Guide for writing assignments
Department of Biology,
University of Southern Denmark
By Knud Ladegaard Pedersen & Jane Ebsen Morthorst
Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Guide for writing assignments why?
This guide is more than just a number of requirements for writing a scientific report – it
gets at the essence of the scientific method. It provides the foundation for the most
important skill you will acquire as an academic scientist – a skill that is unique to natural
science graduates. This skill is the analytical approach, which generally concerns how to
interpret large amounts of complex data, and how to clearly convey your results to a
specific audience. It takes a long period of training to master this skill. An employee
cannot learn it on a three-day course, because it is a way of thinking. This manual will
help guide you through the process of mastering the analytical approach.
Take a moment to consider how different public debates and political decisions would be
if everyone distinguished between what one knows (results) from what one believes
(discussion). Your future employers will expect this pivotal skill from you, so please use
every opportunity to practice it.
Your skill set can be separated into three different categories: (1) personal skills, (2)
professional skills, and (3) academic skills. (1) Your personal skills reflect your
personality and qualities (e.g. you are creative, independent or structured). You identify
and develop these skills on your own and throughout your lifetime. (2) Professional skills
include specific biological techniques that you develop during your education as a
biologist (e.g., understanding how ecosystems are structured). These professional skills
1 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
separate you as biologist from all other scientists (e.g. physicists, chemists, etc.). (3)
Academic skills develop through a university education, and include critical thinking, the
ability to sort through large amounts of information, and, in science, the scientific
method. This guide will help you develop these general academic skills.
The guidance offered in this manual comes from our extensive experience with reading
examination papers, course reports, and bachelor’s and master’s theses, where we have
seen students make the same pitfalls regarding analytical methodology, report structure,
and written communication. We believe that learning occurs through feedback and
resubmission rather than through grades. As supervisors, we want to spend our energy
providing feedback on technical elements. In the beginning of the study we also give
feedback on elements regarding analytical thinking and report structure. However, to
correct written communication is your own responsibility. The more you advance in your
education, the more responsibility you gain regarding analytical methodologies and
organization, leaving us, the supervisors, to focus on the more technical aspects of your
work.
We have developed this manual for biology students to use throughout their education.
This manual will be central to the feedback your receive for your assignments at the
Department of Biology. We give you the tools, but you need to apply them – both in your
assignments and throughout your education. That way, you can develop both the
academic and professional skills needed to succeed on the job market.
Have fun!
Associate professor Knud L. Pedersen and assistant professor Jane E. Morthorst,
Autumn 2016
2 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Table of contents
Guide for writing assignments - why? ................................................................................ 1
1. Thesis statement for BSc and MSc theses................................................................ 5
1.1 What is a good university-level problem? .......................................................... 5
1.2
The process of constructing a thesis statement.................................................. 6
2. The thesis composition ............................................................................................. 9
2.1 Front page: Title, date, author, etc. ................................................................... 10
2.2
Abstract ............................................................................................................ 10
2.3
Introduction...................................................................................................... 12
2.4
Materials and methods ..................................................................................... 14
2.5
Results.............................................................................................................. 15
2.6
Discussion and conclusion ............................................................................... 18
2.7
References........................................................................................................ 19
3. The second thorough revision ................................................................................ 25
4. Proofreading ........................................................................................................... 27
5. Plagiarism ............................................................................................................... 29
3 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
4 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
1. Thesis statement for BSc and MSc theses
For the larger assignments, you need to write a thesis statement. This paragraph therefore
only applies to bachelor’s and master’s theses, as well as research projects ─ but not
common course assignments.
The purpose of the thesis statement is to clarify the scientific question you are asking,
and how you plan on answering it. What questions will you ask to solve your problem?
What experiments will you conduct? That is, it needs to answer the why and how
questions of your thesis. It contains (a) one or more open scientific questions, (b) an
explanation of why the problem is interesting and relevant (purpose), and (c) the methods
and references used to solve the problem. You should relate your conclusion back to your
thesis statement at the end of the project. Did you answer your original questions? What
were the answers? If you did not answer your questions, then what happened? Your
supervisor and external examiner love well-written, precise thesis statements, because it
gives the reader a quick overview of why and how your experiments were conducted.
Furthermore, it makes it easier to assess whether the results relate back to the original
purpose of the project.
