Old English:
Morphology and Syntax
History of the English Language
H. Littlefield, Ph.D.
Old English Morphosyntax
(Inflection, Lexical Categories)
OE Inflection of Nouns
Number
Singular
Plural
Gender
Masculine (50%)
Feminine (30%)
Neuter (20%)
Note: Confusion
Overlap
Multiple genders
Scandinavian words
1
OE Inflection of Nouns
Case
Classes of nouns
Strong (Vocalic)
Weak (Consonantal)
Mutated
Nominative
(Includes vocative)
Accusative
Genitive
Long stem
Long vowel
Long consonant
Consonant cluster
Dative
(Also with prepositions)
Short stem
Long or Short Stems?
1.
ba#t ‘boat’
Long
2.
scip ‘ship’
Short
3.
ba#n ‘bone’
Long
4.
cearu ‘grief’
Short
5.
6.
brycg ‘bridge’
dæg ‘day’
Long
Short
7.
word ‘word’
Long
8.
fæt ‘vessel’
Short
9.
sco#h ‘shoe’
Long
10. cwe#n ‘queen’
Long
OE “Strong” Noun Declensions
-a stems (Masc. And Neut.)
-o stems (Fem.)
Neut.
Singular
Plural
Masc.
Long
Short
Short
Long
Case
‘dog’
'animal'
'limb'
'love'
'bridge'
N
hund
de#or
lim
lufu
brycg
A
hund
de#or
lim
lufe
brycge
G
hundes
de#ores
limes
lufe
brycge
D
hunde
de#ore
lime
lufe
brycge
N/A
hundas
de#or
limu
lufa
brycga
G
hunda
de#ora
lima
lufa
brycga
D
hundum
de#orum
limum
lufum
brycgum
Return1
Return2
2
OE “Weak” and Mutated
Noun Declensions
-an declension
Masc. Neut.
Case 'ox'
Mutated Plurals
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
'ear'
'earth'
'tooth' 'foot'
'louse'
'book'
Singular
Plural
N
oxa
e#are
eor›e
to#›
fo#t
lu#s
A
oxan
e#are
eor›an
to#›
fo#t
lu#s
G
oxan
e#aran
eor›an
to#›es
fo#tes
lu#se, ly#s
D
oxan
e#aran
eor›an
te#›
fe#t
ly#s
N/A oxan
e#aran
eor›an
te#›
fe#t
ly#s
be#c
G
oxena
e#arena eor›ena
to#›a
fo#ta
lu#sa
bo#ca
D
oxum
e#arum eor›um
to#›um fo#tum
lu#sum
bo#c
bo#c
bo#ce, be#c
be#c
bo#cum
Return1
Return2
OE Inflection of Adjectives
Agreement with N
Strong/Weak
Number
Gender
Case
Strong (indefinite)
Weak (definite)
OE Adjective Declension “good”
Strong (Indefinite)
Weak (Definite)
Singular
Case Masc. Neut.
Fem.
Masc.
Neut
N
go#d
go#d
go#d 1
go#d a
go#d e
Fem.
go#d e
A
go#d ne
go#d
go#d e
go#d an
go#d e
go#d an
G
go#d es
go#d es
go#d re
go#d an
go#d an
go#d an
D
go#d um
go#d um
go#d re
go#d an
go#d an
go#d an
Plural
N/A
go#d e
go#d 1
go#d a
G
go#d ra
go#d ra
go#d ra
D
go#d um
go#d um
go#d um
go#d an
go#d ena, go#dra
go#d um
Return1
1
Short stem: -u
Return2
3
Exercise: OE Adjectives (Strong/Weak)
Identify the case of the underlined noun. If the function of the
word is difficult to identify, then consult the paradigms for nouns,
adjectives and determiners.
Sample Sentence
1.
Case
flæt is æt flæm hehstan goode.
Weak
(Definite)
That is at the highest good.
2.
flu woldest nu brucan ungemetlicre wrænnesse?
You would now enjoy immoderate
3.
Heo cende
hyre frumcennedan sunu.
She gave birth to her
4.
Of
Strong
(Indefinite)
winter.
the blessed East-Angles king
was wise.
flam diglum stowum
From those secret
Strong
(Indefinite)
Weak
(Definite)
son.
