Rhetorical
Rhetorical Figures in Classical
Classical NewNew-Persian
[email protected]@orientphil.uni-halle.de
(University
(University of HalleHalle-Wittenberg / Germany)
I.
Bayān („[eloquence of a] formulation“): Bayān refers to the art of
expressing meaning in different ways, used by the poet to express his
aims, whereas some of those means of expression are obvious while
some remain hidden: An act of speech or a word can find use by its
literal meaning or the meaning aimed for can be expressed in the form
of tašbīh (Comparison), maÊāz (in the figurative sense), isti‘ārah (metaphor)
respectively kināyah (allusion).
I.1 Tašbīh („Comparison“):
‫ى‬
‫شوه‬
‫را‬
‫ى‬
‫دا‬
(‫ن‬
)
Tašbīh = the claim, that two or more objects are comparable.
Mušabbah = „Primum comparationis“, that, what is being compared.
Mušabbahun bihi = „Secundum comparationis“, that, what the p. c. is compared with.
Wağh-i šabh = „Tertium comparationis“, the shared element or elements of the p. c. and s. c.,
which generally is stronger expressend by the s.c.
Adāt-i tašbīh = the word, that connects the two Elements of Comparison, as for example: čun
(„like“).
I.2.1 TašbīhTašbīh-i Balīġ
Balīġ („striking comparison“):
$
%‫ ز ر‬%
‫؟‬
%$
% ()
:
‫"! را‬
(‫ن‬
)
A Comparison will be more effective, if the t. c. is avoided, so that the recipient has the chance
to freely seek the linking element of the comparison by himself. Altogether there are three
sorts of tašbīh-i baliġ:
a) predicative, when the s. c. becomes the predicate: ‘ilm nūr ast
b) Comparison-Eżāfet, when the p. c. is added to the s. c. as an Eżāfet: daraxt-i dūstī; miss-i
wuğūd
c) Comparison-Eżāfet, when the s.c. is added to the p. c. as an Eżāfet: lab-i la‘l, qadd-i sarw
1.2.2 TašbīhTašbīh-i Mufrad, TašbīhTašbīh-i Murakkab
Murakkab („simple/single
(„simple/single Comparison, extensive
Comparison“)
(9: ; ‫ م )د" ان‬+ , ‫ن ه‬
‫ آ‬./% ‫ ن‬0 ‫ و‬.‫ آ‬,
1 ‫ م‬2 ‫ت‬
4 5 . ‫ و‬,2 6 7 ‫ ه‬1
(‫ن‬
)
( 5 %=
‫ نآ‬7 ‫? > ده‬
/‫د‬
@ %4
$‫د" = ى اه‬
A simple comparison includes only one s.c., in which all the characteristics, that constitute the
t.c., are represented (example nr. 1). As for an extensive comparison the t.c. is to be identified
within two of even more elements; sets of terms are being compared with each other, resulting
in the existence of at least two pairs of comparison. Therefor it is the semantic intertwining of
two or more elements within the p.c. or s.c. that constitutes the t.c. (example nr. 2)
I.3.1 Isti‘ārahIsti‘ārah-yi Mu
Mu??ara
??ara@
ara@ah („explicit metaphor“)
(9: ; ‫ي )د" ان‬
‫ درو"> و‬% ‫دان‬
( @
"‫ا‬
‫ا‬
B"‫ درو‬%
‫دي ا‬
‫ زار ا‬% ."‫در ا‬
A comparison becomes a metaphor, if the whole construction is reduced to the secundum
comparationis. As a consequence of this, the terms in question are not to be understood in
their literal meaning (as in the cited example bāzār refers to „the hustle and bustle in the
world“ and not simply „marketplace“). However, because of the outstanding characteristic
within the s.c., the p.c. and t.c. are easily detected. Thus a comparison defines similarity, a
metaphor on the contrary identity. The latter produces a stronger literary impression than the
comparison.
1.3.2 Isti‘ārahIsti‘ārah-yi Mukannīyah
Mukannīyah („indicating metaphor“)
(
‫ ه‬5) ‫د و آ‬
‫زِ" آ ن آ ر‬
‫ه‬
? >‫ وه‬: ‫دون‬
‫نز‬
DE
The indicating metaphor consists of a primum comparationis, that shares elements or
characteristics of the secundum comparationis. Those characteristics correspond to the
tertium comparationis. Because of the higher intellectual effort to decode the indicating
metaphor, its litarary impression is stronger than that of the explicit comparison.
I.4. Haqīqat wa Mağāz
Ma z („litarally and figuratively/ metonymy“)
:
J ‫ال‬
H" ‫ و ا" ان‬5 ‫ ا‬0‫ در ا" ان ا‬H/+ )‫ ي ا‬I"‫ ز‬%.
