structure identification and comprehension of
complex relationships among concepts, facts, and generalizations often found in social
studies texts (Ciardiello)” (Massey & Heafner, 2004, p. 32).
Some college professors see social studies teachers failing to use reading
comprehension methods in their classes. “As university professors, we repeatedly see
teachers at both the professional and preservice levels dutifully trudging through social
studies textbooks with their classes. Although the chapters are “covered,” students’ lack
of interest is palpable, and their comprehension of important concepts is, at best,
questionable” (Fordham, Wellman, & Sandmann, 2002, p. 149). Some of the reviewed
authors believe that there are changes that can be made in primary and secondary
classrooms that can improve student achievement in social studies. “Graphic organizers,
as visual representations of these [social studies] patterns, help the learner focus on the
important information within the text and clarify the purpose of the reading” (Farris,
2001, p.150).
In their 2004 study, Massey & Heafner found that using outlines and
graphic organizers in a social studies classroom helped the students learn about the text’s
internal features because it was a means for the students to have a visual representation of
what was included in the text (p.33).
All of these arguments can be supported by the belief that reading critically is one
of the most important skills that students can learn. Social studies readings can be used
to promote this skill. In fact, Myers & Savage (2005) believe that reading and
understanding history will help to make students lifelong learners because they have the
ability to internalize information (p. 18).
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Graphic Organizers and Students with Learning Disabilities
One of the areas that many of the authors agree is that graphic organizers can
assist students of all ability levels. McCoy & Ketterlin-Geller (2004) believe that graphic
organizers can help teachers ‘‘as they deliver complex content material in a diverse
classroom’’ (p. 89). But one segment of students that some of the researchers believe is
most impacted by the usage of graphic organizers are those students with learning
disabilities. “Therefore, these students can benefit from learning strategies that facilitate
the comprehension of this type of text. One strategy that has often been recommended to
assist students with LD in learning from expository text is the use of graphic organizers
(Bos & Vaughn, 2002; Rivera & Smith, 1997; Taylor, Harris, & Pearson, 1988)” (AeHwa, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin, 2004, p. 105). Organization and reading
comprehension are two areas that many of the authors believe are critical to the success
of struggling readers.
Assisting Organization
Students with disabilities often need additional help in the classroom. One way
that graphic organizers can provide this assistance is because it ‘‘may help students with
LD circumvent their difficulties with organizing and recalling verbal information, thereby
increasing their reading comprehension’’ (Ae-Hwa, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin, 2004,
p. 106).
In a survey taken by Barry (2002), over 120 teachers responded to questions about
positive reading strategies that they have used in their classrooms. Seventy-seven percent
of the responders to this survey said that they believed graphic organizers were a good
tool to use in the classroom. In fact many of the teachers surveyed said, ‘‘Graphic
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
12
organizers were praised as ‘great organizational tools’ and a good way to allow students
to organize chapters and review for tests’’ (p. 139). Throughout the literature, many of
the authors and researchers praised graphic organizers as useful tools for students to
organize their thoughts, ideas, and information --- particularly for students with reading
difficulties and/or learning disabilities.
‘‘Graphic organizers are a specific instructional organizational tool available to
teachers; these tools have proven to be successful for all students in inclusive classrooms.
Visually displaying content ideas can benefit learners who have difficulty organizing
information’’ (Fischer & Schumaker, as cited in Baxendell, 2003, p. 46). The organizers
should be used to help students make sense of what they have read. The primary purpose
of organizers is to ‘‘make abstract concepts and relationships clear’’ (p. 48).
Other authors agree with the above viewpoint. Arthaud & Goracke (2006) tried a
few different graphic organizers in their research and came up with similar conclusions.
‘‘The techniques of story webbing and outlining assisted these students [struggling
readers] in the development of organizational skills required to meet this [state
implemented] standard’’ (p. 585). This fell in line with the intended goal for their
research, which was to ‘‘improve students’ organizational skills and to enhance retention
of story details and events’’ (p. 582). These beliefs were backed up by the 2003 findings
of the Institute for Advancement of Research in Education, which stated that graphic
organizers helped to improve achievement among learning disabled students (Bellanca,
2007, p. 234).
Reading Comprehension
Ae-Hwa, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin (2004) believe that all students’ reading
comprehension should be a priority for educators, but they feel that the focus should be
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
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placed on students with learning disabilities (p. 105). This statement holds true with a
few of the authors and researchers. They feel that reading comprehension is a critical
skill for students to acquire --- and students who have learning disabilities need the most
attention.
Arthaud & Goracke (2006) tried graphic organizers with a number of their
struggling readers. They tried story-webbing, which is an organizer “designed to assist
the reader with organizing and remembering important details from the text” (p. 582).
They found, “The result of the strategy use has been improved response to
comprehension questions, increased amount of detail recall, and more enthusiasm for the
reading process” (p. 586). These results were positive, showing a number of benefits
from the use of a graphic organizer with struggling readers. Not only did the students
better comprehend what they read, but they were enjoying reading much more than
before the study.
McCoy & Ketterlin-Geller (2004) provide further evidence that graphic
organizers can help students with reading problems. “Overt identification of concepts
and their characteristics and the deliberate use of graphic organizers reduce the reading
comprehension demands placed on students with low abilities” (p. 88). They find that
struggling readers have difficulty with the structure of textbooks and need extra
assistance to make out the meanings of the text. They have found that graphic organizers
are one essential part of their plan to make these students better readers (p. 90). But
perhaps the most promising finding in their research is that “students across the spectrum
of reading skills show consistent improvement toward mastery of higher-order thinking
tasks when taught using the concept-based approach” (p. 92).
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Other authors agree that reading improves with the use of graphic organizers.
Gillet & Temple (1994) believe that graphic organizers can help students see how pieces
of information from reading comes together (p. 227). “This process is considered
important because many students, particularly poor readers, acquire information from text
only as isolated facts, failing to organize them into any coherent units of meaning.
Practice in organizing information into main ideas or topics and supporting details
improves overall comprehension” (p. 227). Findings from a study done by Ae-Hwa,
Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin (2004) shows that when students with learning disabilities
‘‘were taught to use graphic organizers, large effect sizes were demonstrated on
researcher developed reading comprehension posttests’’ (p. 114).
Story Map Graphic Organizers
This study will focus on using graphic organizers to improve student reading
comprehension and achievement on assessments. The students will be using organizers
to help them comprehend what they read in social studies class. Specifically, the students
will use organizers called story maps. ‘‘Typically, in story maps a web-like design is
created in which the main idea or topic is located in the center and supporting details are
placed as branches extending from that central point’’ (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006, p. 582)
This type of organizer can also be called a main-idea-and-detail chart, structured
overview, or hierarchical organizer. This study will focus on the use of story maps in a
social studies classroom to improve reading comprehension and performance on
assessments.
Story map organizers have been found to have positive effects on students in the
classroom. Baxendell (2003) found that the ‘‘Use of this tool, along with explicit use of
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
15
terms, helps students visualize and internalize the difference between the main idea and
the details’’ (p. 51). Arthaud & Goracke (2006) support this assertion. They believe that
story maps helped students because ‘‘the emphasis was on organizing basic details to
assist students in retention and recall of story information’’ (p. 582).
Fordham, Wellman & Sandmann (2005) give some suggestions to help teachers
create their own story map/structured overview. They want to ensure that teachers are
sure to align the organizers in a hierarchical fashion. In order for the students to follow
along, they recommend that the categories on the organizer somehow become connected
--- preferably by using lines --- to show relationships. While reading, the teacher should be
sure that the students are consistently using and referencing the organizer so that they can
see how the organizer represents ideas from the text.
Other researchers made similar suggestions for setting up a story map. Arthaud &
Goracke (2006) said, ‘‘Typically, in story maps a web-like design is created in which the
main idea or topic is located in the center and supporting details are placed as branches
extending from that central point’’ (p. 582). Again, the key point is to show how the
ideas and concepts on the organizer relate to each other. This is done by using deliberate
markings, like lines or arrows to show which ideas and themes (or main ideas and
supporting details) are interconnected. Baxendell (2003) agrees with the other
researchers that the relationships between the details need to be emphasized on the
graphic organizer. ‘‘Once the main idea has been established, students then provide
supporting details which highlight the main idea’s importance’’ (p. 51).
These researchers also found that there are some added cognitive and long-term
benefits to using story map graphic organizers. Baxendell’s (2003) study found that story
maps assisted students in finding the main ideas and their supporting details while
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
16
reading. ‘‘Determining the main idea and details of an instructional topic is a difficult
skill for many learners with special needs. Learners struggle to flesh out important ideas
and tend to focus on minor details. A main-idea-and-detail graphic organizer is a
beneficial tool to use in all subject areas to help students with this vital academic skill’’
(p. 51). Other researchers found that story maps can help students complete other tasks
in their academic careers. Fordham, Wellman, & Sandmann (2005) found that ‘‘The
organizational structure offered by the [structured] overview serves as a scaffold for
writing, enabling students to compose a summary or an essay about the topic under study
more easily’’ (p. 151).