1.1
What is a good university-level problem?
A problem can be (a) one or more cohesive questions that you want to answer, or (b) one
or more cohesive phenomena that you wish to:
-
Describe, account for
-
Classify
-
Analyse and interpret
-
Discuss, argue for and against
-
Synthesize, integrate
-
Assess
-
Suggest course of action
Summary of knowledge
Use of knowledge
5 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
A university-level thesis statement should feature an actual problem – something that is
unresolved or debated by specialists. Your problem may be part of a larger issue that is of
scientific interest. It should not only be of personal interest for yourself or something
you, personally, do not understand. At this level, it is about becoming a user of
knowledge rather than someone who refers to knowledge (see above).
To formulate a thesis statement, it is essential that your problem exists, and that the
methods and literature needed to study the problem are both known and obtainable. So it
is essential that you possess some fundamental knowledge of your field before the thesis
statement is stated. You obtain this knowledge by reading reviews within the relevant
research area.
1.2
The process of constructing a thesis statement
The thesis statement needs to be handed in before the project begins. This can be a
challenge, because you might not be knowledgeable enough to write a comprehensive
thesis statement at this point. As a result, the thesis statement is written in close
cooperation with your supervisor, and usually requires several drafts.
The first thesis statement
Initially, you write your thesis statement for the Academic Study Board to approve your
project. The statement needs to include the information mentioned above concerning
your methods. The statement’s purpose is to show that the student and supervisor have
gathered sufficient scientific literature and data about the research area, and that the
project can be completed within the allotted timeframe.
The second thesis statement
The first thesis statement can be adjusted as you acquire more knowledge about your
topic. Maybe you discover new issues or encounter practical challenges in the laboratory.
You will have to take these issues into account, and, if necessary, incorporate them into
your thesis statement. The final thesis statement should be incorporated into the
6 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
introduction of your assignment, or placed separately, immediately following your
abstract.
As mentioned earlier, a thesis statement communicates your purpose (why), and a short
description of the methods and references you plan on utilizing in answering your
problem (how). Therefore, you must include the following in your thesis statement: Why
do you want to answer this or these question(s)? What practical, technical or scientific
issues are related to answering the question(s)? How will you answer the questions you
have addressed?
Remember!!!
Your thesis statement, including your title, needs to be handed in no later than one week
after the semester begins, and is typically half a page long (max. 1 page).
7 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
8 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
2.
The thesis composition
Scientific assignments (e.g., research articles, theses) generally include the following
sections:
1) Title page: title, date, author(s), university, department, and name of supervisor
2) Abstract
3) Introduction
4) Materials and methods (often excluded in literature review projects)
5) Results
6) Discussion, ending with the conclusion (alternatively, the discussion and
conclusion can be written as two separate sections)
7) References
Structuring scientific writing in this format allows people to quickly identify and read the
information of interest. If you wish to only know the general outcome or conclusion of a
report or article, you typically only read the Abstract, and look at the figures and figure
captions found in the Results section. By reading the Discussion, you learn how the
authors interpreted their results. If you are curious about the experimental procedure, or
want to make similar experiments on your own, you can read the Materials and
methods. The introduction is read if you wish to understand the background or
motivation for the study.
The conclusion can be a separate section after the discussion, or can be written as the
final section within the discussion – this is a matter of preference.
The content of each section is clarified below, with additional information found in Jan
Pechenik’s book A Short Guide to Writing about Biology (2007). In Chapter 9, “Writing
laboratory and other research reports,” Pechenik describes the content and organization
of each section.
9 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Many supervisors demand that you write your introduction before you begin your
laboratory work. To some extent, it is smart to understand the why and how of your
experiments, and to be familiar with the literature, before you evaluate your results.
However, the introduction is usually revised after the discussion is written. While
conducting your experiments, you need to write the materials and methods section, and,
at the same time, analyze the data needed for your figures and tables, including the
captions. When the laboratory work is finished, only the results, discussion, and abstract
remain. Lastly, the introduction is revised.
2.1
Front page: Title, date, author, etc.
Indicate precisely what your study concerns. This is the author’s first opportunity to
capture the reader’s attention.
List the full names of the people involved in the study, the hand-in date, the name of the
university and department, and the name of the supervisor.
