Cataldi and
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA BEFORE THE MIDDLE AGES
RAFFAELE CATALDI and
ENEL
Produzione e
Estero; 47. Via C.
ABSTRACT
Italy
certain grothermal
Lower
Middle Neolithic, and
a number of considerations on the degree of
reached
energy;
several millennia before Ihe Christian
find useful
by certain customs, myths
manifestations of
and cults linked
heat. indicate
After outlining man's first
Mediterranean
ancient
civilizations,
times of the most
the spread of
given by the Romans
Etruscans and the great
hemal
Latin authors
Mention i s then made of the major Greek
other volcanic products suitable for making lithic instruments. But in
words,
since
in regard
types of geothermal phenomena.
the
which
geothermal
addition
soils, the
uses,
settle in "peaceful"
mentioned above,
as the fertility of volcanic
of some lacustrine basins molded by caldera
and the availability of freshwater springs on volcanic
causes, however. must have become important
only after
end of the nomadic
Besides
effects ot attraction or aversion due
reasons pointed
"confidence" or
ancient theories.
man
I h e direct
such indirect
This second
scientific thought on
Geothermal mergy, Mcditrrranean area,
a
in other places was being shaped
Among Ihr
manifestations or speculated on their
genesis, and who must therefore be considered the historical fathers of
produced h e
them. I n other
first on the
of "confidence"
days
in some places and
one must
4th
historical
of paroxysmal
opposite effect, discouraging man from
A.D., described
B.C. to
numerous aspects of
and bathing.
incrustations. obsidian and
individual level, then o n the
illustrates
paper
development of h e exploitation of hydrothermal products by h e
from Ihe 61h
such
"peaceful"
geothermal
(volcanic eruptions. earthquakes,
with the various geothermal
periods and in
manifestations in
could develop
where
Upper Paleolithic.
least
presence of
Ihe
occurrence of by-products
other localities. i t seems certain that the
in h e Mediterranean arra the
traced back
by
localities
Archeological finds dating
since
the practical
the relationship
pans of the
between man and
THE EARTH'S ENERGY
MAN'S FIRST CONTACTS
geothermal
must
types of
have gradually involved the
of man.
(and
The oldest archeological document that we have found in the
geothermal phenomena dater from
on man's interest
millennium B.C. (Mellaan.
(hence
7th
a painting that shows an
It
erupting volcano (probably
Neolithic
in some ways
"religious") and in
in thr background of a
which already displays a highly evolved dwelling
(Figure I).
The degree of detail with which
morphological features of
of h e eruption (explosion
by
Lower Neolithic man
a kern spirit of
phenomena that must be
times.
On the
not Just the
volcanic
but also the
volcanic bombs,
indicates that
Mediterranean area had already
and
for describing
quite advanced
those
must therefore have already
possessed. at least in certain places. a large store of empirical
knowledge on h e different
his eyes: hot springs.
in which
earth's energy showed
volcanic eruptions, etc.
Such knowledge must, in turn. have matured
individual
over the course
many thousands of years (perhaps even
thousands)
a result of direct contacts
various
of
terrestrial heat. contacts which over
centuries
have
resulted in the formation
a quite complex
energy
Indeed, i s likely that man war attracted
settle In
Figure
Wall painting found inside a
called level
of
Neolithic
dating from 6200
the excavation;
in the
of
of
Hiiyuk
a) photo
of
original painting.
313
and Chiellini
in
sense
the
the
regard
of
aspects.
thrrr
between man and geothermal
terms.
and
energy in
imponance that crnain types of manifestations
have had
formation of man's religious sphere, one direct proof
prehistory in
are only found
is the fact that some ancient
next to fumaroles
hot springs.
case, far example,
Such is
from the 3rd millennium B.C.
the other hand, from
(southern Italy), which
this importance comes,
h e established presence, and
already reached at the dawn
developed and
of
Mediterranean civilizations,
such
Cataldi
year
ENERGY AMONG THE
2.