Three separate research studies found that story maps were effective tools for
students to use in the classroom. They are beneficial because they help students make
important connections between the main ideas and supporting details within the text they
are reading. Story maps can make relationships between details more clear for the
students. In addition, these organizers can help students with a number of other schoolrelated tasks like writing, summarizing and studying.
Graphic Organizers and Implementation
Merkley & Jefferies (2000) believe that teachers should follow a set of guidelines
in order to make the implementation of graphic organizers more successful. They report
that occasionally the ‘‘GO [graphic organizer] suffers from a lack of systematic operation
procedures’’ (p. 351). This section will review some of the suggested operating
procedures for implementing and using graphic organizers in the classroom.
There are a few different ideas about the implementation and usage of graphic
organizers. McCoy & Ketterlin-Geller (2004) believe that teachers should think about
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
17
the main ideas and supporting details first. They should also consider how the supporting
details fit with the main idea --- this should be the basis of the teacher’s visual display of
the information in the graphic organizer. They also believe that the graphic organizers
should include space for both examples and non-examples of the central ideas (McCoy &
Ketterlin-Geller, 2004, p.90). McCoy and Ketterlin-Geller (2004) then made the
following determination:
This design enables students to discern important facts from statements that may
be interesting but that are not integral to the concept. Thus, all students are
presented with a model for drawing meaning from the text, identifying concrete
examples, and distinguishing between seductive details and critical facts. (p. 90)
These suggestions, like others on this topic, want teachers to focus on getting the students
to make important connections between the text and the central ideas and themes of the
lesson.
Merkley and Jefferies (2000) describe five essential steps that teachers should
follow while implementing graphic organizers. The first step is to verbalize relationships
among concepts expressed by the visual, which is a means of ‘‘reminding students that
the GO is an overview of material they will encounter during reading’’. Secondly, the
teacher needs to provide an opportunity for student input, which will provide the students
with an opportunity to get involved in the class discussion. The teacher should then make
a connection between the current and past instruction/knowledge, followed by
referencing the upcoming readings. The final step is to help the students decode the text
and make sense of what they have read. Although the means of this study vary from that
of the previous one, their goals are similar - getting the students to think critically about
the material. ‘‘The GO strategy offers considerable potential to enhance students’
comprehension of expository text’’ (Merkley & Jefferies, 2000, pp. 352, 354-356).
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
18
Another strategy is suggested by Strong, Silver, Perini, & Tuculescu (2002). This
strategy begins in a similar fashion to the previous two studies, but these researchers
made far different conclusions. First, they believe that the teacher’s initial priority should
be to explain and model each part of the organizer for the students. After passing out the
organizer to the students, the teacher should allow for ample time to answer any
questions that they may have about the format. The teacher should then observe the
students as they complete the organizer and assist where needed. After the students
complete the assignment, the entire class should review the main ideas of the organizer to
ensure that the students understood the central concepts. Their suggestion differs from
other researchers after this point. Following the review session, Strong, Silver, Perini, &
Tuculescu (2002) recommend that the organizer be used as a basis for another activity --like an essay, timeline, model, or metaphor. In addition, they believe that the goal of
using graphic organizers is to teach students to use these strategies independently --without the aid of the teacher (pp. 4-5).
Graphic Organizers and Their Effectiveness
Reading Comprehension: Understanding Text Structures
As students read from their materials in a social studies classroom, they should be
aware of important vocabulary, concepts, and main ideas within the text. Unfortunately,
these necessary skills are not obvious to many students. “In an effort to make an
overwhelming amount of information manageable and the content more accessible,
textbook editors and nonfiction writers use various text structures. Yet for many
students, these structures are invisible” (Strong, Silver, Perini, & Tuculescu, 2002, p.7).
In the same study, Strong et al. urge teachers to find ways to extract critical information
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
19
from the text in an effort to increase student comprehension of the material (p.7). They
believe that one possible solution to this is to make the information more visible to the
students through the use of graphic organizers, which should help the students achieve
‘‘deep comprehension and easier memorization [of basic information]’’ (p. 8). ‘‘When
students can ‘see’ a concept and how its subtopics and details interrelate, higher-order
thinking (e.g., writing about that concept, applying it, or connecting it to other learning
and ideas) is greatly facilitated’’ (p. 42). These researchers show a need for students to
be able to make sense of the text structures and patterns within the text. They believe that
graphic organizers are one way to make this happen for students.
Other researchers concur that graphic organizers are a positive way to get students
to make sense of the text that they are reading. Strong, et al. (2002) observed
Without understanding the underlying pattern, students have trouble
understanding how information is connected, and the text can become a
meaningless stew. This strategy teaches students how to identify text structure
and use visual organizers to expose the critical relationships within a reading. (pp.
4-5).
In social studies, there can be a variety of problems with student comprehension because
much of the information is driven by text. ‘‘Lack of sufficient background knowledge,
‘inconsiderate texts’ (Armbruster, 1984), weak vocabulary knowledge, lack of relevant
experiences, and many other factors contribute to the level of difficulty readers encounter
when making inferences’’ (McMackin & Witherell, 2005, p. 246). In order for the
students to fully make sense of the course material, their reading skills need to be
improved. Farris (2000) believes that students can take control of what they read by
using a graphic organizer. This idea is backed up by Robinson, Katayama, Odom, Hsieh,
& Vanderveen (2006). ‘‘Thus, the GO task may help teach students not only course
content but also important metacognitive skills, such as identifying text structure’’ (p.
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110). These researchers have found that using graphic organizers can improve student
reading comprehension by improving their ability to make sense of text structures and
vocabulary, a skill that should serve them well while reading through social studies
materials.
Reasons for Effectiveness
Bellanca (2007) references a study done by the Institute for Advancement of
Research in Education (IARE) concerning graphic organizers. This study found that
graphic organizers have a number of positive benefits for student learning and
achievement. Among the findings reported by Bellanca (2007) were increased reading
comprehension, improved student achievement over grade levels and content areas, and a
more extended period of information retention. In addition, students showed an increased
ability to organize information, identify relationships, and categorize essential textbook
materials. Even students with learning disabilities exhibited a higher achievement level
in school.
In fact Tileston (2004) reports that “Because more than 87% of the students in any
given classroom are visual learners, using these organizers helps assure that these
learners truly understand the information being provided” (p. 45). These researchers
provide evidence that graphic organizers used alongside other teaching methods should
help students achieve more in their classes.
One area that graphic organizers can be beneficial is by helping students
understand and identify the key concepts within a lesson or unit. “Graphic organizers
help them [teachers] present key concepts in a more organized manner and encourage
students to become more actively engaged during the discussion of key concepts”
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21
(Marchand-Martella, Miller, & MacQueen, 1998, p. 48). McMackin and & Wetherell
(2005) reported similar findings through their work with classroom teachers. Students
can also improve their reading by taking notes to understand concepts within the text.
“GO notes do not just assist students by directing their attention to important information,
but, rather, they help students notice important across-concept relations that are not as
apparent when viewing linear forms of notes” (Robinson, Katayama, Odom, Hsieh, &
Vanderveen, 2006, p. 103).
Graphic organizers have also been found to help students perform better on
everyday classroom tasks like taking notes, reading, writing, and test taking. Tate (2003)
worked with teachers using graphic organizers and reported positive results. She said, ‘‘I
later learned that student grades began to improve almost immediately’’ (p. 27). Other
researchers found similar results. Robinson, Katayama, Odom, Hsieh, & Vanderveen
(2006) discussed in their studies that ‘‘Several researchers have found that when students
are provided with GOs to study along with the text, they perform better on tests that
measure knowledge of concept relations and application….’’ (p. 103).
According to the Tileston (2004), ‘‘Students are not highly organized, so helping
them to organize their notebooks, their notes, and the essential information will be
helpful to them and will give them a guide to use in the future.’’ Note taking using
organizers was found to help some students improve their writing. Fordham, Wellman,
& Sandmann (2002) reported that students can more easily summarize a section of text
through writing or prepare for an essay about a certain topic if they used organizers.
‘‘With that type of support, students at all levels can approach a writing task more
confidently’’ (p.150). Farris (2000) agrees that graphic organizers can help with
everyday classroom tasks like reading, writing, note taking, and group work.
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22
Graphic organizers can help students think critically because they can be used by
the students as an added tool when thinking about important content-based relationships
within their class work or reading from the text. Throughout their findings, the reviewed
authors have found that graphic organizers can help in a variety of areas. When looking
specifically at social studies, Pate (1996) believes that using graphic organizers can help
students understand main ideas about a topic, specifically helping students compare and
contrast the supporting details.
Bellanca (2007) believes that graphic organizers can help students develop
important cognitive functions. This can be done because organizers help students think
about specific operations and outcomes in the material. His research also states that
graphic organizers can help strengthen study habits because they give ‘‘students time to
think about their thinking’’ and ‘‘refine their use of tools for thinking’’ (p. 212). Some
authors found that graphic organizers were useful for improving cognitive skills in a
variety of ways. Gillet & Temple (1994) found that some organizers help students think
critically about plot and text structures like sequential ordering, cause and effect, literal
and implied information, and comparing and contrasting. Strong, Silver, Perini, and
Tuculescu (2002) found similar results in their studies. They found that after using
graphic organizers, students saw information more clearly in six main categories:
sequences, topic descriptions, cycle structures, problem and solution, and cause/effect
relationships.