3aqīqat: The most common and direct use of a term, that one can think of.
Mağāz: The indirect and less common use of a term, in the case of existence of ‘Alāqah and
Qarīnah.
‘Alāqah: The relation and the connecting element between litaral and figurative meaning of a
term, as a necessary condition for the existence of figurative meaning. In theory a vast variety
of ‘alāqah is possible. The most important are ğuz4iyah (pars pro toto); kulliyah (vice versa: totum
pro parte); ma5alliyah (The location of an Object is used instead of the object itself); the vessel
instead of its content (a „glas“); the resource instead of the product („steel“ instead of „blade“
or „swort“).
Qarīnah: A mark, indicating, that the term is used figuratively and not in its literal meaning.
The figurative meaning benefits from the fact, that the number of terms is limited, while
meaning itself seems indefinite. So through the use of metonymy language is being expanded,
while on the other hand the declarative use of terms is being condensed. The metaphor is
related to the comparison as well as to the metonymy.
I.5 Kināyah („reference
(„reference to / allusion“)
allusion“)
(
(
‫ ه‬5)
(‫ن‬
‫ ه‬5)
‫" ش‬L /5 ‫ ى‬% .‫ه ز از ده‬
>? % ."‫ ز‬I ،."‫ ز‬% >? ,I
) ‫ روى‬.
‫ر آ رى‬
5‫اى در‬
‫آ‬
N >%
‫ا‬
( ‫ر‬
‫=ا‬
‫ ا‬./
%
/ ‫ه‬
An allusion points out certain circumstances in a hidden or concealed manner. To understand
a kināyah its meaning has to be grasped through logical thinking.
II.
II.
Badī‘ („teaching of speech figures“): The art of linguistic embellishment and
arrangement of meaningful statements: wāğ ārāyī (alliteration), sağ‘ (rimeprose),
talmī5 (allusion to [narrative tradition]) and tażmīn (Insertion of third party quotes).
II.
II.1 Wāğ
Wā Ārāyī („alliteration“)
Two or more terms have the same initial sound of syllable, creating a special sound of
recitation.
(9: ; ‫ )د" ان‬O/ L / ‫ د‬5 (‫آ‬
1‫ل‬
(‫ن‬
(
‫ ه‬5)
/1
‫ ان‬/‫آ‬
‫ ز‬1 ‫آ‬
‫ د‬% (‫اه‬
‫ك‬
%‫د‬
% 1‫ل‬
%) , " /5 ‫ اب و‬5 ‫ و‬4 5 ‫ ه و‬5 ‫و‬
‫ ا‬/? ‫ ام‬I%
/E %
5 ‫ روى‬5 ‫ن‬
‫ل‬/
‫ ا‬R5
5
An alliteration strengthens the inner melody of verse and so its impression, which emphasizes
the relation of interconnected terms. Furthermore it allows for a higher memorability,
especially if words within a verse start with the same consonants or vowels.
II.2 Sağ‘
Sa ‘ („rimeprose“)
‫ل‬
%
(‫ن‬
‫ ا‬$T
% U ‫ر‬O% ‫ل و‬
%
‫ ه ا‬%‫ ي‬S‫ ا‬1
)
Rimeprose terms the (outer) similarity of wordendings of two terms, their identical prosody or
synchrony. It will occur, if there are at least two sentences, for rimeprose is applied always at
the end of a sentence.
ٍII.2.1
II.2.1 Modes of rimeprose
( /)‫و‬W‫آ = ا‬X1)
/
" I ‫ ب را‬2
(‫ن‬
(‫ن‬
)‫ ل‬0 %‫د‬
! L I% ‫ از‬،
) 4" Y H
% ."‫و د‬
‫ ز‬:‫" و‬
‫ آ ل‬%‫د‬
/
" V ‫را‬
2
‫ ا‬$ % ."‫ د‬% H
$T ‫ را‬Z‫آ‬
‫ه‬
There are three different kinds of rimeprose: 1. Sameness of the last letters (sağ‘-i muJarraf)
(example 1). 2. Sameness of prosody (sağ‘-i mutuwazin) (example. 2) 3. Both at the same time
(sağ‘-i mutuwāzī) (example. 3).
Naturally rimeprose is to be found rather in prose, where it helps to generate a melody of
recitation within the sentences.