2.2 Abstract
An abstract is a short summary of the thesis, including the reasons for conducting it. You
should briefly state the methods, and, most importantly, the results and main conclusions.
You should be able to read the abstract independently of the rest of the study, and it
should be able to convey all the important things from the study in only a few lines. The
abstract is the authors’ best way to convince the reader that the rest of the study is worth
reading. In scientific publications, there are usually very specific length requirements for
the abstract, and it is typically stated as the number of words you are allowed to write.
Typically, the abstract is the most difficult part to write, but it is a very important part.
Write the abstract as the very last item of your report.
10 11 (
Broad(and(general(
Discussion(
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growth(rate(compared(to(nonYpersister(cells.(
Results(
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previous(findings(based(on(bulk(culture(
studies,(persister(cells(did(not(show(signs(of(
a(growth(arrest(stage.(
Our(results(illustrate(the(prominent(role(
persister(cells(might(play(for(the(evolu3on(of(
an3bio3c(resistance.((
Open(ques3ons(remain(about(the(reduced(
energy(costs(persistence(might(incur.(Such(
reduced(costs(would(further(promote(the(
importance(of(persister(cells(for(failure(of(
medical(treatment(against(infec3ous(
diseases.(((
We(used(a(microfluidic(device(that(allowed(
to(manipulate(exposure(to(an3bio3cs(and(
tracking(single(bacteria(throughout(their(life.(
(
Resistance(to(an3bio3cs(has(become(
a(major(problem(in(modern(medicine.(
Persister(cells(build(evolu3onary(reservoirs(
and(serve(as(stepping(stones(for(the(
evolu3on(of(resistance.(
Persister(cells(are(assumed(to(go(into(a(
growth(arrest(state,(but(previous(studies(
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level(if(persister(cells(have(reduced(growth.((((((((
Example(excepts:(
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Figure 1: Illustrating the structure of a scientific report by the hourglass model. The content of each section is described
in the left column, whereas the right column contains text examples written by using the recommendations •  More(specific(direct(answer(to(the(ques3on(you(
have(asked:(By(….(we(have(shown(that…((
•  Compare(your(results(with(findings(from(
previous(research(
•  Put(your(results(in(a(broader(perspec3ve(
•  Sugges3ons(for(future(experiments,(challenges(
etc.(
So(what?(
•  Objec3ve(and(clear(presenta3on(of(your(results(
but(without(explaining(the(results(
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•  Describe(methods/setup/sta3s3cs(precisely(
How?((
(
Purpose:(To(prepare(the(reader(for(understanding(
the(remaining(report(
•  Introduce(your(topic((Broad/General;(but(
concise)(
•  Briefly,(summarize(the(most(important((and(
relevant!)(knowledge(about(the(research(area(
•  Put(your(experiment/inves3ga3on(in(the(context(
of(current(knowledge((Which(research(gaps(
would(you(like(to(fill?)(
•  State(your(hypothesis/research(ques3ons(
Why?(
Abstract(
Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
2.3 Introduction
The introduction is an up-to-date and concise review of the literature related to your
study’s topic. The introduction should give the reader the technical background needed to
understand the relevance of your work, including your aim and thesis statement.
How does one get started on a new and complex academic field? Start out by making a
literature search. Many people respond with: I am going to Google it! Google is for
amateurs. A professional (which you are on the way of becoming) uses databases with
peer-reviewed (=quality controlled) scientific literature. Use Web of Science and
PubMed, which are both available through the University Libraries homepage. First, you
have to find 4-5 of the newest review articles, which synthesize the latest scientific
literature on a given topic. Textbooks have the same purpose, but given their length, they
rarely contain the latest discoveries and findings. At this stage, it is about receiving an
overview of the academic field. Please do not go into details at this stage: look closely on
the overall questions and themes raised from the literature review. You can make your
table of contents for your thesis on the basis of these headlines. Give an estimation of the
number of pages for each section in order to prioritise your work. Afterwards, you search
for reviews that cover specific subtopics, and, from this point, you can write a detailed
summary for each subtopic. You now have a series of headlines or boxes where you can
put all the following information you find.
Where do you find information?
For general subjects at the periphery of your topic (e.g., the P550-system in a project
dealing with efflux pumps in invertebrates), you can use a textbook. As you come closer
to the core of your subject, however, you should use review articles. At the centre of this
core (e.g. efflux pumps in invertebrates), you should refer to original research articles.
