R e v i e w of Educational R e s e a r c h
Winter 1977, Vol. 47, No. 1, Pp. 245-265
The Use of Ethnographic Techniques in
Educational Research
Stephen Wilson
Center for New Schools
T h e r e is a g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t in t h e u s e o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
t e c h n i q u e s in e d u c a t i o n a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . T h e b a c k g r o u n d s of m a n y r e s e a r c h e r s , h o w e v e r , c o n t a i n l i t t l e t r a i n i n g in
o r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h i s k i n d of r e s e a r c h , a l s o c a l l e d q u a l i t a t i v e ,
phenomenological,
or ethnographic.
Because ethnographic
methodology differs significantly from the research approaches
m o r e c o m m o n l y u s e d in e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o l o g y , it is i m p o r t a n t
t o c l a r i f y i t s r a t i o n a l e a n d i t s d a t a c o l l e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s . I t is e s s e n t i a l to u n d e r s t a n d t h e w a y s in w h i c h e t h n o g r a p h i c a p p r o a c h e s
differ from other approaches because they represent fundam e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t c l a i m s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of h u m a n b e h a v i o r
a n d t h e b e s t w a y s o f c o m i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d it. W e p r o p o s e , t h e r e f o r e , t o r e v i e w t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h i s k i n d of r e s e a r c h a n d
the techniques more familiar to most researchers by explaining
the rationale behind its use and by discussing some of the procThis article was a part of research projects supported by grants to the Center for
New Schools from the Urban Education Research Fund of the University of
Illinois at Chicago Circle, the National Institute of Education, the National
Institute of Mental Health, and the Carnegie Corporation.
The Center for New Schools is a not-for-profit organization working to improve
urban education through a combination of research and assistance activities.
The author prepared this paper as part of the efforts of an interdisciplinary
team of psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, teacher trainers, community
organizers, teachers and community members, which compose the Center. Drs.
Emile Scheppers, Thomas Wilson, Donald Moore, Richard Johnson, and Phyllis
Wilson critiqued early drafts of this article. Hazel Domangue and Monica
Ingram helped in its production.
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e s s e s b y w h i c h this r e s e a r c h is c o n d u c t e d . This article is f o c u s e d
on e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h , b u t t h e d i s c u s s i o n applies e q u a l l y to
social p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h in all s e t t i n g s .
E t h n o g r a p h i c a l r e s e a r c h is r e f e r r e d to as an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
m e t h o d b e c a u s e h i s t o r i c a l l y it h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h a t
p a r t i c u l a r discipline. A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , of course, u s e a v a r i e t y of
r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s . I n t h e c o n t e x t of this p a p e r , h o w e v e r ,
" a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l " u s u a l l y m e a n s s o m e v a r i e t y of p a r t i c i p a n t
o b s e r v a t i o n , long c o n s i d e r e d basic to a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h .
U n t i l r e c e n t l y , m o s t e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d outside A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y or w i t h i n m i n o r i t y s u b c u l t u r e s . As t h e
n e x t section explains, h o w e v e r , this kind of a p p r o a c h can p r o v i d e
d a t a j u s t as v a l u a b l e for m a i n s t r e a m A m e r i c a n schools as for
t h o s e in o t h e r c u l t u r e s .
T h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e use of e t h n o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e s
for s t u d y i n g A m e r i c a n schools is growing. The N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e
of E d u c a t i o n ( N I E , 1973) is e n c o u r a g i n g this kind of a p p r o a c h ,
a n d m a n y r e s e a r c h e r s i n v o l v e d in t h e e v a l u a t i o n of e d u c a t i o n a l
p r o g r a m s a n d in t h e p r o c e s s e s of i n n o v a t i o n a r e f i n d i n g t h e s e
a p p r o a c h e s u s e f u l (CNS, 1972; CNS, 1974b; Smith, 1974; a n d
Nelson, L u n d i n , & G i a n o t t a , N o t e 1). S e v e r a l g e n e r a l s t u d i e s of
schools h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e d or a r e in p r o g r e s s : Cusick (1974) on
s t u d e n t life in a high school; CNS (1974a) on s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r
r e l a t i o n s in a l t e r n a t i v e schools; J a c k s o n (1968) on life in e l e m e n t a r y c l a s s r o o m s ; Ianni, B e c k e r , V e r e n n e , Dalton, L e i c h t e r , a n d
L e v i n e (Note 2) on c o m p a r i s o n s a m o n g v a r i o u s kinds of high
schools; S m i t h a n d G e o f f r e y (1969) on life in an i n n e r city classroom; S m i t h a n d K e i t h (1971) on t h e e v e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an i n n o v a t i v e e l e m e n t a r y school; Wolcott (1973) on t h e
d a y to d a y r e a l i t i e s of an a d m i n i s t r a t o r ; a n d Wilson (1972) on t h e
c u l t u r e of an a l t e r n a t i v e high school w i t h o u t walls.
Our p u r p o s e h e r e is n o t to r e p o r t on t h e s u b s t a n t i v e findings of
s t u d i e s of this kind. F o r such findings t h e r e a d e r is u r g e d to
c o n s u l t o t h e r s o u r c e s (for e x a m p l e , Sindell, 1969; I a n n i & S t o r e y ,
1973; Spindler, 1963; Wax, Gearing, & D i a m o n d , 1973; Wolcott,
1975; and t h e Council on Anthropology and Education [CAE]
Quarterly). O u r p u r p o s e is to p r e s e n t a r e v i e w of t h e m e t h o d o l o g y
as it r e l a t e s to e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h .
Rationale
E t h n o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e s a r e p a r t of a r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n t h a t
has been developed by anthropologists and community-study
sociologists. T h e s e m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n f o u n d to be u s e f u l for
g a t h e r i n g c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t kinds of d a t a ; in fact, s o m e researchers claim that these anthropological techniques may
g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h u m a n b e h a v i o r t h a t it is impossible to
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obtain by t h e more q u a n t i t a t i v e methods. The rationale underlying this m e t h o d o l o g y is based on two sets of h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t
h u m a n behavior: (a) t h e naturalistic-ecological hypothesis, and
(b) the qualitative-phenomenological hypothesis. These two fund a m e n t a l h y p o t h e s e s accepted t o g e t h e r provide a s t r o n g rationale for p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n research. Below is a review of
several i n d e p e n d e n t s t r a n d s of r e s e a r c h and t h e o r y t h a t h a v e
given rise to each of t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s .
Naturalistic-Ecological Perspective
M a n y social scientists believe t h a t h u m a n b e h a v i o r is significantly influenced by t h e s e t t i n g s in which it occurs. They,
therefore, believe t h a t it is essential to s t u d y psychological
events in n a t u r a l settings, and t h e y claim t h a t s e t t i n g s g e n e r a t e
regularities in b e h a v i o r t h a t often t r a n s c e n d differences among
individuals. E x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h has been conducted t h a t demons t r a t e s the i m p o r t a n c e of the influence of the s e t t i n g and the
often d i v e r g e n t findings t h a t r e s u l t w h e n the same p h e n o m e n o n
is studied in the l a b o r a t o r y and in the field. (For a full discussion
of this r e s e a r c h and rationale see B a r k e r , 1968, and Willems and
Raush, 1969.) Ecological psychologists claim t h a t if one hopes to
g e n e r a l i z e r e s e a r c h findings to the e v e r y d a y world w h e r e most
h u m a n e v e n t s occur, t h e n the r e s e a r c h m u s t be conducted in
settings similar to those t h a t the r e s e a r c h e r s hope to generalize
about, w h e r e those s a m e forces t h a t will one day act are not
i n t e r r u p t e d . The ethologists (for example, Hess, 1962) h a v e noted
similar problems with much r e s e a r c h on animals. The typical
l a b o r a t o r y or zoo distorts animals' b e h a v i o r into p a t t e r n s t h a t
h a v e little to do with how t h e y b e h a v e in n a t u r a l settings.