Eadmund se eadiga East-Engla cynincg wæs snotor.
Edmund
6.
first-born
On midne winter.
In mid
5.
luxury?
Weak
(Definite)
Weak
(Definite)
places
OE Inflection of Adjectives
Comparative and Superlative
Comparative -ra
Superlative -ost(a), -est(a), -st(a)
Mutated forms
eald
geong
lang
strang
ieldra
gingra
lengra
strengra
ieldest
gingest
lengest
strengest
‘old’
‘young’
‘long’
‘strong’
OE Inflection of Adjectives
Comparative and Superlative
Irregular forms
ly#tel
læ#ssa
læ#st
‘little’
micel
ma#ra
mæ#st
‘great’
yfel
go#d
wiersa
betera,
se#lra
wierst
betst,
se#lest
‘bad’
‘good’
4
OE Determiners
“that, the”
Case
“this”
Singular
Masc.
Neut.
Fem.
N
se
flæt
se#o
fles
flis
A
flone
flæt
fla#
flisne
flis
fla#s
G
flæs
flæs
flæ#re
flisses
flisses
flisse
flæ#re
flissum flissum
flisse
D
flæ#m (fla#m) flæ#m (fla#m)
N/A
Masc. Neut
Plural
fla#
fla#s
G
fla#ra (flæ#ra)
D
flæ#m (fla#m)
flissa
flissum
Fem.
fle#os
Exercise: OE Case
Identify the case of the underlined noun. If the function of
the word is difficult to identify, then consult the paradigms
for nouns, adjectives and determiners.
Sample Sentence
1.
2.
3.
Case
And he wear› fornumen æfter feawum dagum
Dative
And he was
(Obj of Prep)
consumed after few
days
Eala, oxanhyrde, hwæt wyrst flu?
Nominative
O,
(Direct address)
oxherd,
what do
God sende ›a
sona
you?
sumne encgel him to
God sent then at once certain angel
4.
Sum
sutere
A certain shoemaker sewed
5.
6.
Accusative
him to
(D.Obj)
siwode flæs halgan weres sceos.
the holy
man’s shoes.
Genitive
(Possessive)
‹u ofsloge him fætt cealf.
Dative
You killed
him fat calf.
(Indirect Obj)
Wrætlice
is fles wealstan.
Nominative
Wonderous is this building.
(Subject)
Examples: OE Inflection
These foolish fish swam around the boat.
Noun class
nom
fish:
fisc (a-stem, masc)
foolish: dol
Adj
Noun, Det
Case
Lexicon
a-stem
Gender
masc
Number
pl
Stem length short
Definiteness def
Stem length
short
fla#s dolan fiscas
5
OE Lexicon
OE Nouns
book:
bo#c (mutated plurals, fem)
child:
eye:
fish:
horse:
king:
name:
sheep:
bearn (a-stem neuter)
eag (an-stem, neut)
fisc (a-stem, masc)
hors (a-stem neuter)
cyning (a-stem masc)
nam (an-stem, masc)
sce#ap (a-stem neuter)
OE Adjectives
evil:
foolish:
glad:
good:
yfel
dol
glæd
go#d
holy:
ha#lig
wise:
wi#s
sun:
sunne (an-stem fem)
tongue: tung (an-stem, fem)
woman: wi#f (o-stem fem)
wound: wund (o-stem fem)
Exercise: OE Inflection
Figure out the inflection for each underlined phrase
Answer
Notes
1. Evil kings are not very nice.
yfele cyningas
Nom, a-stem, masc, pl,
long [Adj: indef, short]
2. A good king is hard to find.
go#d cyning
Nom, a-stem, masc, sg,
long [Adj: indef, long]
3.
That good king killed an evil
king in battle.
se go#da cyning
Nom, a-stem, masc, sg,
long [Adj: def, long]
4.
That good king killed an evil
king in battle.
yfelne cyning
Acc, a-stem, masc, sg,
long, [Adj: indef, short]
5.
These wise women gave the
cake to the good child.
fla#s wi#s an wi#fa
Nom, o-stem, fem, pl,
long [Adj: def, long]
6.
These wise women gave the flæ#m go#dan bearne
cake to the good child.