12 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Good places for finding more specific information on your topic are the introductory
sections of original articles. These sections are highly specialised ‘mini-reviews’ that
reference many other relevant articles. But be careful (!!!) when you refer to the
knowledge found in these sections! Be aware that you have to refer all the way back to
the original article, and not just the article in which you found the reference!
Example 2.3.1
Andersen et al. (2010) investigated the structure of yolk protein in blue
mussels. You read the introduction of their paper where they mention the use
of yolk protein as biomarker in fish. Andersen et al cite Smith & Dunn (2002)
because they developed the method for fish. If you want to write about the
use of yolk protein as biomarker in fish, you have to read and cite Smith &
Dunn (2002) and not Andersen et al. (2010).
After searching and sorting through this background information, the only thing left is to
write it all together. But be careful to avoid plagiarism.
The introduction begins with a half-page section covering the subject from a bird’s-eye
view, in order to place your subject within a larger context. What is relevant and
interesting about your subject? Consider your introduction as a sales pitch to the sceptical
taxpayer who wants to know, how you are spending his money.
The introduction also contains information important to the readers’ understanding of the
discussion. The reader is led towards the final part of the introduction, where the work’s
specific purpose or thesis is briefly stated.
How often should you cite?
In principle, you need to provide a reference every time you state information. For a
bachelor’s thesis that includes lab work, 30-50 references are appropriate. Master’s
theses typically include 75-100 references. Remember, you are responsible for
13 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
everything you write – including the references. Do not include a lot of references you
have simply found in reviews. Only enter references that you have read and understood!!
When you consider which details to include from an article (and how many you want to
include), you should at all times have the title of your project in mind. Are these details
really of relevance? Why is this reference important to include?
Be sure not to make continuous summaries of one article after another. Instead, make a
synthesis of the knowledge you gathered from your various sources.
2.4 Materials and methods
Think of the materials and methods section as a concise, clear, and accessible cookbook
that someone else can use to replicate your experiments. This section should give the
informed reader the opportunity to evaluate the pros and cons of your methodologies and
experimental setup. At the same time, you should be able to repeat the experiment on the
basis of the method description. To assist the reader, divide this section into logical subsections with their own titles. Sometimes it can be easier to describe an experimental
setup with figures instead of words. Avoid using bullet points (e.g. listing every chemical
used). Even though this section needs to be short and precise, it still has to be written in
full sentences exhibiting proper use of language.
The materials and methods section is to be written in the past tense. It is advantageous to
write this section while conducting your experiments, or shortly after your experiments
end.
You always have to state the concentration (e.g. µM, ng/L) of your solutes. On the other
hand, which pipette you used, or whether you wore rubber gloves and so on is irrelevant.
Simple calculations (of concentrations or dilutions) are also often not included – be
aware of the difference between your personal laboratory notes and your materials and
14 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
methods section. Read the materials and methods sections from a number of articles –
then you can see how this section is usually written.
Example 2.4.1
From materials and methods:
“20 µL Rhodamine B was added”
What is the concentration? To which volume was it added?
Instead write:
“The eggs were incubated in 10 µM Rhodamine B”
2.5 Results
This is the most important section of any thesis, because it contains the actual results.
The discussion on the other hand, reflects only the authors’ interpretation of the data. If
the work was properly done – the raw data was gathered, analysed and presented in an
academically justifiable way – then the results will remain valid, while the interpretation
(the discussion) remains subject to change. This is why the results section is so
important. Here, the results are presented in an objective way, devoid of interpretation,
discussion, or commentary.
The result section presents information in two parallel ways. One way is to use
manageable, easy-to-read figures and tables, with accompanying captions and presented
in a logical order. The other way is to present the results (e.g. the shape of a curve or a
numerical value) as words. Using both ways, you objectively seek to highlight the most
important results, so you don’t have to read through every small and trivial variable. The
body text and figures and tables must be readable independently of each other, so you
can get the “whole story” by only reading the figures and tables along with their captions.
Invest time in making good figures/tables! If you don’t mention a figure in the body text
it has to go – because you haven’t used it for anything. When you write about your data,
do not refer to “the graph” or “the curve”. The curve is just a line on a piece of paper – it
is what the curve represents that you should be mentioning.