II.2.2 Muwāzinah wa Tarsī‘ („the same rhythm and embellishment“)
(
2
1
‫دام‬
‫در‬
(% [
1
‫د‬
‫در‬
(5 ‫ه‬
1
‫ذوق‬
‫وز‬
( ‫ ا‬/;
1
^6‫و‬
‫در‬
(Z 5 ‫))د" ان‬
The quoted verse is build up of two hemistiches of in each case two sentences, whose
respective elements have been arranged facing each other. The elements of the columns are
prosodically related to each other ( sağ‘-i mutuwāzin). This collateral prosody emphasizes the
euphony, that is already inherent in the verses. Here, it is the case of Muwāzinah (same
rhythm), that is additionally called „embellishment“ (tar?ī‘), if the elements of the parallel
columns are of prosody as well as having the same wordendings:
(‫ن‬
) ( ‫دا‬
R/V B
% ‫ ( و در‬/% , R/ ‫ _ ه ش‬%
ٍII.3
II.3 Ḡinās („unison [and wordplay] / Paronomasia“)
(
‫ ه‬5) ‫ د‬5 = 5 ‫ ر > ن و از‬B ‫ از ر‬5
‫ د‬I % ."‫ و ز‬/) % ، /%
Unison and wordplay result from the identity or the morphological similarity of at least two
terms of different meaning. Therefor it is possible, that two terms differ only in meaning or
additionally in one consonant or vowel. Besides the special sound of words, generated by the
Ḡinās, its beauty stems from it causing a confusion between the different levels of meaning.
II.
II.3.1
Ḡināsinās-i tām („complete unison“)
The complete identity of two terms, while they differ in meaning:
(9: ; ‫ )د" ان‬, !5 E‫ر‬
II.
II.3.2
% ‫ن را‬
‫ دو‬R E ‫ آ‬1
`/‫ روز ه‬% U !5 . 5‫ د‬R E ‫ آ‬R`
Ḡināsinās-i nāqi?
nāqi?-i @arikatī (“incomplete unison regarding short vowels“)
If two terms differ only in their short vowel, so that the parallel sound of recitation is caused
by the repetition of the same consonants only.
‫ ) @ ى‬Z‫زار آ‬L % ‫ دد‬S ,Y‫آ را‬
II.
II.3.3
Z% "‫ ا‬/? H ./ ‫ را ه‬H )
Ḡināsinās-i nāqi?
nāqi?-i iÌtilāfī (“incomplete unison regarding the consonants“)
If two terms differ in their first, middle or last consonant.
(9: ; ‫ا را )د" ان‬
II.
II.3.4
‫ رون آ‬E
‫ ه‬N / /‫ آ‬." ‫آ‬
‫ آ ش و‬B/ ‫در‬
S1‫م‬S‫ه‬
Ḡināsinās-i nāqi?
nāqi?-i afzāyašī
afzāyašī (“incomplete unison [because of ] additions”)
In this case two unisonous terms differ in their number of letters
(
‫ ه‬5) ‫ا‬
B ‫ر‬a %‫ ش‬L‫ش‬
%
‫ا‬
B ‫> ن در‬:‫ن در‬L "‫د‬
II.
II.4 Ištiqāq („derivation“)
Derivation relates to words of arabic of persian root, that originate in the same wordstem. By
their use the sound of recitation is intensified.
(9: ; ‫ د )د" ان‬% ‫> ق‬
% ‫ د"( او‬% ‫ ج‬2 ‫ و‬%
(9: ; ‫)د" ان‬
‫ وار‬/ ‫ا‬
‫؟‬5
% % ‫آ‬
c5
% ‫ د‬:‫ا‬
‫ ش‬% cd‫ و وا‬e
‫" ى @> ق ا‬
‫دان‬
; e ‫ ز ر‬W‫د‬
II.5 Tikrār („Repetition“)
(9: ; ‫ )د" ان‬, ‫د‬L
‫وز‬
" % S"‫د‬
)
‫ د‬% "L ,
‫آ‬
()
‫در‬
‫د‬L
Tikrār means single or repeated repetition of one or more terms within a verse or a sentence,
whereby the sound of recitation is being intensified. If the respective term is used at the
beginning aswell as the ending of a verse, it is additionally called „ta?dīr“.
II.6 Murā‘āt-i Nażīr („harmonic illustration/ Accumulatio“)
"‫ا‬O: U
NO? ‫ن‬
(Z 5 ‫ا" )د" ان‬O:
‫ن‬L ‫از‬
/% ‫ رش‬1
"L % ‫م‬
‫دد‬
‫ا‬. ‫ك‬
‫د" ا‬
‫ز‬
‫ و‬/
Acculmulatio refers to the use of terms belonging to the same topic. These topical relations
can be of all kinds, as place, time or material. Accumulatio is the figure of speech the most
applied in classical persian prose and verse.
II.