How does t h e s e t t i n g influence people in it? B a r k e r w r i t e s of
forces g e n e r a t e d both b y the physical a r r a n g e m e n t s of the
settings and by internalized notions in people's minds a b o u t
w h a t is expected and allowed. Significantly, a second t r a d i t i o n of
social science has arrived i n d e p e n d e n t l y at t h e s a m e point of
emphasizing the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e internalized notions generated in settings. Sociologists s t u d y i n g organizations a s s e r t the
importance of t h e traditions, roles, values, and norms t h a t are
p a r t of life in organizations. Much b e h a v i o r in o r g a n i z a t i o n s is
influenced by the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' a w a r e n e s s of t h e s e m e n t a l s t a t e s
and by p r e s s u r e s g e n e r a t e d by others who are influenced by
t h e s e s t a t e s (see March, 1965). Though organizational t h e o r i s t s
might not n e c e s s a r i l y claim t h a t r e s e a r c h m u s t be conducted in
the fiel'd, t h e y do recognize m a n y of t h e forces t h a t t h e ecological
psychologists see as i m p o r t a n t .
As organizations, schools e x e r t m a n y powerful forces on particip a n t behavior. F o r example, see Lortie, 1973 for a discussion of
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t e a c h e r roles a n d t r a d i t i o n s ; for a discussion of n o r m s , see
D r e e b a n , 1968; for a d i s c u s s i o n of o t h e r p r e s s u r e s in t h e s e
s e t t i n g s , see J a c k s o n , 1968, a n d S a r a s o n , 1971. R e a l i z i n g t h a t
t h e s e forces exist, t h e ecological p s y c h o l o g i s t would w a r n t h a t if
one w a n t s u l t i m a t e l y to g e n e r a l i z e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s to schools,
t h e n t h e r e s e a r c h is b e s t c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n school s e t t i n g s w h e r e
all t h e s e forces a r e i n t a c t . The i n a b i l i t y of classical l e a r n i n g
t h e o r i e s to s a y v e r y m u c h t h a t is m e a n i n g f u l a b o u t e v e r y d a y
classroom l e a r n i n g c a n be e x p l a i n e d in p a r t by t h e a b s e n c e of
t h e s e s c h o o l / o r g a n i z a t i o n a l forces in t h e r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s
w h e r e t h e t h e o r i e s w e r e developed.
T h e s a m e k i n d of r e a l i z a t i o n a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e of c o n t e x t
for r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n a r r i v e d at in a t h i r d i n d e p e n d e n t t r a d i t i o n
of r e s e a r c h . Social p s y c h o l o g i s t s r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e i r e x p e r i m e n t s
w e r e o f t e n p i c k i n g up i n f l u e n c e s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e on w h i c h t h e y
w e r e focusing. T h e y f o u n d t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n - - f o r
example, the questionnaire, the interview, the l a b o r a t o r y - - w a s a
u n i q u e s e t t i n g of its own w i t h its own d y n a m i c s a n d i n f l u e n c e s on
b e h a v i o r . R o s e n t h a l a n d R o s n o w in Artifact in Behavioral Research (1969) r e v i e w t h e f i n d i n g s of e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h u n d e r t a k e n to d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e of t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s . F o r i n s t a n c e ,
t h e role of b e i n g a r e s e a r c h s u b j e c t in social science r e s e a r c h
o f t e n i n c l u d e s t h e following i n f l u e n c e s on b e h a v i o r : a suspiciousness of t h e i n t e n t of t h e r e s e a r c h , a s e n s e of t h e b e h a v i o r t h a t is
e i t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e or expected, a special i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n ship w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r , a n d a desire to be e v a l u a t e d positively. All t h e s e forces c a n s h a p e b e h a v i o r in a w a y t h a t is
e x t r a n e o u s to t h e focus of t h e r e s e a r c h . A p e r s o n filling o u t a
q u e s t i o n n a i r e , r e s p o n d i n g to an i n t e r v i e w , or b e h a v i n g in an
e x p e r i m e n t e v e n t h o u g h he is t r y i n g to be g e n u i n e - - m a y n o t be
able to p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t his u s u a l b e h a v i o r in
real, complex s e t t i n g s . One a r e a in w h i c h t h i s s h o r t c o m i n g h a s
been especially f r u s t r a t i n g is a t t i t u d e r e s e a r c h . C o n s i s t e n t l y ,
people's r e s p o n s e s on q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a n d in i n t e r v i e w s h a v e n o t
provided a d e q u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r o b s e r v e d a c t i o n s
( D e u t s c h e r , 1966).
S e v e r a l r e a c t i o n s to t h e s e r e a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t a r t i f a c t in res e a r c h are possible. The r e s e a r c h e r s in t h e R o s e n t h a l a n d Rosnow w o r k h a v e a t t e m p t e d to find w a y s to m o n i t o r a n d control
t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s in t h e i r r e s e a r c h . Cook a n d Selltiz (1964), in
t h e i r m u l t i p l e i n d i c a t o r a p p r o a c h , provide a n o t h e r w a y to att e m p t to m o n i t o r e x t r a n e o u s forces. The m o s t c o m m o n m e t h o d
u s e d to o v e r c o m e t h e s e difficulties of a r t i f a c t is s t u d y i n g t h e
p h e n o m e n o n n a t u r a l i s t i c a l l y and u n o b s t r u s i v e l y (Campbell,
S c h w a r t z , & S e c h r e s t , 1966). U n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of n a t u r a l i s t i c
o b s e r v a t i o n , t h e b e h a v i o r s t u d i e d is s u b j e c t to t h e i n f l u e n c e s of
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the n a t u r a l s e t t i n g r a t h e r t h a n the specialized influences of
r e s e a r c h settings.
M a n y r e s e a r c h e r s will h a v e no t r o u b l e accepting the preceding
rationale. O b s e r v a t i o n is deeply ingrained in the A m e r i c a n educational r e s e a r c h tradition, and the only d e m a n d t h a t the ecological h y p o t h e s i s m a k e s is t h a t b e h a v i o r be studied in the field. The
r e s t of s t a n d a r d t e c h n i q u e is left i n t a c t - - f o r example, deriving
explicit a priori h y p o t h e s e s , defining operational categories of
observation, developing objective m e t h o d s of d a t a gathering, and
conducting a p p r o p r i a t e statistical analyses. The n e x t section
discusses a p a r t of t h e r a t i o n a l e behind anthropological techniques t h a t qualifies t h e s e processes.
Qualitative-Phenomenological Hypothesis
Much of A m e r i c a n social science strives t o w a r d the n a t u r a l
science model of objectivity. Phenomenology, a t r a d i t i o n of social
science t h a t has t h r i v e d in E u r o p e b u t has been largely neglected in educational r e s e a r c h in t h e United States, offers an
a l t e r n a t i v e view of objectivity and m e t h o d s a p p r o p r i a t e for
s t u d y i n g h u m a n behavior. Those who work within this t r a d i t i o n
a s s e r t t h a t t h e social scientist cannot u n d e r s t a n d h u m a n behavior without u n d e r s t a n d i n g the f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n Which the subjects interpret their thoughts,feelings, and actions. T h e y point out
t h a t the n a t u r a l science a p p r o a c h to objectivity r e q u i r e s the
r e s e a r c h e r to impose a priori limitations on the data, an act
which makes it difficult to discover the p e r s p e c t i v e s of t h e
subjects. (See Bantock, 1965, Broadbeck, 1968, and Kocklemass,
1967.)