Overall, the authors of these researched articles had positive descriptions and
findings concerning graphic organizers. In fact, it was nearly impossible to find articles
that spoke against their usage in the classroom. Bellanca (2007) declares that despite
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23
these findings, “Marzano (2001) reports that the graphic organizer is the most underused
of the high effect strategies” (p. 233).
Summary of the Literature
By analyzing the use of graphic organizers in five main areas (graphic organizers
in social studies, graphic organizers and learning disabled students, story map graphic
organizers, graphic organizers and implementation, and graphic organizers and their
effectiveness) the studies suggest that using graphic organizers should help students
improve their willingness to read, reading comprehension, and achievement in the
classroom. Despite the amount of research on graphic organizers, it is reported that they
are one of the most underused tools in classrooms of all grade levels. The researchers’
findings show that graphic organizers could be used on a more frequent basis to help
students learn.
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Chapter 3
Methodology
This study will analyze the effectiveness of graphic organizers in a social studies
classroom. The study will take place in a relatively large, rural high school in northcentral Pennsylvania. The school has approximately 1,000 students in grades nine
through twelve. One of the primary goals within this school is to find ways to keep
ninth graders in school for their entire career. Since nearly one-fifth of all freshmen do
not graduate with their peers (or at all), teachers and administrators have been looking
for ways to keep the students in school and increase their achievement at the ninth grade
level. Graphic organizers could be one possible solution to this problem.
Participants
The present study will involve a number of different students. It will be
conducted using students in two separate ninth grade U.S. History classes. Students will
range from 14-15 years of age. Students will be analyzed to determine if using graphic
organizers is more effective than using traditional/typical strategies in the classroom.
Approximately 40-45 students will be included in this study, with a nearly equal number
of males and females. In addition, about 25% (10 students) have been identified with
Individual Education Plans (IEPs). All students have been “tracked” into the academic
level social studies program, which is designed to prepare students for college and/or the
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
25
workforce. It is the most common “track” in the district. The teacher will be the
facilitator and recorder for the study.
Materials
Students in the ninth grade history classes will be using similar materials for the
foundation of the study. The textbook the students will be using throughout the study
will be: A History of US: Volumes 4-5 by Joy Hakim - published by Oxford University
Press (2005). They will also be exposed to identical reading assignments, review
activities, and tests during the study.
Two “story map” graphic organizers (adapted from Dangel, 2006) will be
utilized by the students for their reading assignments (see Appendix A). Only one of
the two classes will be exposed to the organizers during class. The other class will use
more traditional methods to assist them in the reading of the text and outside sources.
Attitude and rating scale surveys (Likert surveys) will also be given to students in both
classes. This survey (see Appendix B) asks students to rate their opinions about
specific statements on a scale of one to five – one meaning that the student “strongly
disagrees” with the statement and five meaning that the student “strongly agrees” with
the statement. The information from the Likert survey will give the researcher a
baseline of knowledge about the students’ reading habits and study skills before starting
the research. In addition, the teacher will record public behaviors of the students while
they work on the graphic organizers. This will be used to determine if the graphic
organizers are effective at getting students to work on in-class assignments with more
regularity. These behaviors will be recorded via a checklist (see Appendix C).
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26
Research Design
The study will last for approximately six weeks. Over the course of this period,
the students will have covered approximately two chapters/units in the course. This time
frame should enable the teacher to discover if the new methodologies would improve the
students reading comprehension abilities over the given time. Student grades on
assessments would also be analyzed for improvement (see below – Data Collection and
Analysis). The six week period will also give the students enough time to get familiar
with the new methodologies and use them effectively in the classroom.
During the first week of the study, the students will be provided with some tools
by the teacher that will help them think about their strengths and weaknesses in reading
comprehension. These tools would include a Likert survey that would help the teacher
find patterns and areas of need for the students. In order for students to improve their
reading comprehension, they (and the teacher) must become more aware of what
improvements they can make to their approaches concerning the text and/or documents.
The students in the experimental class will use story map graphic organizers for
their reading assignments. The teacher will explain each method and model an example
for the students to observe and use. The teacher will also follow suggested
implementation procedures mentioned in the literature review. Students will use these
story map organizers on in-class and homework assignments. The maps will also be used
to guide in-class discussions. By the end of the study, the students will have used these
organizers to discover the main ideas and supporting details within social studies reading
assignments.
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27
Data Collection and Analysis
The study included elements of both a qualitative and quantitative study. Certain
aspects will be quantitative in nature because the results of the study will be analyzed
statistically. Part of the study will also be qualitative because the researcher/teacher will
be observing student work, assessments, and behaviors and analyzing those through
triangulation.
The teacher/researcher will be encouraging specific behaviors (listed below)
among the students using the graphic organizers. The researcher encouraged the students
to focus on the main ideas of the lesson and how they relate to the objectives. Students
were also assisted in finding the supporting ideas/details in the readings and applying
those ideas to the organizer. The teacher also urged the students to go beyond the text
and find deeper meanings in the materials.
Data will be collected from the surveys, organizers, and assessments that the
students complete over the course of the study. The Likert survey (see Appendix B) will
be used in a number of ways. The students will complete the seven question survey at the
start of the study. The students will answer on a scale of one to five – five meaning that
they strongly agree with the survey statement and one meaning that they strongly
disagree with the statement. Student responses will be recorded and categorized into
charts.
Student behaviors and reactions will also be noted through informal observations
and a teacher checklist (see Appendix C). The checklist will include observations like:
how many students are actively working on the graphic organizer; how many students are
completing all sections of the organizer; are the students actively engaged in using the
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28
textbook; how long does it take for all of the students to complete the organizer? These
observations will be recorded on the checklist twice per class period (about every fifteen
minutes). These public observations will allow the researcher to make adaptations to the
organizers and their implementation over the period of study as needed.
In addition, assessment data will be collected and compared over the course of the
study to chart student improvement. This assessment data will be collected over six
weeks using two chapters from the A History of US textbook. In order to judge the
effectiveness of graphic organizers two classes’ data will be used in the study. The first
class, or control group, will be without graphic organizers for the duration of the study.
They will continue to use materials and strategies that have been implemented throughout
the rest of the school year. The second class, or experimental group, will use graphic
organizers on all reading assignments during the entire period of study.
During the study, students in both the experimental and control classes will take
the same assessments (see Appendix D). These summative assessments will occur at the
end of each unit/chapter (descriptions of assessments listed below). The assessments will
be analyzed in two ways. First, student averages on these assessments will be compared
between the study period and the six weeks of class prior to the study. Then, the scores
will be compared by looking at the mean average and standard deviations of the data in
both time periods. The data will assist in determining the effectiveness of graphic
organizers on student achievement.
Throughout the year, tests and assessments are divided into four major
components: multiple choice questions, matching, essay writing, and reading
comprehension. The reading comprehension component asks students to read a passage
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
29
between two and four paragraphs in length, and answer a series of three to five questions
about the passage. In order to specifically analyze student achievement on the reading
comprehension sections, these four components will be grouped into two major
categories: reading comprehension and objective (multiple choice, matching, and essay)
sections. These categories allow the researcher to isolate how the students performed on
the reading comprehension sections of the assessments. Like the previous analysis, the
means and standard deviations of both the control and experimental groups will be
compared during two time periods: prior to and during the study.
The standard deviations and means will then be used to calculate a t-test. A t-test
is used to find the statistical significance between the means of two sets of data. In this
case, a t-test will be used to determine if the assessments given to the students in both
groups show a statistically significant improvement from the pre-study and post-study
periods in two major areas: reading comprehension and overall scores. The t-test data
will be calculated using GraphPad Software’s t-test calculator (http://www.graphpad.
com/quickcalcs/ttest1.cfm). This data will help determine if graphic organizers helped
students perform better on reading comprehension assessments.
Overall, this study will focus on how the experimental group’s achievement
(grades on assessments) improved in comparison to those of the control group. The
student data (assessment grades) from the six week research period will be compared to
student data from the previous six weeks. Student behaviors will also be informally
recorded by the teacher to determine how much the students are using the organizers for
reading assignments. This data will help to determine how much of an impact the graphic
organizers had on student achievement.
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30
Chapter 4
Findings
The focus of this research project can be determined through two central research
questions: Do graphic organizers contribute to the students completing in-class readingbased tasks with more regularity? And, are graphic organizers effective tools to increase
student achievement on assessments? In order to answer these questions, a number of
items were used: students in both the experimental and control groups were given a
reading/interest survey. After the survey, only the students in the experimental group had
their public behaviors recorded by the teacher (with an observation sheet), used story map
graphic organizers on all reading assignments, and took summative assessments in the
form of a test at the end of each unit.
Student Reading/Interest Survey
In order to start the study, a Likert survey (a type of student interest survey) was
passed out to the students in both the experimental and control classes (see Appendix B).
The only students who did not participate in the study were the ones who did not receive
parental permission to take part in the study and those who were absent for an extended
(over three days) period of time. Consequently, 40 students responded to the survey on
the first day of the study – 20 from the experimental group and 20 from the control group.
The students were asked to read a series of seven statements (see Figure 4.1) and give
their reaction to each statement.