Dat, a-stem, neut, sg,
long [Adj: def, long]
Exercise: OE Inflection
Answer
Notes
7.
This good sheep’s wool is
drying in the sun.
flisses go#dan
sce#apes
Gen, a-stem, neut, sg,
long [Adj: def, long]
8.
This good sheep’s wool is
drying in the sun.
sunn(e)an
9.
Those wise children love
good books about horses.
fla# wi#san bearn
Nom, a-stem, neut, pl,
long [Adj: def, long]
10.
Those wise children love
good books about horses.
go#d a be#c
Acc, mutated, fem, plural,
long [Adj: indef, long]
11.
Those children love good
dolum horsum
books about foolish horses.
12.
This woman’s wounds
will heal rapidly.
flæ#re
flisse wi#f e
wunda
Dat, an-stem, fem, sg
Dat, a-stem, neut, plural,
long [Adj: indef, short]
Nom, o-stem, fem, pl, long
[Gen, o-stem, fem, sg, lg]
6
OE Declension of Personal Pronouns
Singular
Case
1st
2nd
3rd (Masc)
3rd (Fem)
3rd (Neut)
N
ic
flu#
he#
he#o (hi#e, hi#, hi#o)
hit
A
me#, mec
fle#, flec
hine (hiene)
hi#e (hi#, hy#)
hit
G
mi#n
fli#n
his
hiere (hire, hyre)
his
him
hiere (hire, hyre)
him
Dual
D
me#
fle#
N
wit
git
A
unc (uncit)
inc (incit)
G
uncer
incer
D
unc
inc
N/A
Plural
N
we#
ge#
A
u#s (u#sic)
e#ow (i#ow, e#owic)
hi#e (hi#, hy#, hi#o)
hi#e (hi#, hy#, hi#o)
G
u#re (u#ser)
e#ower (i#ower)
hiera (hira, hyra, heora)
D
u#s
e#ow (i#ow)
him (heom)
OE Interrogative Pronouns
(Singular forms)
Singular
Masc/Fem
Neuter
Nom
hwa#
hwæt
Acc
hwone
hwæt
Gen
hwæs
Dat
hwæm, hwa#m
Inst
hwy#, hwon, hwi#
Exercise: OE Pronouns & Determiners
Identify the person, gender, case, and number of the underlined
personal pronouns and determiners.
1. fla
Sample Sentence
Person, Case, etc.
1st, Sg, Nom
geseah ic beforan unc onginnan ›eostrian ›a stowe. ic
Then saw
I before
us begin
to darken that place. unc
1st, Dl, Dat
seo
Sg, Fem, Nom
Here is the remedy, how you can your fields restore if they
›u
2nd, Sg, Nom
nellafl wel weaxan.
flin
2nd, Sg, Gen
will not well grow.
hie
3rd, Pl, Nom
2. Her is seo bot, hu ›u meaht flin æceras betan gif hie
3. Ic ahsige eow, forhwi swa geornlice leorni ge?
I ask
you, why
so
eagerly
study you?
eow 2nd, Pl, Acc
ge
2nd, Pl, Nom
he
3d, Masc, Sg, Nom
hie
3rd, Pl, Acc
digla ure.
ic
1st, Sg, Nom
I not dare reveal you secrets our.
fle
2nd, Sg, Dat
ure
1st, Pl, Gen
4. He sende flod and besencte hie
ealle.
He sent flood and drowned them all.