The ramifications of this position are far-ranging. The traditional stance of objective o u t s i d e r favored by social scientists and
the usual r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e s are deemed i n a d e q u a t e for gathering information t h a t t a k e s t h e s e p a r t i c i p a n t p e r s p e c t i v e s into
account. Moreover, the c u s t o m a r y deductive activities of f r a m i n g
h y p o t h e s e s and defining categories a priori before u n d e r t a k i n g
the study, and of a n a l y z i n g within prespecified f r a m e w o r k s are
seen as inappropriate.
Generally, r e s e a r c h e r s t r y to find s t r a t e g i e s t h a t minimize the
role of subjectivity. T h e y t r y to s t a n d a r d i z e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
t h a t t h e y (or a n y o n e else) a t t r i b u t e to d a t a perceived by their
senses. Deriving a scheme for coding b e h a v i o r s observed in a
classroom is an example. Theoretically, a coding scheme and a
f r a m e w o r k for i n t e r p r e t i n g o b s e r v e d b e h a v i o r s can be developed
and c o m m u n i c a t e d so t h a t a n y o n e who has learned the scheme,
with t r a i n i n g and practice, will i n t e r p r e t t h e b e h a v i o r s in ap-
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p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e w a y . This m e t h o d is seen as g u a r a n t e e i n g
objectivity.
The p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e a d o p t i o n of t h i s
p a r t i c u l a r f r a m e w o r k for i n t e r p r e t i n g a n d coding b e h a v i o r is
a r b i t r a r y . A n y n u m b e r of m e a n i n g s y s t e m s could be selected. In
fact, t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f r a m e w o r k s to u n d e r s t a n d m i g h t be
t h o s e of t h e s u b j e c t s r a t h e r t h a n t h e r e s e a r c h e r s . T h e objective
social scientist, in s t a n d a r d i z i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , m a y h a v e
d e s t r o y e d some of t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e d a t a he or she had. S e v e r y n
B r u y n (1966) h a s e x p r e s s e d t h i s view:
The t r a d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c i s t c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f (as a scientist) to
be t h e p r i m a r y source of knowledge, a n d t r u s t s his own
s e n s e s a n d logic m o r e t h a n he would t r u s t t h a t of his
subjects. The p a r t i c i p a n t observer, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , considers t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of his s u b j e c t s to h a v e f i r s t import a n c e . . . . B y t a k i n g t h e role of his s u b j e c t s he r e c r e a t e s in
his own i m a g i n a t i o n a n d e x p e r i e n c e t h e t h o u g h t s a n d feelings w h i c h a r e in t h e m i n d s of t h o s e he studies. (p. 12)
To know m e r e l y t h e f a c t t h a t feelings, t h o u g h t s , or a c t i o n s
exist is n o t e n o u g h w i t h o u t also k n o w i n g t h e f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n
w h i c h t h e s e b e h a v i o r s fit. T h e social s c i e n t i s t m u s t come to
u n d e r s t a n d how all t h o s e who a r e involved i n t e r p r e t b e h a v i o r in
a d d i t i o n to t h e w a y he or she as s c i e n t i s t i n t e r p r e t s it f r o m his
objective o u t s i d e p e r s p e c t i v e . Moreover, since t h e s u b j e c t s cannot a l w a y s a r t i c u l a t e t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r m u s t
find w a y s to c u l t i v a t e a w a r e n e s s of t h e l a t e n t m e a n i n g s w i t h o u t
b e c o m i n g o v e r s o c i a l i z e d a n d u n a w a r e as m o s t p a r t i c i p a n t s m a y
be. The r e s e a r c h e r m u s t develop a d y n a m i c t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e
s u b j e c t i v e role of p a r t i c i p a n t a n d t h e role of o b s e r v e r so t h a t he
is n e i t h e r one e n t i r e l y .
The n e c e s s i t y of a b a n d o n i n g t r a d i t i o n a l d e d u c t i v e processes
such as a priori h y p o t h e s i s f o r m a t i o n u s u a l l y follows as a conseq u e n c e to t h i s g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h to u n d e r s t a n d i n g h u m a n behavior. B e c a u s e q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h e r s are r e s t r i c t e d w i t h i n t h e i r
own p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e y risk b e i n g c o n c e r n e d a b o u t i r r e l e v a n t
variables. G l a s e r a n d S t r a u s s (1967) describe a c a r e f u l m e t h o d by
which social s c i e n t i s t s can g r o u n d t h e i r t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h in
t h e r e a l i t y t h e y a r e s t u d y i n g . T h e y use t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n
p a r t i c i p a n t d a t a a n d o b s e r v e r a n a l y s i s to c o n s t a n t l y r e f i n e
their theory. Traditional research analysis framed without this
on-going a w a r e n e s s can s e e m forced to fit t h e t h e o r y g u i d i n g t h e
r e s e a r c h . F o r m a l t h e o r y s h o u l d e n t e r only a f t e r t h e r e s e a r c h e r s
h a v e become c o n v i n c e d of its r e l e v a n c e . G l a s e r a n d S t r a u s s
(1967) describe t h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e i r open a p p r o a c h over a
pre-structured study.
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The c o n s e q u e n c e [of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h ] is o f t e n a
forcing of d a t a as well as a n e g l e c t of r e l e v a n t c o n c e p t s and
hypotheses that may emerge .... Our approach, allowing
s u b s t a n t i v e c o n c e p t s a n d h y p o t h e s e s to e m e r g e first, on
t h e i r own, e n a b l e s t h e a n a l y s t to a s c e r t a i n which, if any,
e x i s t i n g f o r m a l t h e o r y m a y help him g e n e r a t e his s u b s t a n tive t h e o r i e s . H e can t h e n be m o r e o b j e c t i v e and less t h e o r e t i cally biased. (p. 34)
No one, of c o u r s e , e n t e r s a s i t u a t i o n a t r u e t a b u l a r a s a .
L a n g u a g e is itself a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r w h i c h p r o v i d e s one s e t of
c o n c e p t u a l tools a n d s c r e e n s o u t o t h e r s . Similarly, p r e v i o u s
e x p e r i e n c e s i n f l u e n c e t h e s c i e n t i s t ' s o b s e r v a t i o n and t h o u g h t . In
fact, t r a d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l scientific m e t h o d s h a v e s o u g h t to
e x t r a p o l a t e a l o n g t h e s e lines b y a s k i n g t h e r e s e a c h e r to be m o s t
explicit and r i g o r o u s in t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e p e r s p e c t i v e u n d e r lying t h e r e s e a r c h . T h e r e is r o o m in t h e r e a l m s of r e s e a r c h ,
h o w e v e r , for o t h e r m o r e i n d u c t i v e a p p r o a c h e s w h e r e t h e role of
t h e p r e f o r m e d h y p o t h e s i s and c i r c u m s c r i b e d d a t a g a t h e r i n g
t e c h n i q u e s a r e r e d u c e d to a m i n i m u m .
Those who work within the anthropological tradition cultivate
t h e skill of s u s p e n d i n g (the p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s call it " b r a c k e t ing") t h e i r p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . T h e y s t u d y prior r e s e a r c h a n d t h e o r y
as m u c h as t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r , b u t t h e y t h e n p u r p o s e l y
s u s p e n d this k n o w l e d g e u n t i l t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e r e s e a r c h
s e t t i n g s u g g e s t s its r e l e v a n c e .