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31
Figure 4.1
Key:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
5 = Strongly Agree
4 = Agree
3 = No opinion
2 = Disagree
1 = Strongly Disagree
I feel comfortable with the vocabulary being used in this course.
The sequence of events in this course flow together smoothly.
I feel confused when I read the materials for this course.
I have a method of organizing the materials that I complete in this course.
I take notes while I read from the textbook.
The reading materials and topics in this course interest me.
I enjoy reading.
The data collected from the survey suggests that the students in both classes responded
similarly to nearly all of the questions (see Figures 4.2 and 4.3). There were a few
discrepancies between the control and experimental groups’ data which will be discussed
in more detail below.
Figure 4.2
Student Reading Survey - Control Group
# of Student Responses
12
10
Stronly Agree
8
Agree
6
No Opinion
Disagree
4
Strongly Disagree
2
0
1
2
3
4
Statement #
5
6
7
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Figure 4.3
Student Reading Survey - Experimental Group
# of Student Responses
16
14
12
Stronly Agree
10
Agree
8
No Opinion
6
Disagree
4
Strongly Disagree
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Statement #
Statement #1: I feel comfortable with the vocabulary being used in this course.
In general, students believed that they were comfortable with the vocabulary
being used in the course with 70% of the students reporting that they “strongly agreed” or
“agreed” with the statement.
Statement #2: The sequence of events in this course flow together smoothly.
Again, the majority of students “strongly agreed” or “agreed” with this statement,
with numbers registering at 60% of the students in the control group and 70% of the
students in the experimental group. But unlike the previous question, 14 of the 40
students surveyed either had “no opinion” or lower as their responses. This result (35%)
showed that some methodologies needed to change in order for the students to get a
better handle on the chronology of the course materials.
Statement #3: I feel confused when I read the materials for this course.
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
33
The third statement related directly to the research questions provided for the
study since it deals specifically with the students’ ability to comprehend what they read.
The data showed that 30% of the students who responded to this statement either
“agreed” or “strongly agreed” with it. In addition, 20% of the students were in the
middle and responded with “no opinion” to the statement. This means that in their own
estimation, half of the students believe that they need assistance while reading their
coursework.
Statement #4: I have a method of organizing the materials that I complete in this course.
The fourth statement divided students in both groups. The control group tended
to slightly lean more towards the “strongly agree” or “agree” category, while the
experimental group was split nearly down the middle – eight students above the “no
opinion” threshold and seven below it. This data suggests that an equal amount of
students are organizing and not organizing their materials for class. The half of the
students who are not getting organized for the course should benefit from using graphic
organizers to help them keep their reading materials in order.
Statement #5: I take notes while I read from the textbook.
Out of all of the statements, this one drew the most one-sided reaction from the
students in the study. Nearly 58% of the students said that they “strongly disagreed” with
the statement, while another 18% said that they “disagreed” with the statement. In fact,
only one student replied in the “agree” or “strongly agree” category. Since over threequarters of the students feel that they need help with their note-taking, this study using
graphic organizers could provide them with a means to that end.
Statement #6: The reading materials and topics in this course interest me.
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34
This question was used to give the researcher data about student attitudes towards
the topics being covered in class. The students responses were split exactly in half – 12
students above the central “no opinion” category and 12 below it. Sixteen students gave
a “no opinion” response.
Statement #7: I enjoy reading.
The control group and experimental groups varied greatly when responding to this
statement. The control group viewed reading in a more favorable manner, with students
responding almost equally in each of the five areas. The experimental group viewed
reading in a negative manner, with 65% of the students surveyed claiming that they
“disagreed” or “strongly disagreed” with the statement. Will the graphic organizers help
to change student perceptions of reading in the experimental group?
Informal Observations
Over the course of the study, the students used graphic organizers on a nearly
daily basis. They were implemented any time the students had an in-class reading
assignment. The students were designated 30 minutes of class time to complete the
organizer.
During the in-class assignments, the researcher recorded some basic, informal
observations about the students’ work on the graphic organizers. These behaviors were
recorded using an observation sheet (see Appendix C). The students completed about 20
reading assignments in class during the course of the study and the researcher made
informal recordings during each of those assignments. Approximately 20-25 students
were observed during each class period.
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
35
Question 1: How many students are actively working on the graphic organizer?
Overall, the graphic organizers kept the students on task during their reading
assignments. In fact, there were only two occasions where some of the students were not
using the organizer while they were reading (one occurred on a Friday and the other took
place the day before an extended vacation). For the other eighteen days, the “20+” box
was marked on the checklist. Even though no observations were recorded prior to the
study, the students appeared to be more on task than usual during the study.
Question 2: How many students are completing all sections of the organizer?
Two different story map organizers were used during the study. Neither organizer
appeared to be more appealing to the students than the other. On most occasions the
students completed the organizers in their entirety. In fact, this occurred on 16 of the 20
observable days (80% of the time). On the other days, the majority of the students
completed the entire organizer, while the remaining few nearly completed it – they
missed a few minor entries. There were no occasions where students left the organizer
completely blank.
Question 3: Are the students actively engaged in using the textbook?
Before the study, the students would often scan the book to find answers to
reading questions, and this practice continued during the study. Although there is no
way to officially compare the pre and post study data, it would appear that the students
were now more often forced to read the entire chapter to complete the necessary
components of the graphic organizer, which was one of the goals of the study.
Question 4: How long does it take for all of the students to complete the organizer?
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
36
This was the one question that showed quite a bit of variation in student
behaviors. Over the 20 observations, some students fell into each of the five categories.
The category that was marked the most during the observations was “24-29 minutes”.
This nearly fell in line with the 30 minute goal set at the start of the study. There were
five different occasions where at least one student took over the 30 minutes given to
them, but there were never more than two students per class period to take this amount of
time. Conversely, there were six instances where students took less than 20 minutes to
complete the organizer, but there were never more than three students per class period
that met this criterion. Overall, the informal observations showed that on nearly every
occasion, the organizers took the students between 20 and 30 minutes to complete.
Test Scores and Analysis
Two tests were given to the students during the study period. These tests were
administered to students in both the control and experimental groups (see Appendix D).
The tests were identical for both groups of students, but the methods used in each class
varied. The control group continued to use methods that were implemented earlier in the
school year, while the experimental group used graphic organizers on all reading
assignments. After the students completed these tests, the results were compared with the
two tests they completed immediately prior to the period of study.
As stated in Chapter 3, the test result data was broken into two categories: reading
comprehension and total score. The mean and standard deviation was calculated for data
in both categories. This data was analyzed using the results of assessments for students
in both the control and experimental groups. The data was collected from tests that took
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
37
place before and during the experimental period. Since each test had a different overall
point value, all data in this section was normalized by converting the raw scores into test
scores based on a 100 point scale.
The first group whose data was analyzed was the control group. For the period
before the study, the students were given two tests. The data was broken into reading
comprehension and overall test scores. For the reading comprehension section, the
students’ mean average was 64.77 (see Figure 4.4). The standard deviation was 29.69,
which shows that students in this class displayed a wide range of scores on this section of
the assessment. The overall score on these two tests showed a mean of 80.26, while the
standard deviation on this section was 13.42 (see Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.4
Control Group: Reading Comprehension Section
64.77
Pre-Study Mean
80.11
Study Mean
29.69
Pre-Study Standard Deviation
20.03
Study Standard Deviation
0.051 “not quite statistically significant”
p-value
Figure 4.5
Control Group: Overall Test Scores
80.26
Pre-Study Mean
82.75
Study Mean
13.42
Pre-Study Standard Deviation
13.48
Study Standard Deviation
0.54 “not statistically significant”
p-value
The control group also completed two tests during the study period. This data
was broken down in the same way as the previous example. On the reading
comprehension section, the scores improved with a mean of 80.11 (see Figure 4.4). The
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
38
standard deviation for the reading comprehension section was 20.03. The overall scores
had a mean of 82.75 and a standard deviation of 13.48 (see Figure 4.5).
The second group, or experimental group, also took the same four assessments as
the control group. The first two tests were administered prior to the study period and the
second two tests were given during the period of study. Data from the first two tests’
(pre-study) reading comprehension section had a mean of 64.77, the exact same score as
the control group (see Figure 4.6). Although the means were identical, the standard
deviations were not. The standard deviation was 25.47 for the reading comprehension
data (see Figure 4.6). The total scores on this set of tests had a mean of 81.21 with a
standard deviation of 11.00 (see Figure 4.7).
The second set of test data (two tests) showed a mean of 82.95 on the reading
comprehension section with a standard deviation of 16.37 (see Figure 4.6). Based on the
mean, the students improved by approximately 18 points on this section compared to the
tests they took before the study. The total test scores for this second group of data had a
mean of 82.08 and a standard deviation of 11.78 (see Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.6
Experimental Group: Reading Comprehension Section
64.77
Pre-Study Mean
82.95
Study Mean
25.47
Pre-Study Standard Deviation
16.37
Study Standard Deviation
0.07 “very statistically significant”
p-value
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
39
Figure 4.7
Experimental Group: Overall Test Scores
81.21
Pre-Study Mean
82.08
Study Mean
11
Pre-Study Standard Deviation
11.78
Study Standard Deviation
0.801 “not statistically significant”
p-value
Another way that the data was analyzed was by using a t-test. T-tests are used to
determine if the difference between two means are statistically significant. In this study,
t-tests were used to compare data in both the control group and experimental groups. The
first two t-tests were used to compare data for the control group. The data came from the
two sets of tests that the students completed – both before and during the study period.