5. Ic ne
dear yppan fle
7
OE Inflection of Verbs
Person
Mood
First
Second
Third
Indicative
Subjunctive
Imperative
Number
Tense
Singular
(Dual)
Plural
Past (Preterite)
Present
OE Inflection of Verbs: Classes
Weak
Strong
Past tense:
Past tense:
Dental suffix
Other
Irregular
Vowel suppletion
Past participle:
Four forms
Dental suffix
High frequency
verbs
Infinitive
Singular past
Plural past
Past participle
Vowel mutation
+ dental suffix
Seven classes
OE Weak Verbs: Present tense
Present
Indicative
Weak Ia
Weak Ib
Weak II
Weak III
Infinitive
fremman
‘to do’
bærnan
‘to burn’
lo#cian
‘to look’
habban
‘to have’
1 Sg
fremme
bærne
lo#cie
hæbbe
2 Sg
fremest
bærnst
lo#cast
hæfst
3 Sg
fremefl
bærnfl
lo#cafl
hæf(a)fl
habbafl
Subj
Pl
fremmafl
bærnafl
lo#ciafl
Sg
fremme
bærne
lo#cie
hæbbe
Pl
fremmen
bærnen
lo#cien
hæbben
Imper
2 Sg
freme
bærn
lo#ca
hafa
2 Pl
fremmafl
bærnafl
lo#ciafl
habbafl
fremmende
bærnende
lo#ciende
hæbbende
Participle
8
OE Weak Verbs: Past tense
Infinitive
Weak Ia
Weak Ib
Weak II
Weak III
fremman
‘to do’
bærnan
‘to burn’
lo#cian
habban
‘to have’
‘to look’
Indicative
Past
1, 3 Sg
fremede
bærnde
lo#code
hæfde
2 Sg
fremedest
bærndest
lo#codest
hæfdest
hæfdon
fremedon
bærndon
lo#codon
fremede
bærnde
lo#code
hæfde
Pl
fremeden
bærnden
lo#coden
hæfden
Participle
(ge) fremed
(ge) bærned
(ge) lo#cod
(ge) hæfd
Subj
Pl
Sg
OE Strong Verbs: Present tense
Infinitive
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3*
Class 4
Class 5
Class 6
dri#fan
ce#osan
singan
stelan
sprecan
‘to sing’
‘to steal’
‘to speak’
scacan
‘to shake’
‘to drive’ ‘to choose’
Present
Indicative
1 Sg
dri#fe
ce#ose
singe
stile
sprice
scæce
2 Sg
dri#fst
ce#osest
singst
stilst
spricst
scæcst
3 Sg
dri#f›
ce#ose›
sing›
stil›
spric›
scæc›
Pl
dri#fa›
ce#osa›
singa›
stila›
sprica›
scæca›
Subj
Sg
dri#fe
ce#ose
singe
stile
sprice
scæce
Pl
dri#fen
ce#osen
singen
stilen
spricen
scæcen
Imper
2 Sg
dri#f
ce#os
sing
stil
spric
scæc
2 Pl
dri#fa›
ce#osa›
singa›
stila›
sprica›
scæca›
Participle
dri#fende
ce#osende singende stilende spricende
scæcende
OE Strong Verbs: Past tense
Class 1
Infinitive
dri#fan
Class 2
ce#osan
Class 3*
Class 4
Class 5
singan
stilan
sprecan
Class 6
scacan
‘to sing’
‘to steal’
‘to speak’
‘to shake’
Past
Indicative
‘to drive’
‘to
choose’
1, 3 Sg
dra#f
ce#os
sang
stæl
spræc
sco#c
2 Sg
dri#fe
cuse
sunge
stæ#le
spræ#ce
sco#ce
sco#con
Subj
Pl
dri#fon
cuson
sungon
stæ#lon
spræ#con
Sg
dri#fe
cuse
sunge
stæ#le
spræ#ce
sco#ce
Pl
dri#fen
cusen
sungen
stæ#len
spræ#cen
sco#cen
Participle
(ge) dri#fen (ge) cosen (ge) sungen (ge) stolen (ge) sprecen (ge) scacen
9
OE Strong Verbs: What happened?
hringan‘to ring’
Class 1
Class 2
Class 4
Class 3*
Class 6
Class 5
Class 7
[I#; a#; i; i] [e#o(u); e#a; u; o] [i; a; u; u] [e; æ; æ#; o]
[e; æ; æ#; e]
[a; o#; o#;
a]
sci#nan
‘to shine’
sme#ocan
‘to smoke’
singan
‘to sing’
stelan
‘to steal’
sprecan
‘to speak’
scacan
‘to shake’
sa#wan
‘to sow’
bi#tan
‘to bite’
fle#ogan
‘to fly’
meltan
‘to melt’
beran
‘to bear’
metan
bacan
‘to measure’ ‘to bake’
slæ#pan
‘to sleep’
gri#pan
‘to grip’
lu#can
‘to lock’
steorfan
‘to die’
teran
‘to tear’
wegan
‘to carry’
hladan
‘to load’
blandan
‘to blend’
ri#dan
‘to ride’
scu#fan
‘to shove’
helpan
‘to help’
cwelan
‘to die’
cweflan
‘to speak’
wascan
‘to wash’
ha#tan
‘to be
called’
dri#fan
‘to drive’
ce#osan
‘to choose’
gielpan
‘to boast’
werian
‘to wear’
tredan
‘to tread’
faran
‘to go’
fealdan
’to fold’
[varies]
Exercise I: OE Strong & Weak Verbs
Determine whether the OE verb is strong or weak. Then give the
PDE form for the past tense. Is this form strong or weak?