To i l l u s t r a t e this v e r y i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t of m e a n i n g a n d
p e r s p e c t i v e , let us a s s u m e t h a t a t r a d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r is int e r e s t e d in s t u d y i n g i n t e r s t u d e n t a g g r e s s i o n in t h e c l a s s r o o m ,
p e r h a p s to d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n of its o c c u r r e n c e to s o m e
a s p e c t s of t e a c h e r a c t i v i t i e s or s o m e set of s t u d e n t c h a r a c t e r i s tics. To d e t e r m i n e f r e q u e n c y of v a r i o u s kinds of a g g r e s s i o n , t h e
r e s e a r c h e r s e t s up c a t e g o r i e s a n d t r a i n s o b s e r v e r s t o be sensit i v e , r e l i a b l e r e c o r d e r s of t h e s e a g g r e s s i v e e v e n t s . T h e res e a r c h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y finds w a y s to r e c o r d a n d m e a s u r e o t h e r
v a r i a b l e s of i n t e r e s t .
L e t us a s s u m e t h a t " s t u d e n t hits o t h e r s t u d e n t " is one of t h e s e
c a t e g o r i e s of a g g r e s s i o n . T h o s e w h o h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e r s / c o d e r s
in t h e c l a s s r o o m s a r e a w a r e i n t u i t i v e l y t h a t n o t e v e r y " s t u d e n t
hits o t h e r s t u d e n t " e v e n t is c o m m e n s u r a t e . T h e o b j e c t i v e tradition a n d t r a i n i n g l e a d s a p e r s o n to p u t t h e s e r e s e r v a t i o n s aside
(or to m a k e limited i n f e r e n c e s ) and r e p o r t t h e " f a c t s . "
The p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r is n o t willing to sacrifice all this
information about the subtle differences between similar hitting
e v e n t s . In fact, t h i s o b s e r v e r feels t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s e
d i f f e r e n c e s is crucial a n d m u c h of t h e r e s e a r c h is specifically
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a i m e d a t g e t t i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n . Moreover, t h e d a n g e r exists
even in q u a n t i t a t i v e s y s t e m a t i c o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e f a i l u r e to
u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g s of h i t t i n g e v e n t s m a y r e s u l t in miscoding, t h e u n d e r - or o v e r e s t i m a t i o n of r e l a t i o n s h i p s , or t h e t o t a l
n e g l e c t of p o w e r f u l c o n c e p t s a n d h y p o t h e s i s r e l a t e d to t h e researcher's interests.
The p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y works to be a w a r e of
t h e m e a n i n g s of e v e n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , in r e l a t i o n to t h e h i t t i n g
e x a m p l e above, he or she would be a w a r e of t h e following
p a r t i c i p a n t p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d would k n o w w h i c h w e r e r e l e v a n t in
the situation being studied:
How do t h e v a r i o u s p a r t i c i p a n t s (the h i t t e r , p e r s o n b e i n g hit,
onlookers, t e a c h e r ) perceive t h e e v e n t ?
Do t h e y e v e n see it as a g g r e s s i o n ?
Do t h e h i t t e r a n d p e r s o n b e i n g h i t c o n c u r on t h e m e a n i n g ?
I t could, for e x a m p l e , n o t be an act of a g g r e s s i o n :
I t could be an act of a f f e c t i o n as in a g a m e of e x c h a n g e .
I t could be p a r t of s u b c u l t u r a l n o r m s . (In some black subcult u r e s , p r e a d o l e s c e n t a n d a d o l e s c e n t m a l e s h i t e a c h o t h e r on
t h e a r m a n d t h e s h o u l d e r as p l a y f u l d e m o n s t r a t i o n of
s t r e n g t h r a t h e r t h a n as a specific act of aggression.)
I t could be a n a t t e m p t to g e t t h e t e a c h e r ' s a t t e n t i o n or to
d i s r u p t class o r d e r r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g d i r e c t e d to t h e p e r s o n
b e i n g hit.
E v e n if it is a g g r e s s i o n , t h e r e a r e m a n y critical d i f f e r e n c e s
a m o n g e v e n t s t h a t it is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d .
The e v e n t could be a n i n i t i a t o r y f i r s t act, or it could be a
r e t r i b u t i o n for p r e v i o u s acts of a g g r e s s i o n n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
linked i m m e d i a t e l y in space, t i m e , or kind.
T h e e v e n t could be p a r t of a p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
t h e two s t u d e n t s involved, or it could be p a r t of a l a r g e r
i n t e r p e r s o n a l n e t w o r k of r e l a t i o n s for e x a m p l e , i n t e r g r o u p
hostility.
T h e r e a r e critical a s p e c t s of h u m a n b e h a v i o r to u n d e r s t a n d .
The q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h e r l e a r n s of some of t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s
by h e a r i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s e x p r e s s t h e m in t h e flow of e v e n t s . To
l e a r n of o t h e r s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r m u s t ask t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s questions and become acquainted with "emic" (actor-relevant)
c a t e g o r i e s t h a t a r e r a r e l y e x p r e s s e d . Some of w h a t we a r e calling
p e r s p e c t i v e s or m e a n i n g s , h o w e v e r , m a y n o t e v e n be conscious
for t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ; no p a r t i c i p a n t could s p o n t a n e o u s l y a r t i c u -
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late them. The p a r t i c i p a n t / o b s e r v e r ' s day-to-day o b s e r v a t i o n of
the full r a n g e of activities and t h e s t a t u s of outsider/insider p u t
the o b s e r v e r in a u n i q u e position to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e forces on
b e h a v i o r and to a r t i c u l a t e them.
This brief discussion has c e r t a i n l y not e x h a u s t e d all t h e possible m e a n i n g s of this p a r t i c u l a r action. Any s e t t i n g w h e r e h u m a n
beings act is full of b e h a v i o r s t h a t h a v e t h e i r similarly rich sets
of possible meanings. A l t h o u g h it is impossible for a n y individual
to c o m p r e h e n d all t h e m e a n i n g s in a n y setting, a r e s e a r c h e r
using anthropological t e c h n i q u e s can be a w a r e of t h e m and be
able to use t h e m in u n d e r s t a n d i n g and explaining h u m a n behavior.
Summary
We h a v e briefly explained, then, the two sets of h y p o t h e s e s
u n d e r l y i n g the r a t i o n a l e for p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n r e s e a r c h : (a)
H u m a n b e h a v i o r is complexly influenced by the c o n t e x t in which
it occurs. A n y r e s e a r c h plan which t a k e s t h e actors out of the
naturalistic s e t t i n g m a y n e g a t e those forces and hence obscure
its own u n d e r s t a n d i n g . (b) H u m a n b e h a v i o r often has more
m e a n i n g t h a n its o b s e r v a b l e "facts." A r e s e a r c h e r seeking to
u n d e r s t a n d b e h a v i o r m u s t find w a y s to learn the m a n i f e s t and
l a t e n t m e a n i n g s for t h e participants, and m u s t also u n d e r s t a n d
the behavior from t h e objective outside perspective.
B e c a u s e t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s t a k e n t o g e t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l l y challenge the w a y t h a t much traditional educational r e s e a r c h is
conducted, t h e y will u n d o u b t e d l y raise m a n y q u e s t i o n s and
protests. Such d e b a t e can be beneficial if it leads r e s e a r c h e r s of
all p e r s u a s i o n s to question their basic a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t h u m a n
behavior and w a y s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g it.
Research Process
U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e actual processes involved in this kind of
r e s e a r c h is as i m p o r t a n t as u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r a t i o n a l e .
E t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h is much like q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h in
t h a t it has a long t r a d i t i o n within which i n v e s t i g a t o r s are
working continually to refine and develop effective and appropriate r e s e a r c h methods.