MEDITERRANEAN
The presence in a number of
Neolithic
in various geothermal
sectors of
Mrditerranean.
dating from
materials and
among
trihcs
would give
two
up a l l of a
could not have
sudden with passage from the Stone Age
i s likely that they represent
Age. Instead, it
and successive
fruit,
and Phoenicians in Anatolia,
and in
abundance of the aforesaid
these times might
Mousterian
years ago)
when. with the onset ot the practice of
of the existence of a
dead,
manifestations of heat,
havc made i t s way
More or less
that regard man's intellective sphere.
apart from what
said at
outset of this paper on
a volcanic eruption found at
having come
the
it i s
likely
in localities with active geothermal
manifestations and stimulated by empirical observations, somehow
the
"cause''
a subterranean
corresponded
"religious"
here;
'The fact that this
towards which embryonic
were being formed
what
may have
the Upper Paleolithic (which Cataldi
and
years ago,
called
at the beginning
and effect with regard
At the same time, it appears probable that,
in
different geothermal
themselves. Mediterranean man in that period
had already started
recognize
various types of manifestations,
thus beginning to t e l l those of the "peaceful"
those of
(usable in some
"violent"
before
(alum,
is documented since
All
practical utilizations. the accumulation
of
empirical knowledge, the
towards
or
"religious"
divinities
dwelling
underground, the beginning of a correlation between the presence of
manifestationsand their possible cause)
of
of obsidian
places.
I n all
iron oxides. kaolin. lapilli,
wcrc plentiful, and h e i r extraction
2nd millennium B.C.
3rd
In this period, the first applications of all these compounds and
products
among the most ancient
to occur at
Mediterranean civilizations for
pottery and pigments, tanning
coloring glass and other craftwork. Moreover, it i s probable
lhat the cooking
as the
of food and
practice of thermal bathing. as well
muds ior the cure of Certain skin
of
common on the local scale in those times.
a l l o t these uses, although limited
At any
the areas with active
manifestations. appear firmly established among the
as early as
he middle of the
millennium
with these uses, numerous myths. legends, cults
phenomena flourished and spread
and
inspired by
among
Mediterranean peoples, a
that represented the
of the embryonic rational thoughts and religious sentiments
that had gradually
shall cite
and myths (some
from
the
section). among
he many
of geothermal phenomena we
("the lost continent"). which seems
that o f
have been inspired
island of
and spirit of man since the
shape in
darkness
prehistory.
which were
originated by
was
the
and other by-products of
perlite, pozzolan. silica and
the earth's energy.
phenomena
which
origin
of the eastern
of a
as other geothermal
of geothermal
of the
of daily empirical
of the ways in which
way for practical purposes)
and
place between
sapiens). man hcgan
correlation between
and others).
along the eastern Mediterranean coasts. must have taken an
diseases,
importance
possibility that, at a moment of
important i s
of
obtain pigments.
volcanic islands
Chios, Nisyros.
a generative
a l l attributable
underground.
Neolithic. however. and later in
of
Indeed.
basis
the Neolithic, Mrditerranean man,
find
In the
fact. numerous hydrothermal
energy
thousands of years
as well as by the presence
a certain importance as
man's mind
those
illustration
was probably favored by the
first probably used only
external
and peaceful,
violent and
1967). The
the
sulfur and cinnabar,
limes,
dynamic subterranean world,
inhabited by endogenous forces capable of giving rise
other
in addition to
formed
important
development of
the people. According to Cataldi el
Aegean.
was Western Anatolia
refinements, of "religious" sentiments horn in much earlier times
formed and spread among
and
Cyclades,
One of the main zones of origin of thrrr materials and
those in which the
myths and
he
oldest Civilizations of
to
peoples in the coastal
All these cults. myths and
the
but were
peoples that a millennium
arca:
Minoans in
by-products
the
only utilized
were
used as
B.C., indicates lhat in
3rd
5th
the Neolithic
as early as the Late
the islands and coastal
islands in the eastern
tools made from obsidian and
(Cyprus,
called
h a v e been found
amulets,
even stretch hack
over lhat
have called the
of
until
long, lung
the high degree
of the
of numerous cults and myths clearly
by the
of
manifestations. This
case.
example, of
the
of
and Mephitis.
myth
the
fire" by
and
various attestations of reverence
towards protective divinities
thr thermal
used
ago, and then gradually
volcanic island of Pantelkria
with the so-called divine
An indirect proof
must have
arra.
huge
explosion
around 1450
causing
eviscerated the
nearly complete
disappearance (J.V.
rising tide of
and the resulting land and rea traffic.