Old English
Infinitive
PDE
Past (Sg.)
S or W?
Preterite
S or W?
W
bregan ‘to bring’
bro#hte
W
brought
gifan ‘to give’
geaf
S
gave
S
secgan ‘to say’
sæcgde
W
said
W
hy#ran ‘to hear’
hy#rde
W
heard
W
ho#n ‘to hang’
he#n g
S
hung, hanged
S/W
hyngran ‘to hunger’ hyngrede
W
hungered
W
lo#cian ‘to look’
lo#code
W
looked
W
sci#nan ‘to shine’
sca#n
S
shone, shined
S/W
ste#ppan ‘to step’
sto#p
S
stepped
W
tæ#can ‘to teach’
ta#hte
W
taught
W
OE Other Verbs: Present tense
Presenst
Indicative
do#n
willan
‘to do,
make, take’
‘to want,
wish’
be#o
do#
wille
ga#
bist
de#st
wilt
gæ#st
wesan
be#o n
‘to be’
‘to be’
1 Sg
eom
2 Sg
eart
Infinitive
ga#n
‘to go, walk’
Subj
3 Sg
is
bifl
de#fl
wile
gæ#fl
Pl
sind(on)
be#ofl
do#fl
willafl
ga#fl
Sg
sy#
be#o
do#
wille
ga#
Pl
sy#n
be#o n
do#n
willen
ga#n
Imper
2 Sg
wes
be#o
do#
wille
ga#
2 Pl
wesafl
be#ofl
do#fl
willafl
ga#fl
wesende
be#onde
do#nde
willende
ga#nde
Participle
10
OE Other Verbs: Past tense
Infinitive
wesan
be#o n
‘to be’
‘to be’
do#n
willan
ga#n
‘to do, make,
take’
‘to want,
wish
‘to go,
walk’
Past
Indicative
1, 3 Sg
wæs
dyde
wolde
e#ode
2 Sg
wæ#re
dydest
woldest
e#odest
e#odon
Subj
Pl
wæ#ron
dydon
woldon
Sg
wæ#re
dyde
wolde
e#ode
Pl
wæ#ren
dyden
wolden
e#oden
(ge) be#on
(ge) do#n
(ge) willan
(ge) ga#n
Participle
Exercise II: OE Verbal Inflection
Figure out the inflection for each underlined verb
Verb
1.
2.
He helps me with the dog. (helpan, S 3)
I wish you (sg) would bake me a cake.
Notes
help›
Indic, Pres, 3rd sg
bæce
Subjunct, Pres, 2nd sg
3.
You all, speak to me! (cweflan, S 5)
cwifl´›
Imperat, Pres, 2nd pl
4.
They will melt the gold. (meltan, S 3)
melta›
Indic, Pres, 3rd pl
5.
Sam, please lock the door. (lu#can, S 1)
lu#c
6.
(bacan, S 6)
Jill, are you washing clothes?
Imperat, Pres, 2nd sg
wæscst
Indic, Pres, 2nd sg
7.
They smoked? (sme#ocan, S 2)
smucon
Indic, Past, 3rd pl
8.
We wore costumes to the party.