E d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r s who a r e u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e anthropological r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n often see this kind of r e s e a r c h as
s y n o n y m o u s with j o u r n a l i s t i c r e p o r t i n g and anecdotal or impressionistic story-telling. Their expectation is t h a t someone e n t e r s
a setting, looks a r o u n d for a time, talks to some people, and
writes a r e p o r t of his impressions. T h e y s p e c u l a t e t h a t any
person in t h e s e t t i n g could produce the same insights by writing
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some recollections. T h e y do n o t see this as real r e s e a r c h a n d f e a r
a lack of o b j e c t i v i t y . This s e c t i o n will a t t e m p t to b r i d g e t h e
s e r i o u s g a p b e t w e e n e t h n o g r a p h i c a n d n o n - e t h n o g r a p h i c res e a r c h e r s b y d e s c r i b i n g t h e a c t u a l p r o c e d u r e s involved.
As e x p l a i n e d in t h e s e c t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h e r a t i o n a l e , t h e u n d e r lying principle g u i d i n g this kind of r e s e a r c h is t h e a s s u m p t i o n
that individuals have meaning structures that determine much
of t h e i r b e h a v i o r . T h e r e s e a r c h s e e k s to d i s c o v e r w h a t t h e s e
m e a n i n g s t r u c t u r e s are, h o w t h e y develop, a n d h o w t h e y influence b e h a v i o r , in as c o m p r e h e n s i v e and o b j e c t i v e a f a s h i o n as
possible. F o r t h e s a k e of a n a l y s i s , t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h
p r o c e s s will be divided into a series of issues: e n t r y and e s t a b l i s h m e n t of r e s e a r c h e r role; d a t a collection p r o c e d u r e s ; objectivity; and a n a l y s i s of d a t a .
Entry and Establishment of Role
E t h n o g r a p h y is b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w h a t people s a y
and do is c o n s c i o u s l y a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y s h a p e d b y t h e social
situation. T h e e t h n o g r a p h e r is s e n s i t i v e to t h e w a y he e n t e r s a
s e t t i n g a n d c a r e f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e s a role t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s t h e collection of i n f o r m a t i o n . H e m u s t m a k e decisions a b o u t h o w involved
he will b e c o m e in c o m m u n i t y a c t i v i t i e s (Gold, 1958) b e c a u s e he
k n o w s his a c t i v i t i e s will i n f l u e n c e t h e w a y s in w h i c h people r e a c t
to him. H e m o n i t o r s t h e w a y his e n t r y into t h e c o m m u n i t y is
i n i t i a t e d b o t h officially a n d unofficially b e c a u s e he k n o w s this
will i n f l u e n c e h o w people see him (Geer, 1964; K a h n & M a n n ,
1952; Vidich, 1955). H e t r i e s n o t to be identified w i t h a n y p a r t i c u lar g r o u p in t h e s e t t i n g . M o r e o v e r , t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y he
m o n i t o r s t h e v i e w s p a r t i c i p a n t s h a v e of him; for i n s t a n c e , he
would n o t e c a r e f u l l y t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n w h a t people s a y a n d
do w i t h e a c h o t h e r ( e i t h e r in his p r e s e n c e or as r e p o r t e d to him)
and w h a t t h e y s a y a n d do w h e n alone w i t h him (Becker, 1961).
Most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s m u s t come to t r u s t a n d v a l u e
t h e o b s e r v e r e n o u g h to be willing to s h a r e i n t i m a t e t h o u g h t s
w i t h h i m and a n s w e r his e n d l e s s q u e s t i o n s ( B r u y n , 1966). T h e
o u t s i d e r o c c a s i o n a l l y c o m i n g in a n d t a l k i n g to people does n o t
h a v e this o p p o r t u n i t y to s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c u l t i v a t e a n d m o n i t o r a
role t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s collection of all kinds of i n f o r m a t i o n a t all
levels.
To offer a c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e , we will b r i e f l y c o n s i d e r h o w a
p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r m i g h t h a v e g o n e a b o u t c u l t i v a t i n g his role
in t h e s t u d y of s t u d e n t a g g r e s s i o n a n d t h e h i t t i n g episode
c o n s i d e r e d p r e v i o u s l y . T h e r e s e a r c h e r w o u l d be c a r e f u l a b o u t t h e
w a y he e n t e r e d t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d c a m e to be p e r c e i v e d . F o r
e x a m p l e , he w o u l d w o r k m e t h o d i c a l l y to avoid b e i n g identified as
t h e m e m b e r of a n y p a r t i c u l a r s u b g r o u p . Did t h e t e a c h e r s con254
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sider h i m s o m e o n e t h e principal h a d s e n t ? Did t h e y feel he would
be s y m p a t h e t i c t o w a r d t h e t e a c h e r p o i n t of view? I f t h e r e w e r e
f a c t i o n s of t e a c h e r s , did t h e o b s e r v e r become i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a n y
one of t h e m ? S i m i l a r l y , did t h e s t u d e n t s c o n s i d e r h i m to be a
t e a c h e r - l i k e p e r s o n ? Did p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s of s t u d e n t s see h i m as
an i n g r o u p e r or a n o u t g r o u p e r ? T h e g r o u p i d e n t i t y of t h e obs e r v e r is i m p o r t a n t n o t only b e c a u s e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s m i g h t
consciously w i t h h o l d i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m s o m e o n e w i t h t h e w r o n g
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (for e x a m p l e , s t u d e n t s n o t t a l k i n g a b o u t p l a n s for
" g e t t i n g " c e r t a i n c l a s s m a t e s in f r o n t of a t e a c h e r - l i k e person),
b u t also b e c a u s e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s m i g h t c o n s c i o u s l y color w h a t
t h e y said a n d did (for e x a m p l e , s t u d e n t s n o t t a l k i n g a b o u t h i t t i n g
g a m e s in f r o n t of a t e a c h e r - l i k e p e r s o n who t h e y felt would
consider t h e m silly).
I n e v e r y e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d y we h a v e c o n d u c t e d in h i g h
schools, s t u d e n t s h a v e e x p r e s s e d t h e i r c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e res e a r c h e r ' s i d e n t i t y . I n one a l t e r n a t i v e school, an a s s e m b l y w a s
held to i n t r o d u c e t h e o b s e r v e r a n d to a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e
r e s e a r c h . One s t u d e n t a s k e d f r o m t h e a u d i e n c e , " A r e you a
t e a c h e r or a s t u d e n t ? " L a t e r e v e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h i s w a s
a n i m p o r t a n t concern. The o b s e r v e r t r i e d to e x p l a i n his u n i q u e
s t a t u s of b e l o n g i n g to no one group. This e x p l a n a t i o n w a s n o t
fully a c c e p t e d or u n d e r s t o o d a t t h a t time. D u r i n g t h e n e x t
s e v e r a l weeks, t h e o b s e r v e r s p e n t m u c h e n e r g y e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s
role a n d f i n a l l y w a s a c c e p t e d as b e i n g in n e i t h e r g r o u p as
i l l u s t r a t e d by s t u d e n t w i l l i n g n e s s to discuss i s s u e s t h a t w e r e
taboo in f r o n t of t e a c h e r s .