15 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Example 2.5.1
From the results section: “The curve decreases over time”
Instead write:
“The phosphate concentration decreases over time (Fig. 5)”
Remember that the results section only contains analysed data (raw data, calculations,
etc. can go in the appendix, if necessary). However, the appendix is not a rubbish bin
where you place unsorted Excel sheets without formatting, etc.! Attach only relevant,
organized and formatted raw data.
Requirements for figures and tables:
1) Relevant figures and tables are incorporated into the text where they seem natural,
and should therefore not be placed in the appendix. Figures and tables have to be
numbered sequentially.
2) Figure legends should be stated under the figure, while table legends should be
stated above the table.
3) Figure and table legends should contain the information needed to read and
understand the specific figure or table independently of the body text in the results
section.
4) A figure always has axis designations and axis units – e.g. “Speed (cm/s)”.
5) Data points are marked with big and clear symbols, and are explained in the figure
text.
6) If the variation of a mean is shown as error-bars, it should be evident from the figure
legend if the error-bars represent standard deviations (SD), standard error of means
(SEM) or confidence intervals.
7) Likewise, it should be stated in the table legend whether the values are SD, SEM or
confidence intervals.
16 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Examples of figures and tables: Below are examples of figures and tables that meet the
requirements described above. But remember, there are more ways to make good tables
and figures. Consider using black and white symbols instead of colours because colours
look different on the screen compared to paper.
17 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
2.6 Discussion and conclusion
In this section, the author can, and is expected to, express their opinion on the recovered
results. First of all, come up with a plan on how to go about your discussion. It is rarely a
good idea to go through the results figure by figure.
In this section, you should discuss how your results relate to each other and to the
purpose outlined in the thesis statement and introduction. The reliability of your results is
evaluated (e.g. their reproducibility, variation coefficients, deviation within and between
the experiments, etc.). The results are discussed in relation to predictions based on
existing knowledge and theories in the scientific literature, and all deviations (i.e.
conflicting and surprising results) are explained. When comparing your results with
results from the literature, it is very important that you consider the level of detail – the
discussion is not the place for long reviews of other articles. You should only compare
the most important details of the experiments. You typically have to indicate if you have
made an in vivo or an in vitro experiment, what species/tissue/cell-culture you used, as
well as other relevant information (e.g. the exposure concentration, the exposure time
etc.). If your results generate new questions and hypotheses, which is (luckily) often the
case, then briefly mention these, as well as how these new hypotheses could be tested.
The discussion ends with a short concluding summary on the study’s central results, and
how these results fit within the broader perspective.
The whole discussion has to be supported by references, so statements are not
standing alone! Remember, in science, an author’s own opinions are worthless
(irrelevant), if they are not supported by data.
REMEMBER! It is important that you state the original reference (see Paragraph 2,
example 2.3.1)! Let’s say that you read in the introduction of a paper by Skov et al.
(2014) that Andersen et al. (2010) have shown that smoking causes lung cancer. Then
you have to find the original paper by Andersen et al. (2010), read it and use that paper
18 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
as your reference!!! You should not cite Skov et al. (2014), since they only have
mentioned the experiment, and did not conducted it themselves!
2.7
References
The reference list is highly important, especially for bachelor’s and master’s theses. List
all of the references (scientific articles, textbooks, websites, and other sources) cited in
the text. Only literature that is read (!) and cited in the report should be included in the
reference list. By reading the reference list, the reader gets an overview of the research
conducted within the research area and is able to assess if the author is familiar with
relevant literature.
Furthermore, the reference list works as an academic reward mechanism: out-dated, poor
or irrelevant studies are ‘punished’ by not receiving citation (except for those papers that
are so terrible that one must warn others against using them). This system is important
because funding, to a large extent, is determined by the number of citations a researcher’s
papers receive (i.e. the number of times a scientist’s work has been cited by other
scientists).
How references are cited can vary by research fields, but overall the format detailed
below is valid.
2.7.1 References in the report’s main text
In the report’s main text, references are cited as follows:
“Elliot et al. (2003) compared the spread distance among ten species of aquatic
invertebrates…”, (et al. is an acronym for et alli, which means “and others”)
19 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
If the reference is used in the text without direct reference to the authors, the authors’
names and the year of publication need to be stated in parentheses:
“Neurotoxicological function of pyrethroiders is well described (Vijverberg &
Vandenbercken, 1990)”
If more articles are quoted for the same information they are stated chronological, the
following way: (Wogram & Liess, 2001; Schulz et al., 2002).