Means from the reading comprehension section as well as the total score were used to
calculate t-tests. The second two t-tests that were calculated came from the same sets of
data, but from the experimental group instead.
Results from the t-test are measured by a p value. “In educational research, two
different levels of significance or probability are generally used: p = .05 and p = .01. A
level of p = .05 means that we can be reasonably certain that only 5 of the differences
might be due to chance or sampling error. A level of p = .01 means that we can be
reasonably certain that only 1% of the differences might be due to chance or sampling
error” (Johnson, 2008, p. 124). Essentially, the smaller the p value, the less probability
there is of sampling error or random chance.
The control group’s p values were measured by comparing the pre and post-study
test data in reading comprehension and total score. After entering the means (64.77 and
80.11) and standard deviations (29.69 and 20.03), the p value for the reading
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
40
comprehension section was calculated to be 0.051 (see Figure 4.4) - which the software
called “not quite statistically significant.” For the total test scores (mean: 80.26 and
82.75; SD: 13.42 and 13.48), p = 0.54 (see Figure 4.5), which was labeled as “not
statistically significant.”
Overall, the experimental group’s t-test data was more statistically significant
than that of the control group (see Figures 4.6 and 4.7). For the reading comprehension
section p = 0.007 (using means: 64.77 and 82.95; SD: 25.47 and 16.37), which the
software distinguished to be “very statistically significant.” This data shows that the
mean between the pre and post-study data was statistically significant for the
experimental group of students in reading comprehension. Despite this, the means for the
total score were considered “not statistically significant.” In this instance p = .801
(means: 81.21 and 82.08; SD: 11.00 and 11.78) and since the means and standard
deviations for the two sections were less than one point different, this result is not
surprising.
Summary
The methodologies listed in this chapter were designed to give the researcher a
clearer idea of how the students in two ninth grade social studies classes performed on inclass assignments and assessments when they used graphic organizers. The students
were divided into two groups – control and experimental – that had similar
characteristics. The research included a Likert survey, informal public observations of
student behaviors, and results (with statistical analysis) of tests given before and during
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
the study. Overall, students in both groups progressed during the study, but the
experimental group showed more growth based on the statistical data.
41
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
42
Chapter 5
Discussion and Recommendations
Overview of Research
The purpose of this study was to find ways to improve student achievement in a
social studies classroom. Social studies courses are centered on reading assignments and
documents, so reading comprehension is a critical skill for students in these classes.
After a thorough review of literature on this topic, many researchers found that graphic
organizers were an effective tool that could assist students in a variety of areas. Many of
these researchers found that story map organizers were particularly effective in social
studies classrooms. Story map organizers focus on having the students discover main
ideas and supporting details by connecting them in an organized, systematic format.
Over the six week study period, students were divided into a control group and an
experimental group. The experimental group was expected to use graphic organizers on
their daily reading assignments. They were also informally, publicly observed by the
researcher while working on these assignments, in an attempt to find trends in their work.
Students in both the control group and experimental group participated in (with parental
permission – see Appendix E) a Likert attitude survey in which they answered questions
about their reading habits. All of the aforementioned activities were designed to answer
two research questions:
1. Do graphic organizers contribute to the students completing in-class readingbased tasks with more regularity?
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
2. Are graphic organizers effective tools to increase student achievement on
assessments?
Summary of Findings
The effectiveness of this study can only be determined by the responses and
work performed by the students over the six week period. This study is based on the
data collected through attitude surveys, observations, and assessments. Even though
the students were divided into two groups (experimental and control), they were all of
approximately the same age and classified into the “academic” track of the social
studies program, the most common track in the district for students to follow.
Student Reading Survey
The student interest survey was given at the start of the unit. The survey was
presented in Likert format. In this format the students rate their attitudes on a number
of pre-determined questions and/or statements prepared by the researcher. In this case,
the statements pertained to the students’ attitudes toward reading, organization, and the
material presented in class.
Overall, students in both the control and experimental groups responded
similarly to the statements in the interest survey. Although they responded that they
were confident in their own abilities in statement #1, the rest of their responses did not
match this confidence. A majority of the students felt that they needed assistance with
their reading in the course, that they were not prepared and/or organized for class, and
that they do not take notes on the materials in class. These responses showed that the
43
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
students needed assistance in these areas. One potential solution to these problems was
using a graphic organizer to improve student reading comprehension, organization, and
achievement in class.
Even though these results painted a picture that the students were in need of
help, the results could have been different in another setting, time period, or context.
High school students can also be fickle in their responses and students may not have
answered the same way two times in a row. In addition, the students were given
specific instructions that the survey was anonymous and voluntary, but they still may
have responded to the statements in the way that they felt the teacher would want them
to answer.
Informal Observations
Over the course of the study, the teacher administered informal, public
observations of student behaviors of the experimental group. These behaviors were
recorded on a checklist each day that the students used the graphic organizers (see
Appendix C). The goal of the checklist was for the researcher to observe how the
students used their class time while working on the graphic organizers, whether they
completed the organizers in their entirety, if this caused the students to use the textbook
more efficiently, and the checklist was also used to determine how long it took the
students to complete the organizers.
Overall, the organizers had the desired effect on in-class work. The majority of
the students were actively working on the organizers on a daily basis. The observations
showed that nearly every student completed the assignments in their entirety. The only
44
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45
exceptions occurred on a few select Fridays and before an extended vacation – which is
typical with students of this age no matter what assignments they are expected to
complete. Although there were no recorded observations prior to the study, there
appeared to be an increase in the number of students who finished the activities. This
type of result also appeared to be true during other aspects of the observation.
The students generally completed all sections of the organizer, rather than only
doing a part and claiming that they were finished with the assignment (as often occurred
prior to the study). This may be due to the fact that the students knew that there were no
certain right/wrong answers. They might have felt more comfortable completing
assignments where their ideas matter. They also tended to go through the text to find the
answers, rather than skimming through the chapter to locate key words and phrases.
Because of these behaviors, the students spent between 20 and 30 minutes completing the
organizers – these results were in line with the goal of 25-30 minutes set prior to the
study.
Tests/Assessment Results
Assessment data was analyzed for students in both the control and experimental
groups in the study. Each group was given two identical tests prior to and during the
study period. These results were analyzed in a number of ways. These four tests were
divided into two sections: objective and reading comprehension. Data was collected by
looking at the test results from the reading comprehension section as well as the overall
scores. These scores were analyzed by determining the mean average for each section of
the data. In addition, the standard deviations were calculated for the data. In order to
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
46
determine if the students in the experimental group and/or control group improved during
the study, a t-test was done to find the statistical significance of the test scores and data.
The control group, who received no classroom modifications, saw their overall
test scores remain relatively flat over the course of pre and post-study periods. The t-test
found the results of the control group to be “not statistically significant.” Ideally, a
control group’s scores would remain fairly steady during a study, and this is no
exception. Unlike the control group, the experimental group received modifications to
their daily activities in class. In this study, they were exposed to graphic organizers on
their daily reading assignments. Even though their overall (mean) scores showed little
improvement, the students in the experimental group showed progress in other areas
since the pre-study period. In particular, the students performed well on the reading
comprehension sections of the tests, which were found to be “statistically significant”
after conducting a t-test. This data falls in line with the research questions, which asked
to see the students improve their test scores during the study.
Reading comprehension scores increased greatly during the study, which was a
positive outcome – but this data suggests that the students performed at a lower level on
the rest of the test during the study period. There could be several factors to explain why
the students performed better on the reading comprehension sections than they did on the
objective portion. First, the students may have been less interested in the material being
used during the study than the materials they analyzed before the study. If this is the
case, it shows that graphic organizers had a positive effect on the students and their
ability and willingness to read and complete assignments. The students might also have
performed better on the reading comprehension sections because they were more
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
47
comfortable with the organizers that accompanied the readings – especially after
consistently using the materials over the six week period.
Another factor could be that the students liked the more open-ended nature of the
graphic organizer assignments. They may have been more relaxed because they knew
that the organizers did not require them to have every detail written in exactly the right
style and format. In addition, there are no absolutes on the graphic organizers. Much of
what the students complete is based on their interpretation of the materials that they are
reading. Too often, students become stressed if they have a slightly different idea for an
answer than is worded in the test or assignment. The reading comprehension section’s
open-endedness could have helped to alleviate some of this stress.
Another possible reason for the outcome could be that the students were more
focused on completing the graphic organizers in-class than they were on other materials
and methods. During the tests, the students might have spent more time reading the
documents and devoted less time to the objective portion. In turn, they could have
focused more intently on their answers for this section. Any or all of these reasons could
explain why reading comprehension scores increased, while the objective scores
decreased over the course of the study.