Data Collection
Also a key f a c t o r in u n d e r s t a n d i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h is a
r e a l i z a t i o n of w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s d a t a a n d w h a t t h e c u s t o m a r y
m e t h o d s of o b t a i n i n g it are. This kind of a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i n q u i r y
seeks to discover t h e m e a n i n g s t r u c t u r e s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in
w h a t e v e r f o r m s t h e y are e x p r e s s e d . H e n c e , t h i s r e s e a r c h is
m u l t i m o d a l , a n d all of t h e following a r e r e l e v a n t k i n d s of d a t a :
1. F o r m a n d c o n t e n t of v e r b a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n participants
2. F o r m a n d c o n t e n t of v e r b a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e researcher
3. N o n v e r b a l b e h a v i o r
4. P a t t e r n s of a c t i o n a n d n o n a c t i o n
5. Traces, a r c h i v a l records, a r t i f a c t s , d o c u m e n t s
The e s s e n t i a l t a s k s for t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h e r a r e
l e a r n i n g w h a t d a t a will be n e c e s s a r y to a n s w e r his q u e s t i o n s a n d
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g e t t i n g access to t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n illust r a t e d h o w t h e r e s e a r c h e r w o r k s on i n t e r p e r s o n a l a c c e s s b y
b e c o m i n g s o m e o n e w i t h w h o m p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e willing to s h a r e
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d r e a c t i o n s . E v e n as t h e s e p r o b l e m s a r e b e i n g
solved, h o w e v e r , t h e e t h n o g r a p h e r m u s t c o n s t a n t l y m a k e decisions a b o u t w h e r e to be, w h a t kind of d a t a to collect, a n d to w h o m
to talk. U n l i k e p r e s t r u c t u r e d r e s e a r c h designs, t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
t h a t is g a t h e r e d a n d t h e t h e o r i e s t h a t e m e r g e m u s t be u s e d to
direct s u b s e q u e n t d a t a collection.
The r e s e a r c h e r m u s t l e a r n t h e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l p s y c h i c
s c h e d u l e s a n d g e o g r a p h i e s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ( B r u y n , 1966). H e
m u s t b e c o m e a w a r e of all t h e b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s in t h e c o m m u n i t y
a n d t h e i r i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( B a r k e r & Gump, 1964). H e
w o r k s to b e c o m e p a r t of t h e v a r i o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k s
t h a t daily o r i e n t p a r t i c i p a n t s a b o u t w h e r e a n d w h e n s i g n i f i c a n t
e v e n t s a r e likely to occur. The r e s e a r c h e r d e v e l o p s s a m p l i n g
p r o c e d u r e s t h a t r e f l e c t t h e r e s e a r c h goals. W h e n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s
exist, t h e r e s e a r c h e r m a k e s c a l c u l a t e d decisions a b o u t w h a t kind
of d a t a to collect a n d w h e t h e r or n o t he should e n g a g e in active
field i n t e r v i e w i n g (probing, r a t h e r t h a n r e l y i n g on n a t u r a l i s t i c
observation).
Also i m p o r t a n t is t h e choice of w h o m to t a l k to. The r e s e a r c h e r
b e c o m e s a w a r e of v a r i o u s p e r s o n s ' roles in t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d
t h e p e r s o n a l m a t r i x t h r o u g h Which p e r s o n s filter i n f o r m a t i o n .
The m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e (Dean, E i c h o r n , Dean, 1967; D e a n
& W h y t e , 1958; A r g y r i s , 1952) is rich w i t h d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e
b a s e s for m a k i n g t h e s e decisions a b o u t w h o is an a p p r o p r i a t e
r e s p o n d e n t or i n f o r m a n t for v a r i o u s p u r p o s e s . Again, decisions
a b o u t w h o is t a l k e d to a r e m a d e in t e r m s of e m e r g i n g t h e o r y and
previously gathered information.
M u c h of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d b y p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n is
similar to t h a t w h i c h c a n be g a t h e r e d b y o t h e r m e t h o d s , for
instance, systematic observation and structured interviewing.
The p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r h a s m o r e l a t i t u d e in t h a t he is n o t
limited to p r e s p e c i f i e d places a n d times. H e c a n i n t e r v i e w a n d
o b s e r v e in m a n y s i t u a t i o n s n o t u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e to o t h e r res e a r c h e r s . H e also h a s an a d v a n t a g e in his a b i l i t y to m o n i t o r t h e
r a p p o r t he h a s b u i l t w i t h i n t e r v i e w e e s and to gain access to
confidential i n f o r m a t i o n .
In o t h e r w a y s , t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d b y p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n is
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t g a t h e r e d b y o t h e r m e t h o d s . The
r e s e a r c h e r links t o g e t h e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n he g a t h e r s b y v a r i o u s
m e t h o d s in a w a y t h a t is n e a r l y impossible w i t h o t h e r app r o a c h e s , a n d he h a s a c c e s s to s o m e u n i q u e kinds of i n f o r m a t i o n .
F o r i n s t a n c e , he c o m p a r e s t h e following: (a) w h a t a s u b j e c t s a y s
in r e s p o n s e to a q u e s t i o n ; (b) w h a t he s a y s to o t h e r people; (c)
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w h a t he s a y s in v a r i o u s situations; (d) w h a t he s a y s at v a r i o u s
times; (e) w h a t he a c t u a l l y does; (f) v a r i o u s n o n v e r b a l signals
about the m a t t e r (for example, body postures); and (g) w h a t those
who are significant to t h e person feel, say, and do a b o u t t h e
matter. F u r t h e r m o r e , the p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r in i n t e r v i e w i n g
knows much a b o u t t h e persons or incidents r e f e r r e d to in t h e
a n s w e r s to his questions. Finally, t h e p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r cultiv a t e s an e m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g with the p a r t i c i p a n t t h a t is
nearly impossible with q u a n t i t a t i v e methods. The r e s e a r c h e r
shares the daily life of p a r t i c i p a n t s and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y works to
u n d e r s t a n d their feelings and reactions.
It is i m p o r t a n t to note t h a t t h e r e are also d i s a d v a n t a g e s in t h e
use of p a r t i c i p a n t observation; for instance, the difficulty of
obtaining a picture of the complete distribution of a t t i t u d e s in a
large community. A single o b s e r v e r would not be able efficiently
to get the feelings of a m a j o r i t y of people at one point in time. F o r
a description of o t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e s in p a r t i c i p a n t observation,
see McCall and Simmons, 1969.
E t h n o g r a p h i c i n q u i r y is a s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h process, j u s t as
are the q u a n t i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s more familiar to educational
r e s e a r c h e r s . As t h i s b r i e f section h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d , ethnographic r e s e a r c h e r s methodically plan the forms of d a t a t h e y will
collect, the s e t t i n g s in which t h e y will g a t h e r t h e data, the
participants with whom t h e y will interact, and t h e q u e s t i o n s
t h e y will ask. T h e y also t r y to be open to new information, b u t
t h e y do so in a calculated fashion, for example, by seeking out
places t h a t are likely to p r e s e n t this new information.
To illustrate, we will describe t h e d a t a collection t h a t would be
p a r t of the s t u d y of the hitting e v e n t discussed previously. The
participant o b s e r v e r would u s e his flexibility and his special
acceptance by the c o m m u n i t y to discover w h e r e he would find
r e l e v a n t information. He might make all the following moves:
He would be p r e s e n t w h e n t h e s e e v e n t s were likely to occur.
He would note v e r b a l and n o n v e r b a l b e h a v i o r r e l a t e d to the
e v e n t (for instance, t h e r e a c t i o n s of the s t u d e n t being hit, the
teacher, and b y s t a n d e r students).
He would discover w h e r e and w h e n s t u d e n t s w e r e likely to
discuss t h e event, and he would be p r e s e n t (for instance, in
the halls or at recess).
He would be p r e s e n t w h e r e and w h e n t e a c h e r s discussed the
e v e n t (for instance, in t h e t e a c h e r s ' lounge).
He would work to become t h e kind of person t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s
w a n t e d to s h a r e t h e i r r e a c t i o n s with (for instance, by being
friendly and s h a r i n g valued activities).
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To confirm e m e r g e n t t h e o r y , he w o u l d a s k people q u e s t i o n s
w h i c h w o u l d help h i m r e f i n e a n d d e v e l o p t h e t h e o r y .