If the paper is written by one single author, the last name is written first followed by the
year,
e.g. (Elliott, 2003).
If there are two authors, both last names are mentioned with an “&” between and
followed by the year,
e.g. (Vijverberg & Vandenbercken, 1990).
If there are three or more authors, the last name of the first author is mentioned and
followed by ‘et al.’ and the year,
e.g. (Schulz et al., 2002)
If there are more articles by the same authors published in different years, the years are
written followed by one another,
e.g. (Alzogaray & Zerba, 1993, 1996).
20 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
If two articles with the same authors are published in the same year, they are
distinguished by lowercase letters,
e.g. (McCahon & Pascoe, 1988a, McCahon & Pascoe, 1988b).
In some journals, articles are cited in the main text by sequential numbers rather than last
name and year.
e.g. “The neurotoxicology of pyrethroiders is well described (1)”
2.7.2 Formatting the reference list
You have to follow the guidelines prescribed by the editorial office of the journal you are
submitting to, or, in your case, those prescribed by your supervisor. The main rule is that
you have to be consistent in how you structure your citations. In the reference list, the
full last name and first name initials for all authors are written, and the expression “et
al.” is not used. The required format for the reference list differs between journals, but a
generally accepted format is described below:
Book:
Last name, initials. Year of publication. Title. Publisher, place of printing.
Example:
Allan, J.D. 1995. Stream Ecology. Chapman & Hall, London, UK.
Chapter/overview article in a book:
Last name, Initials. Year of printing. Title. I: Name of the books editor(s). Books title.
Publisher, place of printing, page numbers (usually expressed as a range).
21 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Example:
Henderson, J., Hildrew, A.G. and Townsend, C.R. 1990. Detritivorous stoneflies in
an iron-rich stream: food and feeding. I: Campbell, I.C. (red.) Mayflies and
stoneflies. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 249-254.
Original research article or review:
Last name, Initials. Year of printing. Title. Journal title (sometimes abbreviated in a
standard way). Volume number (volume and issue), page numbers (usually expressed as
a range).
Example:
Schulz, R. and Liess, M. 1999. A field study of the effects of agriculturally derived
insecticide input on stream macroinvertebrate dynamics. Aquat. Toxicol. 46, 155176.
2.7.3 Endnote formats (styles)
Using a reference program like Endnote to organize your references can save you a lot of
time. When handling 50-100 references for your thesis, a reference program is priceless.
You can request Endnote from IT-service or download it via E-learn (under the tab
‘software’). With this program, you do not have to write the entire reference list on your
own – the program will generate it for you in the format you wish. You can find tutorials
on how to use the program on YouTube.
To get the references into the body text and the reference list to look as described in the
above section, you have to choose one of the following formats:
1) Comp Biochem Phys-Part A
2) Numbered
22 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
In Word: Right-click on the reference à Edit citations à More à Configure
bibliography (Mac) or Tools (PC) - click on the icon/button in the lowest left corner à
With output style.
2.7.4 WWW
It is becoming increasingly easy to find information on the Internet. Unfortunately,
websites have a significantly shorter lifetime than published media. It may be difficult for
the reader to find the information six months later. Therefore, this information must be
documented (in an appendix) by a screen shot or pdf of the website. In the reference list,
you can state the URL-designation and the access date after the author’s last name. But
be aware! Internationally published research articles are quality controlled (peerreviewed) by other scientists within the research area before being published, but
information on the Internet is not quality controlled in the same way. We therefore
strongly recommend that you refrain from using websites as references!
2.7.5 Databases and other matters
In some cases, it might be necessary and appropriate to cite web-based databases and
programs (e.g. GenBank and OECD QSAR Toolbox), but you still have to pay attention
to whether the database is reliable.
23 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
24 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
3.
The second thorough revision
Now it is time for you to very carefully tidy up the structure, language and layout of your
thesis or report.
-
Are your paragraphs and sections ordered in a logic manner?
-
Are the headings and subheadings consistent with the content of the main text?