which took place
Cretans, Phoenicians
the 2nd
Mediterranean arra thanks
In
beginning in
second half o f
B.C., also brought
the
numerous
geothermal localities of insular (Pantelkria,
archipelago,
and peninsular Italy
western
Ischia,
Tuscany,
sector.
which were rich in hot
springs, active manifestations.
and
products of
heat. All there localities therefore began
on a crnain
so much
balneology but fur
mining
and
of the
compounds and
byproducts previously mentioned for the islands of
and the
coastal
of the
Mediterranean.
frequentation of the Italian
localities funher caused
the formation
and legends inspired by the natural
cults and
that were in p a n
and
p a n grafted
previous cults, legends and myths that had already
is
by way of
caretaker gods of the thermal waters
(presentin
Euganean
Italy), whose furmation,
of
day
by
discovery of
period
for
Phlegraean
offerings,
back
thr early
themselves to simply
mining and selling the untreated saline gangues the Mycenaean and
they also sorted
gangues at the
Phoenician
obtain finished products ready fur
in thr places of destination.
It must
be
that
Etruscans had developed refined
grinding. processing and
the various
techniques
finirhrd products. which they themselves used in the numerous
industrial and anisanal activities they practiced: making pottery.
paints, glazes and pigments, preparing ointments and salves, fusing
among thr many,
as the
must
that of the
struggle of
the Mycenaean expansion
evolved core
ideas on
peoples
explain
words, the legitimacy
in
Italy), this legend Contains a
the attempt by
ancient
jets
and steaming grounds present
Islands of
above and beyond
terrestrial heat with
at least a millennium
manifestations and
for
must evident geothermal
fabrics,
glass,
is documented by
enough to
and paints
boiling water, eruption
Fields and in
It is
paroxysmal manifestations
points to man's
desire.
to explain
existence of those
and effect relationship
been found (Fiumi, 1943).
boric salts
above does
of
exhaust
and applications of
FATIIERS" OF
of the Etruscans in
in
mining.
their interests
by-products
geothermal energy.
must also remember the impulse
Together with
by
Etruscans
balneotherapy
the thermal localities, as
to by
on
(Figure
and
in works of Latin
such as
and others. In
addition
of group
paintings shown in
Figure 2
degree of
of the installations used
fur thermal
and indicate
common chiefly among
upper classes.
practices were
The
relationship
aspects of the
between the Etruscans and the active
manifestations of
shon, it
be said
would
and
created colonies and
a separate treatment. In
as the equivalent of
seems
world. This worship
tu the localities of Tuscany and western
of boiling water, and later extended
edifices
on the
the worship of
of
Greek
a practice
initially
with
and
ETRUSCANS
G E O T H E R M A L INDUSTRY
and
southern
in classical
The
Tyrrhenian islands and
All the above
archeological finds. among which it
very fine
the epoch in whose glares
sector but merely
giant with a hundred
against Zeus in a vain
to
world. Beyond the
transposition a mythological
to signify the victory
the order
by
over the disorder
by
"rebel''
of
the
however. that thr Etruscans did
years
numerous craters. domes.
day. It must be pointed
and industries
products
and
of
Concerning the cults,
kaolin, sulfur.
These
with
and
manifestations in
abounded.
in the area today known as
which
Region" (Larderello and surrounding area).
The exploitation
the hydrothermal deposits made it possible for the
Etruscans ID
Mediterranean market a
variety of useful
were all
by
and Phoenicians coincides
development in Italy,
and
centuries
of
so-called
whose characteristics was
of the ancient Italic populations
group together in fairly
villages. This
process was
marked
Tyrrhenian
of central Italy, where
Etruscan people
already settled in the
B.C.,
rake-off.
manifestations
between the
Indeed, in the space of just two or
this people attained
one of the highest
of
at that time in all the sectors
of activity then practiced in
area, including (but
limited to)
mining of
and
The
rapid
Etruscans,
by
with the
and
navigators,
also
by the
presence in maritime
of numerous
ores
Cu,
Mn, Pb,
evaporitic minerals (alabaster, gypsum,
and rich
(alum, borates.
sodium
many
must have
Etruscans on thr religious level, contributing
the
an
ot tlir afterlife and a conception of thr
as a sad, dark, inhospitable place which the ghosts of the
were
grounds,
jets,
share with subterranean gods who were anything
that o f the ancient Greeks with
too was borrowed through the
world; however. we are still
as a gathering place for souls
to
but kind. It is a conception
regard
Hades. and perhaps
Etruscans'
thr concept of
suffering among
Finally,
must
flames.