Conclusions
A thorough review of the current literature on graphic organizers showed that
using these tools in a social studies classroom could improve student reading and overall
achievement levels. Much of the literature recommended using a “story map” graphic
organizer in social studies. This type of organizer was used by the experimental group
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48
approximately 20 times throughout the study to measure student participation on in-class
activities and achievement on assessments and tests.
The first research question was tested by using informal, public observations
recorded by the teacher as the students were completing their graphic organizers. These
observations showed that the students were typically on task completing their graphic
organizers as they read through material in the textbook or other documents. In fact,
there were only a few isolated incidents where a student did not complete the organizer in
the allotted time. Overall, the organizers helped the students meet their in-class goals on
nearly every occasion.
The second research question was tested by analyzing data on tests before and
during the study. The graphic organizers helped the students make progress in their
reading comprehension test scores. In fact, the experimental group’s mean score
increased by over 22 points from the beginning to the end of the study. These scores
indicate that over this particular six week period, graphic organizers effectively helped
the students improve on the reading section of the tests. Although the students’ reading
comprehension results are promising, the mean for the entire test only went up about one
point from the beginning to the end of the study. More time would be needed to see the
full impact of graphic organizers on the overall test scores.
The results of this study show that graphic organizers have some positive effects
on student participation, reading comprehension, and test scores. Students also
completed assignments with more regularity during the study. Since most of the results
of the study are positive, it can be concluded that the graphic organizers should have a
place in a social studies classroom – particularly to assist students with reading
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49
assignments. In the future, more diverse sets of graphic organizers could be used to help
further differentiate instruction.
Limitations of the Study
The goal of this study was to discover if graphic organizers improved student
achievement in a social studies classroom. Despite the successful implementation of all
facets of the study, the results were mixed. The students improved in some areas, while
remaining steady in others.
This study was limited to a review of literature on graphic organizers and their
effectiveness, action research on student behaviors and assessments in the classroom, and
the participation of the students in two ninth grade social studies classes. One class
represented the control group, while the other comprised the experimental group. The
study lasted approximately six weeks.
Everyday teachers have to find ways to reach their students, no matter what is
affecting them outside of school. This study was no different, since the results of the
study could have been skewed by outside factors like demanding extracurricular activities
(clubs, sports, etc.) and events and situations that take place in the students’ homes. In
addition, some students may have progressed more quickly than others for a number of
reasons like their ability level, absences, and ability to focus on the lessons.
Recommendations
The graphic organizers in this study were called “story maps.” They require
students to look specifically at the main ideas and important supporting details of a
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50
reading. There are a number of other types of graphic organizers like Venn diagrams, KW-L charts, and timelines. In the future, it might be beneficial to expand the scope of the
graphic organizers to include other types. This could lead to other opportunities to offer
differentiated instruction for students of different ability levels, learning profiles, and
interests.
The research on this topic was vast, coming from numerous scholarly journals and
books. The majority of the research promoted the use of graphic organizers in the
classroom. Throughout the literature review, there was little research done on the
potential problems with using graphic organizers. This limited the researcher’s ability to
have a list of behaviors or trends to look for during the study. In addition, much of the
literature focused on using graphic organizers on students in the elementary and middle
grade levels. The students in this study were in ninth grade – at the tail end of that
spectrum. The methodology used in this study might be even more beneficial to teachers
and students at the lower grade levels.
Student adaptation to the use of graphic organizers was fairly smooth throughout
the study. In fact, after several observations of student behavior, it was evident that the
students worked hard and usually strived to complete the organizers in a complete,
correct manner. This behavior was unexpected at the beginning of the study. Because
student behavior was generally positive, organizers were implemented on a nearly daily
basis. Only on a few isolated occasions did the students not complete the organizers in
their entirety. These results show that graphic organizers can be an effective tool to get
students to actively engage in their reading during class.
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
51
Despite these positive behaviors, there is no guarantee that the students would not
have behaved this way without the use of graphic organizers. In addition, the results of
the research were not fully supportive of the success of graphic organizers. There were
many positives in the results, but they were not enough to make a definitive conclusion
on their success. There may be other methods that could help the students make progress
even more quickly. In order to fully determine the successfulness of story map graphic
organizers, the study would have to be extended into a period of years, not weeks or
months.
This study has shown that graphic organizers can be beneficial to student learning
– particularly with their reading comprehension. In the study, graphic organizers were
used on an almost daily basis for six weeks. In hindsight, this could have been an
overuse of the organizers. In the future, they should be used more as “advance
organizers” - a compliment to other activities taking place in the classroom. They would
be ideal tools for students to get a better grasp of the materials they would use to prepare
in their reading for role-plays, simulation games, and research projects.
This study showed that students using organizers can improve their reading
comprehension and time on task in the classroom. These results illustrate that graphic
organizers can be a useful classroom tool that leads to increased comprehension in a
variety of areas – not just reading. Improved comprehension should then also lead to
improved assessment scores. Although organizers have some positive results when being
used independently, it would be best to use organizers alongside other methodologies.
This would to provide teachers with a more complete picture of student achievement and
success.
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52
References
Ae-Hwa Kim, B., Vaughn, S., Wanzek, J., & Shangjin Wei, J. (2004, March). Graphic
Organizers and Their Effects on the Reading Comprehension of Students with
LD: A Synthesis of Research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(2), 105-118.
Retrieved February 15, 2008, from Academic Search Complete database.
Arthaud, T., & Goracke, T. (2006, March). Implementing a structured story web and
outline strategy to assist struggling readers. Reading Teacher, 59(6), 581-586.
Retrieved February 15, 2008, from Academic Search Complete database.
Barry, A. (2002, January 1). Reading Strategies Teachers Say They Use. Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46(2), 132. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. EJ653525) Retrieved February 15, 2008, from ERIC database.
Baxendell, B. (2003, January). Consistent, Coherent, Creative The 3 C's of Graphic
Organizers. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(3), 46. Retrieved February 15,
2008, from Academic Search Complete database.
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53
Bellanca, J. (2007). A guide to graphic organizers: helping students organize and process
content for deeper learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Dangel, S. (2006). Linking literacy to teaching history (report for Center for Social
Organization of Schools/Talent Development Middle Grades). Baltimore, MD:
The Johns Hopkins University.
Farris, P.J. (2001). Elementary & middle school social studies: an interdisciplinary
instructional approach. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education
Fordham, N., Wellman, D., & Sandmann, A. (2002, January 1). Taming the Text:
Engaging and Supporting Students in Social Studies Readings. Social Studies,
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Hinde, E. (2005). Revisiting curriculum integration: A fresh look at an old idea. Social
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Complete database.
Gallavan, N., & Kottler, E. (2007). Eight types of graphic organizers for empowering
social studies students and teachers. Social Studies, 98(3), 117-128. Retrieved
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November 25, 2007, from Education Research Complete database.
Gillet, W.G., & Temple, C. (1994). Understanding reading problems: assessment and
instruction. New York, NY: HarperCollins College Publishers.
Guzzetti, B., & Others, A. (1992, January 1). Using a Literature-Based Approach to
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database.
Johnson, A.P. (2008). A short guide to action research. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Katims, D., & Harmon, J. (2000). Strategic instruction in middle school social studies:
Enhancing academic and literacy outcomes for at-risk students. Intervention in
School and Clinic, 35(5), 280. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
EJ606599) Retrieved December 2, 2007, from ERIC database.
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Marchand-Martella, N., Miller, T., & MacQueen, C. (1998, January). Graphic organizers.
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Merkley, D., & Jefferies, D. (2000, December). Guidelines for implementing a graphic
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Myers, M., & Savage, T. (2005). Enhancing student comprehension of social studies
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Robinson, D., Katayama, A., Beth, A., Odom, S., Hsieh, Y., & Vanderveen, A. (2006,
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Partial Graphic Organizer. Journal of Educational Research, 100(2), 103-111.
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Author. Retrieved November 27, 2007, from http://answers.ed.gov/cgibin/education.cfg/php/enduser/std_adp.php?p_faqid=6&p_sid=O4782p1j&p_lva=
4&p_accessibility=0&p_redirect=&p_sp=cF9zcmNoPSZwX3NvcnRfYnk9JnBfZ
3JpZHNvcnQ9JnBfcm93X2NudD0xMjgsMTI4JnBfcHJvZHM9JnBfY2F0cz0mc
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3BhZ2U9MQ
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Appendix A
History Frame
Mr. Klugh
Subject: _______________________________________
Title of Event:
Key people/participants:
Problem or Goal:
Where:
When:
↓
Key Events/Episodes:
Outcome/Resolution:
→
Theme/Lesson/So What?
58
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Narrative Frame
Mr. Klugh
Theme/Title:
In this chapter, the problem begins when…
After that…
Then,
Next,
Next,
Then,
Next,
The problem is solved when…
The problem ends with…
59
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60
Appendix B
Student Reading Survey
The following questions will ask you about your reading and organizational skills in this
class. Please think carefully about your responses and be as honest as possible. Thank
you.