-
Have you finished one subject before starting the next, and are you repeating
yourself over and over again?
-
Is your language precise and devoid of empty words and colloquial language?
Watch out for the following:
Example 3.1 Imprecise “colloquial” language
Original formulation:
“In the graph with verapamil below it is seen that an inhibition of the pumps has
happened in the 5 𝜇M eggs if comparing them to eggs that have not been exposed
for anything. In the next graph it is shown how the 10 𝜇M group had a bigger
inhibition of the pumps than in the first experiment.”
This is corrected to:
”The pumping activity of the eggs was significantly inhibited (P=0,05) in a dose
dependent way by Verapamil concentrations of 5 and 10 µM (Figure 5).
Example 3.2 Repetition
Repetition is often a sign of poor structuring of the text, where you have not
finished a subject before beginning another. These repetitions must be eliminated!!!
25 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
Example 3.3 Sudden shifts
Do you drop the reader’s attention when they are reading the thesis? Is it at all
times clear what you are talking about? Remember to begin the presentation of a
new subject with a short explanation (a few lines) of what you investigated before
you go into details with the results and discussion.
Example 3.4 Long rattling off
Do not rattle off numbers - maybe it was more manageable to present the numbers
in a table. Do not describe the results of five articles one by one - instead you
should make a synthesis of the results in the articles. If five articles present similar
results just mention the main results in one sentence. If you are making a literature
review and have to deal with many articles it might be an advantage to create a
table like this:
Example 3.5 Sections you do not understand
Never copy text from an article that you do not understand. Ask your supervisor!
Never use Google Translate uncritically – it usually suggests an improper use of
language. E.g. Goggle Translate translates ‘dam’ (an animal mother) to the Danish
word ‘dæmning’, which means barrage or levee.
26 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
4.
Proofreading
After the second thorough revision, you should leave the report for a couple of days –
you will get blind towards mistakes when you have read the text many times.
As the last thing before submission, you MUST carefully read the proof. Here all the
errors due to carelessness must be removed. These are the easiest points you can get after
all your hard work. And carelessness makes you lose marks. If something is sloppy, it
seems untrustworthy, which is the worst quality a scientific study can convey!
-
Check that all figures and tables are sequentially numbered.
-
Check for spelling mistakes. Are you consistent in your use of abbreviations?
-
Check that the same font, spacing and all other formatting matters are used
consistently throughout the entire thesis.
When you are ready to print, you can convert the document into a PDF, which has locked
formatting. Check the following in the PDF-document:
-
Avoid page breaks leading to single lines hanging at the top or bottom of page headings should stay with the following text
-
Avoid splitting up graphs belonging to one figure (e.g. figure 2A, B and C) on
two pages.
-
Avoid tables split on two pages.
-
Table and figure legends are located on the same page as the table or figure.
-
The references and reference list are organized according to the prescriptions in
Paragraph 2.7.
Now your study is ready to be handed in (in the case of a
course report), or sent to review by your supervisor (in the
case of a bachelor’s or master’s thesis)!
27 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
28 Guide for writing assignments at the Department of Biology
Knud L. Pedersen and Jane E. Morthorst, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark
5.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is literary theft - to steal the words of another. Unfortunately it is becoming
very common because it is easy to copy text from the Internet.
It is a tradition in some scientific branches e.g. social sciences to make quotations (text in
quotation marks) but it is very rare in natural sciences.
Paraphrasing: You should ALWAYS rephrase a piece of text in your own words.
Sometimes you read a very well-written and clear introduction of a scientific paper and it
is tempting to use the formulations of other people because things are nicely and clearly
described, but is not allowed to copy pieces of text from webpages, blogs, books,
scientific papers etc. - not even if you change a few words! Reread the sentences again
and rephrase it. Rephrasing information in your own words also helps you to really
understand the original information or idea.
Remember, even if you rephrase the text you may still have to cite the author, like
described in section 2.7, if you refer to specific numbers, statements etc.!
Record the source: If you copy text into your study notes or laboratory journal always
remember to record the source - all of a sudden you forgot who wrote the text and start
seeing it as your own work.
An experienced reader like your supervisor will immediately notice if the language,
grammar or punctuation of a text suddenly changes. Trying to fool your supervisor, and
later in life your colleague or boss, is a really bad start for collaboration!
29