H e w o u l d build up t h e h i s t o r y of i n v o l v e m e n t t h a t w o u l d
e n a b l e him to r e l a t e a n y n e w bit of i n f o r m a t i o n to p r e v i o u s l y
g a t h e r e d i n f o r m a t i o n . ( F o r i n s t a n c e , he w o u l d c o n s i d e r a
t e a c h e r ' s c o m m e n t a b o u t t h e h i t t i n g e v e n t in t e r m s of t h e
following: t h e t e a c h e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h e people b e i n g
t a l k e d to, p r e v i o u s c o m m e n t s a n y o n e in this g r o u p h a d m a d e
a b o u t s i m i l a r e v e n t s , t h e e v e n t as a c t u a l l y w i t n e s s e d b y t h e
o b s e r v e r , s i m i l a r e v e n t s o b s e r v e d p r e v i o u s l y , s i m i l a r situations w h e r e t h e s e e v e n t s did n o t occur, a n d s t u d e n t t h o u g h t s
about the event.)
T h e s e and s i m i l a r s t r a t e g i e s help t h e r e s e a r c h e r to a c c u m u l a t e
t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h u m a n action t h a t is s o u g h t b y e t h n o g raphy.
Objectivity
B e c a u s e t h e q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h e r does n o t u s e f a m i l i a r q u a n t i t a t i v e m e t h o d s of s t a n d a r d i z i n g s u b j e c t s ' e x p r e s s i o n or res e a r c h e r s ' o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h o s e not a c q u a i n t e d with p a r t i c i p a n t obs e r v a t i o n f e a r t h a t t h e d a t a will be p o l l u t e d w i t h t h e o b s e r v e r s '
s u b j e c t i v e bias. H o w e v e r , w e l l - e x e c u t e d e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h
u s e s a t e c h n i q u e of disciplined s u b j e c t i v i t y t h a t is as t h o r o u g h
a n d i n t r i n s i c a l l y o b j e c t i v e as a r e o t h e r kinds of r e s e a r c h . To
e x p l a i n t h i s a s s e r t i o n , w e m u s t r e f e r to t h e q u a l i t a t i v e phenomenological hypothesis about human behavior discussed
previously. H u m a n actions have more meaning than j u s t the
c o n c r e t e f a c t s of who, w h a t , w h e r e , a n d w h e n t h a t an o u t s i d e r
can o b s e r v e ; t h e y h a v e m o r e m e a n i n g s t h a n e v e n t h e r e s p o n s e s
t h a t s u b j e c t s could give w h e n b e i n g i n t r o s p e c t i v e (for i n s t a n c e ,
in an i n t e r v i e w or an a t t i t u d e scale marking). The e t h n o g r a p h e r
s t r i v e s to u n c o v e r t h e s e m e a n i n g s .
H e u s e s t h e t e c h n i q u e s we h a v e d e s c r i b e d to be in t o u c h w i t h a
wide r a n g e of p a r t i c i p a n t e x p e r i e n c e s . H e m a k e s s u r e t h a t his
s a m p l i n g is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ( B r u y n , 1966) a n d t h a t d a t a a r e
i n t e r p r e t e d in t e r m s of t h e s i t u a t i o n w h e r e t h e y w e r e g a t h e r e d
(Becker, 1958). In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e h i d d e n or u n e x p r e s sed m e a n i n g s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r m u s t l e a r n to s y s t e m a t i c a l l y empathize with the participants. He must synthesize the various
e x p e r i e n c e s of p a r t i c i p a n t s to c o m p r e h e n d t h e s u b t l e t i e s of t h e i r
actions, t h o u g h t s , a n d feelings. S o m e t i m e s he u s e s his own
r e a c t i o n s , w h i c h he h a s c u l t i v a t e d b y u n d e r g o i n g t h e s a m e
e x p e r i e n c e s as p a r t i c i p a n t s , to u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a c t i o n s of t h o s e
he is s t u d y i n g .
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The a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t h u m a n b e h a v i o r t h a t t h e s e m e a n i n g s
exist and t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m r e q u i r e s i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e
participants' p e r s p e c t i v e s - - c a l l s for such t e c h n i q u e s as e m p a t h y
and n o n s t a n d a r d i z e d observation. H o w e v e r , t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s
are not used in an impressionistic manner. There are i m p o r t a n t
differences b e t w e e n the s u b j e c t i v i t y of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s and t h a t
of the r e s e a r c h e r who is careful n e v e r to a b a n d o n himself to
these perspectives. The discipline of the r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n calls
for him to c o n s t a n t l y monitor and t e s t his reactions. In addition
to s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t a k i n g the p e r s p e c t i v e s of the subjects, who
rarely share a monolithic point of view, he also views actions
from the perspective of t h e outsider. B y s y s t e m a t i c a l l y seeking
to u n d e r s t a n d actions from t h e different p e r s p e c t i v e s of various
groups of participants, the r e s e a r c h e r avoids g e t t i n g c a u g h t in
any one outlook (Vidich, 1955; Wilson, 1972). He is able to view
behavior s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from all perspectives. These tensions in
point of v i e w m b e t w e e n o u t s i d e r and insider and b e t w e e n groups
of i n s i d e r s - - k e e p t h e careful r e s e a r c h e r from lapsing into subjectivity.
A concrete example from the s t u d y of t h e h i t t i n g e v e n t will
illustrate this kind of objectivity. The p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r would
u n d e r s t a n d the same act from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s of all involved:
Teacher:
S t u d e n t s Involved:
Bystander Students:
The o b s e r v e r would c o m p r e h e n d fully
t h e t e a c h e r ' s a n g e r at t h e s e s t u d e n t s ,
t h e f e a r of losing control, and t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n to change their f u t u r e
behavior.
The o b s e r v e r might u n d e r s t a n d their
perceptions of t h e h i t t i n g e v e n t as a
game, their lack of intention to disr u p t the class, and their confusion
a b o u t t h e t e a c h e r ' s reaction.
The o b s e r v e r would know which
s t u d e n t s saw t h e h i t t i n g as a game,
which saw it as a challenge to t h e
teacher, and which saw it some other
w a y - - f o r instance, as a specific act
of aggression.
E a c h scientist who applies this disciplined r e s e a r c h method
might be expected to g a t h e r similar data, j u s t as in q u a n t i t a t i v e
methods scientists using the same t e c h n i q u e s collect similar
facts. The d a n g e r exists t h a t , as in q u a n t i t a t i v e research, the
same d a t a can be i n t e r p r e t e d differently. See R o b e r t Redfield's
book Tepoztlan and Oscar Lewis' book Life in a Mexican Village:
Tepoztlan Revisited, on their v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of life in the
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s a m e village. A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a r e c u r r e n t l y d e b a t i n g t h i s problem. 1
Analysis of Data
A final a r e a t h a t it is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d is h o w e t h n o g r a p h e r s a n a l y z e t h e i r d a t a a n d develop t h e o r y . Some e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h is v e r y s i m i l a r to t r a d i t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l res e a r c h in its d e d u c t i v e u s e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e o r y . O t h e r
kinds of e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h , h o w e v e r , a r e m u c h m o r e inductive.
The a n t h r o p o l o g i s t seeks to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g s of t h e
p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d h e n c e seeks to be c a r e f u l n o t to h a v e his
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s p r e m a t u r e l y o v e r s t r u c t u r e d by t h e o r y or previous r e s e a r c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , he is p e r h a p s m o r e r e a d y t h a n o t h e r
kinds of r e s e a r c h e r s to accept t h e possible u n i q u e n e s s of t h e
v a r i o u s s e t t i n g s , g r o u p s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , etc., t h a t he s t u d i e s .
S e e k i n g t h e o r y g r o u n d e d in t h e r e a l i t y of p a r t i c i p a n t s does n o t
m e a n a d i s r e g a r d for p r e v i o u s work. T h e r e s e a r c h e r m u s t become
t h o r o u g h l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h r e l a t e d r e s e a r c h a n d t h e o r y so t h a t
he can use it w h e n e v e r it is h e l p f u l for e x p l a i n i n g e v e n t s .