Key:
5 = Strongly Agree
4 = Agree
3 = No opinion
2 = Disagree
1 = Strongly Disagree
1. I feel comfortable with the vocabulary being used in this course.
5………4………3………2………1
2. The sequence of events in this course flow together smoothly.
5………4………3………2………1
3. I feel confused when I read the materials for this course.
5………4………3………2………1
4. I have a method of organizing the materials that I complete in this course.
5………4………3………2………1
5. I take notes while I read from the textbook.
5………4………3………2………1
6. The reading materials and topics in this course interest me.
5………4………3………2………1
7. I enjoy reading.
5………4………3………2………1
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Appendix C
Graphic Organizer Checklist
Date: ______________
How many students are actively working on the graphic organizer?
___ 20+ ___15-19
___10-14
___ 5-9
___0-4
How many students are completing all sections of the organizer?
___ 20+ ___15-19
___10-14
___ 5-9
___0-4
Are the students actively engaged in using the textbook?
___ All students
students
___ Most students ___ About ½ of students ___ Less than ½ of
How long does it take for all of the students to complete the organizer?
___30+ minutes ___25-29 minutes
___less than 15 minutes
___20-24 minutes
___15-19 minutes
61
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62
Appendix D
Tests/Assessments
The New Nation: Unit 4 Test
America Advances and Expands
U.S. History
Mr. Klugh
Part 1: Matching
1.
2.
3.
4.
Macadam Roads
National Road
Corduroy Roads
Plank Roads
A. Roads created by placing logs side-by-side
B. Road that connected the east coast and Mississippi River
C. Roads created by placing flat pieces of wood together
D. Roads created by laying a rock base with an asphalt top layer
Part 2: Multiple Choice
5. Who was responsible for the construction of the Erie Canal?
a. Thomas Jefferson
b. Andrew Jackson
c. James Monroe
d. DeWitt Clinton
6. According to the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the president had the power to…
a. Destroy the villages of Indian tribes in the west
b. Force the Indians to move northward into Canada
c. Legally move the Indians west of the Mississippi River
d. Cut trade with Indian tribes
7. Which of the following was a nickname for the steam engine?
a. Power Pony
b. Iron Horse
c. Steam Trackers
d. Tom Thumb
8. Who started using interchangeable parts on their products?
a. Francis Cabot Lowell
b. Samuel Slater
c. Eli Whitney
d. John Quincy Adams
9. What did the invention of the cotton gin do to the south?
a. Increased the amount of poverty among slave owners
b. Forced them to compete with European cotton producers
c. Increased slavery all over the region
d. Made the southern people lazy
10. Where did Americans get most of their goods from before the Revolutionary War?
a. Great Britain
b. India
c. Spain
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63
d. South America
11. How did the Supreme Court rule in Worcester v. Georgia?
a. That the Cherokee Indians should move westward immediately
b. That the government should set aside land in Georgia for the tribes
c. That it was unconstitutional and wrong to move the Indians from their land
d. That the Cherokee Indians were now citizens of the U.S.A
12. What deal did Osceola attempt to make with the U.S. government to save his people, the
Seminole Indians?
a. The Seminoles would allow the white Americans to take their land in exchange
for money
b. The Seminoles would move if the U.S. government would provide protection for
them against the Creeks
c. They made no deal with the government and decided to go to war with the U.S.
d. They would move west if the government would recognize their tribe as an
independent nation
13. How did the Erie Canal influence the growth of New York City?
a. The Canal diverted traffic around the city, causing no growth
b. The Canal connected New York and Baltimore, making both cities grow
c. The Canal connected New York with Lake Erie and the west, leading to huge
growth
d. The Canal only lasted a few years, making its effects on the city unclear
14. Which of the following is NOT a way that the Cherokee were adapting to the ways of the
White Americans?
a. Set up trading posts on the coast
b. Converted to Christianity
c. Wrote a Constitution
d. Built a capital city
15. What was the result of the Seminole War?
a. The Seminoles were able to keep their land in Florida
b. The U.S. sent Creek Indians into their land afterward
c. The Seminoles were forced to pay money after they lost
d. Neither side was able to win convincingly
16. Whose introduction of interchangeable parts revolutionized the way that products were
made and used?
a. Samuel Slater
b. Eli Whitney
c. Osceola
d. John Q. Adams
17. What was President Jackson’s reaction to the Worcester v. Georgia case?
a. He supported the result and allowed the Cherokee to remain in Georgia
b. He supported the result and gave the Cherokee special trading benefits
c. He opposed the result and resigned as president
d. He ignored the actions of the Supreme Court and fought for removal
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64
18. Where did the Erie Canal begin and end?
a. New York City and Baltimore
b. Albany and Baltimore
c. Albany and Buffalo
d. Boston and Buffalo
19. How did shipping costs change as a result of the Erie Canal?
a. Greatly decreased
b. Greatly increased
c. Barely increased
d. Barely decreased
20. Who invented the first working steamboat, which sailed on the Hudson River and
improved trade?
a. Robert Fulton
b. George Stephenson
c. Francis Cabot Lowell
d. Samuel Worcester
21. What was the MAIN reason why white Americans continually pushed Indians westward?
a. They believed the Indians would be better off in the west
b. They felt that the Indians could live in harmony together
c. They wanted the valuable farmland where they lived
d. They were afraid to go to war with the tribes
Part 3 – Reading Comprehension: Read the following excerpt and answer the questions that
follow.
Indian Removal
In 1830 John Ross, Principal Chief of the Cherokee, made a speech to the Iroquois League
Read the words of John Ross, and then answer the questions below.
"Brothers: The tradition of our Fathers . . . tells us that this great and extensive Continent was
once the sole and exclusive abode of our race. . . . Ever since [the whites came] we have been
made to drink of the bitter cup of humiliation; treated like dogs . . . our country and the graves of
our Fathers torn from us . . . through a period of upwards of 200 years, rolled back, nation upon
nation [until] we find ourselves fugitives, vagrants and strangers in our own country. . . .
"The existence of the Indian Nations as distinct Independent Communities within the limits of the
United States seems to be drawing to a close. . . . You are aware that our Brethren, the Choctaws,
Chickasaws and Creeks of the South have severally disposed of their country to the United States
and that a portion of our own Tribe have also emigrated West of the Mississippi -- but that the
largest portion of our Nation still remain firmly upon our ancient domain. . . . Our position there
may be compared to a solitary tree in an open space, where all the forest trees around have been
prostrated by a furious tornado."
Answer the following questions in one sentence. Be sure to answer in complete sentences.
22. What is John Ross’ main idea in this excerpt?
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
23. What does Ross say happened to other Indian groups?
24. How is imagery used by Ross to describe the Cherokee nation?
25. Based on the reading and context clues, give a brief definition of “abode”.
Part 4 – Short Answer
26. What were three problems that the tribes encountered on the “Trail of Tears”?
27. What were three characteristics of the Industrial Revolution?
Part 5 – Essay – Answer in 4-5 paragraph format to receive full credit.
•
How did the Industrial Revolution change the way Americans lived? Be sure to give a
number of examples and describe their importance.
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The New Nation
Unit 5 Test: History’s Paradox
U.S. History
Mr. Klugh
Part 1: Matching
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Emancipate
Doctrine
Paradox
Triumvirate
Abolish
A. A group of three people
B. A contradiction, two things that cannot happen at once
C. To do away with something
D. To set free
E. An important policy
Part 2: Multiple Choice
6. Which of the following people ran for president 5 times?
a. John C. Calhoun
b. Andrew Jackson
c. Henry Clay
d. Daniel Webster
7. Which of the following is the best reason why John Calhoun called slavery a “positive
good”?
a. He wants to make sure that southerners stay unified on the slavery issue
b. He wants slavery to sound like a good and noble institution
c. He wants to convince the northerners that slavery is not as bad as it seems
d. He wants to keep the slaves on his plantation brainwashed
8. What part of the Constitution banned slave trade after 1808?
a. Article I, Section 2
b. Article I, Section 9
c. Article II, Section 2
d. Article II, Section 9
9. What event triggered the beginning of the reign of “King Cotton”?
a. The end of the slave trade
b. The Revolutionary War
c. The invention of the steam engine
d. The invention of the cotton gin
10. Other than Missouri, which state entered the Union during the Missouri Compromise?
a. Massachusetts
b. Louisiana
c. Florida
d. Maine
11. Which of the following is the best definition of an “abolitionist”?
a. They wanted an immediate end to slavery
b. They wanted a slow, gradual end to slavery
c. They wanted slavery to slowly expand westward
d. They wanted an alliance between southern and western states
12. Why was William Henry Harrison nicknamed “Old Tippecanoe”?
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An Analysis of the Effectiveness
a.
b.
c.
d.