(werian, W 2)
werodon
Indic, Past, 1st pl
(wascan, S 6)
OE Uninflected Categories
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Simple
Same
to#
be#
æfter
for
under
fram
flurh
Shifted or lost
in ‘on’
mid ‘with’
ofer ‘beyond’ ymbe ‘around’
wifl ‘against’ geond ‘yond’
of ‘from’
and ‘and’
ac ‘but’
gif ‘if’
fle#ah ‘though’
forflæm ‘because’
Complex
oflfle…oflfle
ge…ge
na#…na#
nu#… nu#
swa#…swa#
‘either…or’
‘both…and’
‘neither…nor’
‘now that’
‘just as…so’
‘whether…or’
11
Old English Syntax
(Word order)
OE Word Order: Sentences
SVO He#
geseah flone mann
he(Nom) saw
VSO fia
then
the
man(Acc)
sende se#
cyning
flone disc
sent
king(Nom)
the
SOV fia
the
he#
When he(Nom)
dish(Acc)
flone cyning
so#hte
he#
the
visited,
he(Nom) boasted
king(Acc)
He#o
hine
læ#rde
she(Nom)
him(Acc)
advised
be#otode
OE Word Order: Nouns
Adj-N fla beorhtan steorran
the bright
stars
More than one modifier
mi#ne flegnas twe#gen
wlance wi#gsmiflas
proud
warriors
my
servants two
a#n fæt fyder-scyte and bra#d
a vessel four-cornered and broad
N-Adj bearn unweaxen
boy
youthful
men le#ofan
men
dear
12
OE Word Order: Adpositions
Preceding the NP
on flissum ge#are co#m Harold cyng of Eoferwic to Westmynstre
in
this
year
came Harold king from York to Westminster
…æt his hlafordes fotum
…at his lord’s feet
Following the NP
…an cwæ› fla# cynlice him to, “e#ala#, flu# bisceop…”
and said
then regally
…and ferde
him to, “Oh,
you bishop…”
him togeanes mid flam folce
and marched him
against
with the
people
OE Word Order: Verb Phrases
Negation
Ne + verb
Ne geseah ic næafre fla burg
Not saw
I
ever
that town
se cynincg ne sceall ari#san of
the king
not shall arise
›a#m bedde
from the
bed
Multiple Negation
He# cwæfl flæt na#n man ne bu#de be nordan him.
He said
that no
man not lived by north
him.
’He said that no man lived to the north of him’
OE Word Order: Verb Phrases
Dummy “it”
Weather verbs
PDE: It’s raining, It’s snowing, It was hailing…
sni#wde
snowed
‘It snowed’
13
OE Word Order: Verb Phrases
Dummy “it”
Impersonal verbs
PDE: It seems, It pleases, It was, There is…
Him limpfl oft
them happens oft
‘It often happens to them’
‹a wæs on fla# ti#d Æflelbeoght cyning ha#ten on Centri#ce
Then was at that time Æthelbert king named in Kent
“Then there was at that time a king named Æthelbert in Kent”
OE Word Order: Interrogatives
PDE
OE
do Subject Verb (Object)
Verb Subject Object
Do you have hawks?
Hæfst ›u hafocas?
Do you know how to tame
hawks?
Canst ›u temman hafocas?
Do you hear, sailor?
Gehyrst flu, sælida?
Have you hawks?
Know you (to) tame hawks?
Hear you, sailor?
OE Word Order: Interrogatives
WH-Questions
Hwæt secge we# be flæ#m co#ce?
What say we about the cook?
Hwilce fixas gefe#hst flu?
Which fishes catch you?
Hwy stane ge ealne dæg idele?
Why stand you all day idle?
Hwær eart flu?
Where are you?
14
Exercise: OE Word Order
In each sentence, describe how the word order differs from PDE.
1. His gele#afa hine getrymde.
His faith
him strengthened.
2. o#swold him co#m to#
Oswold him came to
3. And he# næfre næ#nig leo› geleornade.
And he never no
poetry learned.
4. And he# hine so#na to flæ#re abbudissan gelæ#dde.
And he him immediately to the abbess led.
5. And fla
ongeat
se cyning flæt.
that.
6. He# ofslo#g flone aldorman fle him lengest wunode.
And then discovered the king
He slew the earl that him longest had served.
7. He# flæ#r wunode oflflæt hine a#n swa#n
He there dwelt until
ofstang.
him one swineherd stabbed.
OE
PDE
SOV
SVO
SOVP
SVPO
S Neg Neg
OV
S Neg V
Neg O
S O Adv
PP V
S V O Adv
PP
VSO
SVO
OAV
VOA
SOV
OSV
SVO
SVO
15