II.7 Talmī@
Talmī@ („Allusion to [narrative tradition]“)
By means of allusion a text refers to the realm of historical or mythological facts, that are
assumed to be known. The effectiveness of an allusion thereby depends on level of education
of the recipient:
‫ ا‬.‫ آ = آ‬: ‫ه آ‬
% ." /5 ‫ ر‬5
S5
‫آ رى ا‬
‫ هد‬:‫نآ ن‬
/%
ٍII.8
II.8 Tażmīn („Insertion [of third party quotes]“)
Hereby it is refered to the insertion of verses of the koran, prophetic transmissions or verses of
other poets in the authors speech. Those third party quotes are supposed to show the high
degree of the authors education and appeal at the same time to the educational background
of the reader:
(9: ; ‫)د" ان‬
‫" ه‬L ‫ ن‬/)
‫ ى‬0‫ ى‬%B /
II.
II.9 Tażżād („[contrast via] Oppositeness“)
O‫آ‬
(/‫ ى ده‬E
‫ ك‬1 ‫ ان‬%
1 O/
The use of antonyms supports the climax and contrast within statements of prose or verse:
U5
=‫ م زد‬5 ‫د‬
‫دو‬
‫آ ا‬N
‫ن‬
. 5‫ ن دو د‬/ ‫ در‬.g
(‫ن‬
)
II.
II.10 Tanāquż („paradox“)
(„paradox“)
The use of two terms paradoxal of meaning, that causes a high value of aesthetic sensation.
The logical paradox, however, has to harmonize with the linguistic beauty of the textual
composition:
(‫) @ ى‬
‫ ا‬S"‫ د‬N 0 ()‫ و د‬4 0 ‫ ن‬/ ‫ در‬.
‫ = اى؟‬/ 5 R" V Y ; ‫ د‬0‫ و‬O ‫ه‬
II.
II.11 Uississ-Āmīzī („intermixture of sensory perception / synaesthesia“)
Synaesthesia means the perception of a term by a sense not usually associated to it („see, what
i have to say“). By this way the impression of speech and aesthetics can be intensified.
(Z 5 ‫ م )د" ان‬5 , .
‫) و‬W ‫ ز‬1 a ‫ر‬
‫ م‬5U .
‫ از‬1 .‫ ى ده‬%
(‫ ى‬I+ ‫ اب‬I ) (/>7% ‫ را‬, 5‫رو‬
II.
II.12 Īhām („double meaning / ambiguity“)
Ambiguity results form the use of terms of plurivalent meaning, whereas one meaning is
evident, the other remote to apprehension. Usually the author is aiming at the uncommon
meaning, causing the „wrong“ meaning to occur to the reader before the „correct“ meaning (
the „code“). It is expected of the reciter to know the different nuances of meaning, whereas
the right interpretation of verses is oftentimes cause for argument between the respective
experts:
(9: ; ‫)د" ان‬
‫ام‬
‫ ب‬5 ‫ّت‬X) ‫ ز‬g/% ‫اى‬
("‫ رخ " ر د" = ا‬Z!
) /? ‫در‬
II.
II.13 Laff u našr („folding and spreading“)
A number of terms are named in the first sentence or half-line of a verse and are explained in
the second sentence or half-line. In the course of relating the terms to their explanations a
meaningful coherence of the whole arises:
(‫ن‬
) (
,% ‫ ; ( و زاه‬,% = 5‫ ? د‬: ‫ ا‬."‫ و د‬H . 5‫ د‬Z‫دو آ‬
II.
II.14 Iġrāq („hyperbole“)
A hyperbole asserts within a person or thing the existence of characteristica of unthinkable
and above average extent. It's aesthetic value results from it naming the virtual impossible and
by this means making it seizable. Therefor the hyperbole is especially suited for portrayel of
epics as the Šāhnāmah:
(
‫ ه‬5) ‫ ب‬/ ‫ ا‬:‫> د م ا‬%
‫ا‬
‫ب‬L ‫در" ى‬
.‫ه‬L = ‫ د آ‬5
II.
II.15 Uusnusn-i ta’līl („fabulous etiology“)
This figure of speech provides for a sequence of events a fantastic reason, which has neither to
be logical nor realistic, but tries to convince the recipient nevertheless. In this case the
aesthetic impression outvalues the true causes:
,"‫ ا‬0 (/% ‫ از‬:
‫؟‬
‫ ا‬N‫ا زرد رو‬
/5‫ر‬
‫ وب‬V ‫ م‬S ‫ ه‬: /
? ,: 6 ‫از‬.
Literature:
Ru@ullāh Hādī, Ārāyah-hā-yi adabī, Teheran 1385/2006.
Annemarie Schimmel, Stern und Blume. Die Bilderwelt der persischen Poesie, Wiesbaden
1984.
Šamīsā, Sīrūs, Nagāhī Tāzah bah Badī‘, 10. Aufl., Teheran 1378/1999.
Ders., Bayān wa Ma’ānī, 2. Aufl., Teheran 1375/1996.