centers
Cuma,
arc
Io
a
that Seems
a coincidence
the light
what was said
anything
the
and processing o f hydrothermal products
the
Etruscans. Such location, in
opinion, evidences the attraction
by
manifestations on man, as well as the
out
many Etruscan
(Populonia,
375
b
376
and Chiellini
Figure 3.
heating
using hot air circulation i n the
thermal baths of ancient Rome.
room; 2 . Hot air
Foundations
the baths;
4.
interspace for the circulation of hot air
hot air upward
Figure 4. Scheme
of the Christian era, the practice of
popular
in the
whole Mediterranean area as
make
baths a daily meeting place.
and thus one of the main points of
of
life.
in
last decades of
period. and
more
during the
the first three
Thus,
thermal bathing became such a
imperial period.
program (public buildings,
In addition
and
in the period
they
of
the increased
products mentioned earlier in
other ancient
ths heginning
the middle of
panicularly
(restaurants.
class
A.D. the following applications wrre
4th
tlir Romans:
products (hmtanite, perlite,
with all kinds
and
1987).
it
capital.
as
in the towns
but
the
in
existence, within
by
each thermal complex, of
hot
which
a
was
a l l these aspects
imponancr taken on hy
century
Empire
as well as
imponance
in
work from
thrrmal
(Figure 5). The fact that a number
of
not
reponed with
these
as spas but also
of
he said
hrat.
times after
of
their control
the land and
Romans could develop a
the previous sections
hydrothermal minerals and other
practice
second half
thermal bathing, began to
the 4th
A.D., becoming
succeeding
away
tlir beginning
until they
6th
with a long period o f
now
second millennium.
that extended beyond the threshold
ON
GEOTIIERMAL ENERGY
I t has already been pointed
area
geothermal
commercial and
the previous sections that in the
man's rational relationship in regard to
dates from very ancient times.
One
painting
is
had
various details of a
and other by-products
to
in Roman
when. having
and brought floridity
industrial and anisanal
Figure
inspired
that man's
also
fmd
tlir
manifestations of
back to
systematic
geothermal aspects takes
which
Oilier elements
formation of myths and
in
strategic centers (Cataldi
As to the
well as
in
Roman Empirr
this atlas indicates that
acquired great
and those
the applications
by-products.
clays, rich in
of
skin diseases (Burgassi, 1987).
a
early 4th century A.D. which had been
particular graphic
soap-like
hydrothermal salts. used
FIRST NUCLEUS OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT
authors.
imperial period by
official geographic
for the preparation of
for the painting of fine potteries;
so-called
do
medicine.
deduced from the
stations can funher
conceived
treaties
Greek and
natural sciences, and engineering
fabrication and
(balls
they
thinkers (ports,
are widely described in works
philosophers,
and
gradually
was
thrrmal bathing until the fall of
. the
with regard
that.
It
time of dominant paganism as was that
of
altars,
the
gods
divinities o f
vicinity of
inscribed
and
.
obtain
industry;
bleaching
the glazer and
role.
It must also be
that in
with natural
manifestations
spas were also places for worship and oracular
practicer. as i s
making of fine ceramics and
kaolin for
of public
on all levels.
played a very imponant
(lavas, tuffs, lapilli.
various volcanic
is
of
capable of influencing
slurries,
of
and
o f all
why the baths became, not only in
from
peoples,
B.C. and about
1st
gymnasiums (hall
hair styling.
state,
activities and begin a vast
point where they were
centers. meeting places, and complexes
every
thrrmal bath.
temples. monuments, stadia, villas,
(massages. depilation,
had evolved tu
no longer just baths but also beauty
typical
the
particular t o the description tlie Egyptian priests gave Salon,
a
its
according
which
a
generation, with regard
occurred
that
nearly a
southern
to
huge
Greek and
all lhat long. long
period
time t h a l
During
of
i n t h e m are
I
arca in
of
and limited
utilizations of some
with
rnergy, such as
and
applications (drying
can be
speculations many scientific
of
the
muds tor rudimentary therapeutic
of
From
temperature and
year
Towards
water,
chemical characteristics.
as a function o f density.
less at the
initial
years ago).
other gcothcrmal localities on
lake
occurring
mainland and
as well, with
These concepts
indicate haw
to
similar kinds of
explain
Laun
phenomena
first "logical"
theories of tlie
Taken
tlic formation of a first
"body of lhought" that w i l l form
development o f more
basis. in later
o f utilization
thus
for
to
occur and the first trade in
between neighboring
above,
began.
other
(alum,
with
kaolin,
a
energy
REMARKS
out from a
area
isolated
until systematic
was a
RECAPITULATION AND
the natural heal
formed; they
other
raw
theories
Thus,
of scientific
zone.