He helped command the Indians at the Battle of Tippecanoe
He invaded Prophetstown and won the Battle of Tippecanoe
He ran the American forces in the French and Indian War
He commanded the Americans in the Seminole War
13. What was the main reason that slavery did not end?
a. Slavery represented money and strong economy in the south
b. Slavery was necessary to make the United States strong
c. Slaves would be too much trouble if they were freed
d. Slaves needed replaced often because many of them died working
14. Who was the only president from Pennsylvania?
a. James K. Polk
b. James Madison
c. James Buchanan
d. Benjamin Franklin
15. What types of people supported Daniel Webster in his bid for the presidency?
a. Rural farmers
b. Plantation owners
c. Business owners and lawyers
d. Western frontiersmen
16. What did Frederick Douglass learn while he was a slave in Baltimore?
a. How to become a businessman
b. How to exchange currencies
c. How to read and write
d. How to avoid slave auctions
17. What was the result of Paul Cuffe’s protests against the government?
a. He was defeated and sent to jail
b. He was deported back to Africa
c. He earned the right to vote
d. His case never made it to court
18. What did both white and black southerners like to do during their leisure time?
a. They wrote books about the South
b. They told each other stories about their lives
c. They took long walks on the farm
d. They vacationed in Europe
19. Who convinced the western states to avoid joining up with the south during a debate in
the Senate?
a. Robert Young Hayne
b. Daniel Webster
c. John C. Calhoun
d. Andrew Jackson
20. What is the most important paradox listed in your textbook from this period?
a. Slavery occurred in a land of freedom
b. The legal end of the slave trade in 1808 actually made slavery grow
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68
c. Fairness is part of the constitution, but it is not outlawed in the document
d. America has been both a dream and a nightmare
21. How many people were lynched by mobs between 1840-1860 in the south?
a. 300
b. 3000
c. 100
d. 1000
Part 3 – Reading Comprehension: Read the excerpts and answer the questions that follow in
complete sentences.
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass
Published in 1845
“I never saw my mother more than four or five times in my life. She made her journeys to see me
in the night, travelling the whole distance on foot [12 miles], after the performance of her day’s
work. She was a field hand, and a whipping is the penalty of not being in the field at sunrise. I
do not recollect of ever seeing my mother by the light of day. She was with me in the night. She
would lie down with me, and get me to sleep, but long before I waked she was gone….She died
when I was about seven years old….I was not allowed to be present during her illness, at her
death, or burial.”
22. What was the main idea of this paragraph?
23. Why did Frederick’s mother only see him during the nighttime hours?
THE CHURCH AND PREJUDICE
(Speech delivered at the Plymouth County Anti-Slavery Society, November 4, 1841)
“People in general will say they like colored men as well as any other, but in their proper place.
They assign us that place; they don’t let us do it ourselves nor will they allow us a voice in that
decision. They will not allow that we have a head to think, and a heart to feel and a soul to
aspire….That’s the way we are liked. You degrade us, and then ask why we are degraded – you
shut our mouths and then ask why we don’t speak – you close your colleges and seminaries
against us, and they ask why we don’t know more.”
24. What was the main idea of this paragraph?
25. Based on the reading and context clues, give a brief definition of “degraded”.
Part 4 – Short Answer
26. Name three states that were added to the United States during the presidency of James K.
Polk?
27. What was unique about Martin Van Buren’s birth?
Part 5 – Essay: Answer in 4-5 paragraph format to receive full credit.
•
Explain the abolitionist movement and Frederick Douglass’ role in that movement.
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69
Appendix E
Consent and Assent Forms
Dear parent/guardian:
My name is Jeffrey Klugh (your child’s social studies teacher) and I am currently
working on my master’s degree at California University of Pennsylvania. The final
requirement for the master’s degree is the successful completion of a thesis. My
thesis is entitled “Student Reading Comprehension: An Analysis of the Effectiveness
of Graphic Organizers in a Social Studies Classroom.” In order to make this project a
success, I will be analyzing data from both of my U.S. History classes. I will also be
conducting two short surveys in class around March 14, 2008 and April 10, 2008.
These surveys will be used for me to collect data on my classes and they will not be
used in any way that would incur risks on you or your child. To allay any fears you
might have, your child will not be required to provide their name on the survey, nor
will they be asked to provide any information that would make them identifiable. I
will be the only person to make use of the information from the surveys and the
surveys will remain in my personal possession or locked away in a filing cabinet here
at the school. This survey has been approved by the University’s Institutional Review
Board for use during the next 12 months (02/27/2008-02/26/2009). Please remember
that this survey is anonymous and voluntary.
Please understand that by signing this form you are also consenting to your child’s
participation in this study as a member of the control group/class. This means that
your child will continue participating in class as they have throughout the course of
this school year (the experimental class will be exposed to graphic organizers on a
consistent basis over the next two months).
Thank you,
Mr. Jeffrey Klugh
[email protected]
(570) 398-7170 x1133
I, ___________________________ (please sign here) permit my son/daughter,
____________________________________, to participate in the above experiment
and survey in their U.S. History class.
Date signed: _____________________
Dear parent/guardian:
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
70
My name is Jeffrey Klugh (your child’s social studies teacher) and I am currently
working on my master’s degree at California University of Pennsylvania. The final
requirement for the master’s degree is the successful completion of a thesis. My
thesis is entitled “Student Reading Comprehension: An Analysis of the Effectiveness
of Graphic Organizers in a Social Studies Classroom.” In order to make this project a
success, I will be analyzing data from both of my U.S. History classes. I will also be
conducting two short surveys in class around March 14, 2008 and April 10, 2008.
These surveys will be used for me to collect data on my classes and they will not be
used in any way that would incur risks on you or your child. To allay any fears you
might have, your child will not be required to provide their name on the survey, nor
will they be asked to provide any information that would make them identifiable. I
will be the only person to make use of the information from the surveys and the
surveys will remain in my personal possession or locked away in a filing cabinet here
at the school. This survey has been approved by the University’s Institutional Review
Board for use during the next 12 months (02/27/2008-02/26/2009). Please remember
that this survey is anonymous and voluntary.
Please understand that by signing this form you are also consenting to your child’s
participation in this study as a member of the experimental group/class. This means
that your child will be asked to use graphic organizers on a consistent basis during the
next two months (the control class will continue to participate in class as they have
during the school year).
Thank you,
Mr. Jeffrey Klugh
[email protected]
(570) 398-7170 x1133
I, ___________________________ (please sign here) permit my son/daughter,
_________________________________, to participate in the above experiment and
survey in their U.S. History class.
Date signed: _____________________
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
71
Assent to participate in an anonymous survey/research study
Dear student,
During this semester I will be working on my thesis to complete my master’s degree
program at California University of Pennsylvania. While I am working on this
project, I will be analyzing data from our classes. One of the classes will be part of
the control group – this group continues to participate in class as they have
throughout the school year. The other group, the experimental group, will be working
with graphic organizers during class. In order to start this project, I will be
conducting a brief reading survey with you around March 14, 2008 and April 10,
2008. Even though I am your teacher, I want you to know that your participation is
voluntary and optional. Keep in mind that anything that you include in this survey
will remain anonymous. If you are willing to participate, sign this form on the line
provided. The University’s Institutional Review Board has approved the use of this
survey for use over the next 12 months (02/27/2008-02/26/2009). Remember, this
survey is anonymous and voluntary.
Thank you,
Mr. Klugh
[email protected]
I, ____________________________, will participate in the reading survey and
research study as a member of the control group.
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
72
Assent to participate in an anonymous survey/research study
Dear student,
During this semester I will be working on my thesis to complete my master’s degree
program at California University of Pennsylvania. While I am working on this
project, I will be analyzing data from our classes. One of the classes will be part of
the control group – this group continues to participate in class as they have
throughout the school year. The other group, the experimental group, will be working
with graphic organizers during class. In order to start this project, I will be
conducting a brief reading survey with you around March 14, 2008 and April 10,
2008. Even though I am your teacher, I want you to know that your participation is
voluntary and optional. Keep in mind that anything that you include in this survey
will remain anonymous. If you are willing to participate, sign this form on the line
provided. The University’s Institutional Review Board has approved the use of this
survey for use over the next 12 months (02/27/2008-02/26/2009). Remember, this
survey is anonymous and voluntary.
Thank you,
Mr. Klugh
[email protected]
I, ____________________________, will participate in the reading survey and
research study as a member of the experimental group.
An Analysis of the Effectiveness
73
Appendix F
IRB Approval
Institutional Review Board
California University of Pennsylvania
Psychology Department LRC, Room 310
250 University Avenue
California, PA 15419
[email protected]
Robert Skwarecki, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, Chair
Dear Jeffrey Klugh,
Please consider this email as official notification that your proposal titled "Student
Reading Comprehension: An Analysis of Graphic Organizers in a Social Studies
Classroom" ( proposal # 07-041 ) has been approved by the California University of
Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board with stipulation:
-It is indicated that the surveys will be kept in a locked file cabinet, but does not state
exactly where. You need to specify a university office or another appropriate place.
You may begin data collection immediately after you edit the consent form. Please send a
copy of the form at your earliest convenience for the Board’s records..
The effective date of the approval is 2-27-2008 and the expiration date is 2-26-2009. These
dates must appear on the consent form.
Please note that Federal Policy requires that you notify the IRB promptly regarding any of
the following:
-(1) Any additions or changes in procedures you might wish for your study (additions or
changes must be approved by the IRB before they are implemented)
-(2) Any events that affect the safety or well-being of subjects
-(3) Any modifications of your study or other responses that are necessitated by any
events reported in (2)
-(4) To continue your research beyond the approval expiration date of 2-26-2009, you must
file additional information to be considered for continuing review. Please contact
[email protected]
Please notify the Board when data collection is complete.
You can pick up your paperwork in Morgan Hall room 310 at the hours listed below
Amy Gregg
IRB Graduate Assistant
*Note: All requested changes were made for the study