A numhcr of
phenomena
as a whole, there
various localities hut
with
light of the philosophical
378
the
mentioned
underground in
Man's
a few
use
oxides.
(cinnabar,
a heat source (called
existence
fire), classification of spring waters
phenomena.
tlie
bathing; hut i t
war gradually
of
often accompanied hy
drawn with regard
heal
o f the numerous
a
only
probably
w i l l he noted. the
themselves.
year zero
cooking of food
thinkers.
authors. their works and
summarized in
of thousands,
years. From that moment on,
original island of
1450 B.C.
As o f that moment the writings that directly
indirectly deal
geothermal phenomena
more and inure
and
works of
Paleolithic that
Egypt.
likely
include
of
many
production
tlir
well as
then
form of "market" for
to a
arras, radiating
imponant of which were
while
Table 1. CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ANCIENT SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT ON GEOTHERMAL ENERGY (6th cent. B.C. 4th cent. A.D.)
Period
Author
VI B.C.
Work
Subject treated
Cf. Aristotle
Earthquakes
or
Origin of earthquakes due t o deformation of the earth's Crust.
arid
of t h e soil"
soil"
manifestations.
Some
clouds
fire"
Hippocrates
Organoleptic and physio-chemical
characteristics of the waters
Water. Land
Earthquakes
Aristotle
B.C.
Lycophron
B.C.
Poseidonius
B.C.
Strabo
Meteorology
Cf.
I
Earthquakes
Physio-chemical characteristics
of the water
Volcanism and
Alexandra lor
Volcanism,
Geography
Cf. Justin
Phil.
P.
I
I B.C.
I
I
IV A.D.
I A.D.
Origin of the
pressure
three main groups:
stagnant: 21 springs:
thermal waters
function o f temperature
subterranean water flaws. w i t h formation
correspondence
underground cavities
due t o
streams" caused by "thermal expansion' arising from
fire".
from the
heat
of boric w a t e r s from the main geothermal
of
of changes
the
surface due t o various natural phenomena
especially volcanic phenomena
Ifioods.
o f the healing
Description
erosion,
Volcanism and seismo-volcanic
nhenomena
Description of earthquakes in
south eastern hector of the Aegean Sea. Moreover.
description o f the volcanic explosion
Thera in 197
B.C.
Thermal manifestations
manifestations
of the waters
the Elder
Comparison
the natural manifestations of Turcany and of the area near Naples
Earthquakes, natural manifestations
and physio-chemical
characteristics of thermal waters
and Others
Cf.
Thermal manifestations
I
I
I
eruptions and hot springs. In
description of
in t h e 2nd century B.C.: a phreatic explosion ?
Phlegrean Fields. due
decomposition of
Description
comparison of various geothermal localities
the
Notably, according
Straba. the manifestations of the Phlegrean Fields
the same
phenomenon
area.
all be attributed
Description of
main thermal manifestations o f southern Europe and of the
Mediterranean area. Notably, description o f
eruption of
in 79 A.D.
History
I
Tuscany
Genetic
of the manifestations of
minerals in the subsoil
reactions
Cf.
hydrostatic
Description of the main geothermal manifestations in the Mediterranean area. Moreover,
of the
explosion on Thera a t the beginning of the 2nd century,
detailed
and of the
o f thermal wafers
Ovid
Various Greek
and Latin authors
I
them would form
waters
earthquakes due
Description of earthquakes,
a t Methana
A.D.
I-1VA.D.
Origin of
overpressure.
of
of t h e
phenomena
I B.C.
I
of natural
thermal. The salinity of
by '"drying
the
springs
of the warning signs of earthquakes
Description of the phenomenon of gar
southern
and
stratification
I
I
continued to develop slowly in some
the practice
arras with hot springs,
sectors
products began to expand to various
mainly thanks to
the
and Phoenician navigators.
gradual enlargement of the "market" mentioned above.
causing
Indeed, in
2nd
B.C., Compounds derived from
became increasingly sought after
hydrothermal
among the ancient
uses, such as making pottery and pigments.
numerous and
in
of
extraction,
the
finished
products
processing
great
of
eanh's energy, stimulated almost a l l the
by
great Greek and Latin thinkers
search for explanations for
This enabled the formation of the first systematic
of ideas
of geothermal energy and
on the
and
some of the
it.
one must conclude by affirming that.
all the aspects cited
of the Roman
Upper Neolithic until the
almost surprising
geothermal energy represented one of the
Empire. with a "logical"
that appears
today, the development
they formed an integrated
group
the occurrence o f other phenomena directly
well
indirectly
from at least
the centuries until, with the Etruscans
(staning around the
commercialization
volcanoes.
anisanal
becoming more and more
then began
remembered that the widespread existence in
must
Mediterranean area of thermal manifestations and active
glass, preparing
ointments and salves, tanning hides, and others.
All there
Moreover,
commercialization of hydrothermal
factors of civilization in the whole Mediterranean area.
a d
economic
NOTE
7.
imponance: so much so as to result in the formation of a true
needs of
same products,
industry", capable of satisfying not
but also much
of the demand that. far
from other coastal
of the
through the
Mycenaean and Phoenician traders. Thus. between the 6th and the
a geothermdl "market" on an international Scale
3rd
This "market" became
Interested rrdders, howrver, can
works cited
the height of
3rd century A.D.). spreading
Roman rule and enriching itself with
all the territory
opening of
"market" in question then
8.
AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
of thr
energy:
Burgassi P.D. (1987).
and
lavas,
K. and
reached
great
y
became deeply
times. In
Roman period, thermal bathing had
even before
reached a quite evolved
Mexico.
century B.C. and
between the
spas in a l l
localities with hot
natural manifestations, was
springs and in many other towns far
several million people of every social
involving
without regard
La
Arras
en
y
de
Fiumi E. (1943). La
University
The
J.V.
Florence, Ed. CYA,
of
J., (1967).
and culture.
and Hudson
the area i n question i t
a common
of all the
by-products
influence geothermal
della
G. and
e
Kame Centre
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Pallottino M.
of
thermal
bathing
G. (1991).
and
one must also
in ancient
times on the formation
cults that worshiped the
divinities of the hot waters, and
the
in an etiological key
numerous myths and legends
by such
In:
Press
The
be said that thermal
considered
practice
A Neolithic Town
M . Wheeler (Ed.), Thames and Hudson;
New
for many centuries in
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380
Period"
became places for
bathing had already
commercialization of
p.
Arriaga M.C.
Mesoamericana.
besides hcing complete health
business dealings,
In addition
Prior to
Bull.,
en
ethnic
thus functioning as a
for
social activities.
For these reasons but
bearing in mind the fact that (despite
its apex in
imperial
practice of thermal
having
should
Geothermal
and
practice of
bathing in fact became a popular daily
debates.
Historiographic Aspects
Age.
the building of
I n the imperial
la
R.,Burgassi P.D. and
given hy the Romans
thermae
Review
Energy in
A.D.. due
In this
de
129 forms.
pp.
Cataldi R.
and
in thermal
Latino.
in historical
places
level in
the
localities
el
de
energy.
practice of thermal
service
J.L., Moggi M..
P.D.. Cataldi K..
construction industry.
antiquity by nearly all the by-products
group or gender.
Technology
Resources Council Bull.,
in the Larderello
Keeping pace with the
truly
(1985).
Pallottino
mines in
Mediterranean area.
of great
in
systematic use
a l l the above
foregoing one
the early 4th
following
P.D.
a
the imperial period due
products and of other useful
pozzolan.
travertine,
various
a l l materials used In
The
bibliographies contained
as tu those of
text. as
authors:
Italy and in other geothermal localities of
From
aspects only.
in
was formed.
B.C.
historical background of the
treated in
paper i s extremely vast.
in order not to
dawn the text, was decided
make citations for specific
The bibliography regarding
Milano.
e
Norm. Sup., Pisa. 1024
e del
M . (1987).
T. (1985).
Ricerche, G.
e
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(Ed.), Roma.
pp.