Similarly, he c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of k n o w l e d g e by
p o i n t i n g o u t c o r r o b o r a t i o n a n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n of his f i n d i n g s w i t h
t h e f i n d i n g s of o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s . Moreover, he u s e s p r e v i o u s
r e s e a r c h a n d t h e o r y to select t h e s e t t i n g he is s t u d y i n g a n d to
i n f o r m t h e i n i t i a l focus of his i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g .
The d e v e l o p m e n t of g r o u n d e d t h e o r y is n o t h a p h a z a r d . The
r e s e a r c h e r c o n s t a n t l y t e s t s his e m e r g i n g h y p o t h e s e s a g a i n s t t h e
r e a l i t y he is o b s e r v i n g daily. Unlike t h e u s u a l p r e s t r u c t u r e d
research designs, participant observation includes a constant
n e c e s s i t y for t e s t i n g t h e o r y a g a i n s t r e a l d a t a . F o r a f u r t h e r
d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s c o n s t a n t comparative method, t h e r e a d e r is
u r g e d to c o n s u l t G l a s e r a n d S t r a u s s (1967). B e c k e r (1961) p o i n t s
o u t t h a t t h e s e a r c h for negative evidence is a n o t h e r w a y t h a t
p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r s r e f i n e a n d t e s t t h e i r t h e o r i e s . B e c a u s e of
his a w a r e n e s s of t h e s e t t i n g , t h e r e s e a r c h e r k n o w s w h a t situations a r e likely to p r o v i d e d i s c o r d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n . He e n t e r s
t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s to c o n f r o n t t h i s possibly n e g a t i v e evidence,
probes to find o u t w h y t h e t h e o r y c a n n o t a c c o u n t for w h a t is
observed, a n d g r a d u a l l y develops his t h e o r y . I t m a k e s sense,
t h e n , to t h i n k of p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n as a series of s t u d i e s
t h a t follow e a c h o t h e r d a i l y a n d build on each o t h e r in a cybernetic f a s h i o n .
' This view of objectivity, of course, represents an ideal. Anthropologists are
currently debating about how objective participant observers can be even within
the rigorous tradition. Participant observation, however, is no less intrinsically
objective than other research methods.
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Summary
We h a v e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c r a t i o n a l e and
research process. More elaborate considerations
of t h i s
m e t h o d o l o g y a r e a v a i l a b l e in t h e following s o u r c e s : A d a m s and
Priess, 1960; B r u y n , 1966; F i l s t e a d , 1970; G l a s e r a n d S t r a u s s ,
1967; McCall a n d S i m m o n s , 1969; Naroll a n d Cohen, 1970; Scott,
1965; S c h a t z m a n a n d S t r a u s s , 1974.
The m e t h o d o l o g y of e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h e r s is as r i g o r o u s
and s y s t e m a t i c as t h a t of o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s . It is a vital and
viable t r a d i t i o n w h i c h is c o n s t a n t l y in t h e p r o c e s s of b e i n g
e v a l u a t e d a n d refined. One of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i d e a s b e h i n d
p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n is t h a t t h e r e is no one r i g h t m e t h o d : t h e
m e t h o d should m a t c h t h e s t u d y . The t e c h n i q u e s d e s c r i b e d h e r e
can be c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h o t h e r m e t h o d s into an e x c e l l e n t r e s e a r c h
design t h a t could elicit i n f o r m a t i o n n o t accessible to r e s e a r c h e r s
using more quantitative techniques.
T h e r e are, of c o u r s e , q u e s t i o n s t h a t can be r a i s e d a b o u t t h e
v a r i a t i o n s in t h e q u a l i t y of p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s t u d i e s , j u s t
as t h e r e a r e v a r i a t i o n s
in s t u d i e s u s i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e
methodologies. T h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t a r e a p p r o p r i a t e to a s k a r e n o t
easily a n s w e r e d w i t h i n a j o u r n a l article f o r m a t . A n a l m o s t
c o m p l e t e h i s t o r y of e a c h p a r t i c u l a r r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t w o u l d be
r e q u i r e d , an u n d e r t a k i n g t h a t w o u l d n e c e s s i t a t e as m u c h s p a c e
as t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s u b s t a n t i v e findings. We will i l l u s t r a t e ,
h o w e v e r , some i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s b y b r i e f l y o u t l i n i n g t h e
q u e s t i o n s e t h n o g r a p h e r s m i g h t a s k a b o u t e a c h o t h e r ' s work.
The q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h e n t e r p r i s e d e p e n d s on t h e a b i l i t y of
t h e r e s e a r c h e r to m a k e h i m s e l f a s e n s i t i v e r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t
b y t r a n s c e n d i n g his o w n p e r s p e c t i v e a n d b e c o m i n g a c q u a i n t e d
with t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s of t h o s e he is s t u d y i n g . In a f u n d a m e n t a l
w a y it is i m p o s s i b l e to k n o w to w h a t d e g r e e t h i s w a s accomplished in a n y p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y w i t h o u t b e i n g in t h e field.
The a n s w e r s to t h e following kinds of q u e s t i o n s , h o w e v e r , give
t h e fellow s c i e n t i s t s o m e basis on w h i c h to j u d g e t h e work. O u r
list of q u e s t i o n s is a d o p t e d from t h o s e u s e d b y N a r o l l (1967) in
j u d g i n g c r o s s - c u l t u r a l studies.
The first s e t of q u e s t i o n s p r o b e s t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s a b i l i t y to
move b e y o n d his o w n p e r s p e c t i v e s . A r e v i e w e r t h u s n e e d s to
k n o w w h a t w e r e t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s original p o i n t s of view. Inform a t i o n a b o u t t h e s e q u e s t i o n s c a n be s o u g h t from a n y source, b u t
t h e p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s is on t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s self-reports.
W h a t w a s t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s role in t h e s e t t i n g ? (e.g., t e a c h e r ,
administrator, researcher?)
W h a t w a s his t r a i n i n g a n d b a c k g r o u n d ?
W h a t w a s his p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e in t h e field?
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W h a t w e r e his t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s a b o u t r e l e v a n t issues?
W h a t w e r e his p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e topic?
W h a t was t h e p u r p o s e of t h e field s t u d y ?
Who s u p p o r t e d t h e s t u d y ?
W h y was t h e p a r t i c u l a r s e t t i n g chosen?
To w h a t e x t e n t did he become a p a r t i c i p a n t ?
T h e r e are i m p o r t a n t q u a l i t i e s to note a b o u t t h e s e q u e s t i o n s .
T h e i r a n s w e r s p r o v i d e only t e n t a t i v e g u i d e l i n e s r a t h e r t h a n firm
bases by w h i c h to j u d g e t h e r e s e a r c h . F o r i n s t a n c e , a r e s e a r c h er w i t h p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e as an a d m i n i s t r a t o r or w i t h a
c e r t a i n t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n t h a t he
is locked i n t o t h o s e p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d t h a t his r e s e a r c h can be
d i s c o u n t e d as b e i n g biased by t h o s e points of view.
The second set of q u e s t i o n s probe t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e
r e s e a r c h e r in c o m i n g to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s of t h e
participants.
How long was t h e r e s e a r c h e r in t h e s e t t i n g ?
How r e g u l a r l y was he t h e r e ?
W h e r e did he s p e n d m o s t of his t i m e ?
With w h o m did he s p e n d m o s t of his time?
How well did he u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e participants?
How was he p e r c e i v e d by v a r i o u s g r o u p s of p a r t i c i p a n t s ?
Which m e m b e r s of t h e c o m m u n i t y w e r e his i n f o r m a n t s ?
Was t h e r e s y s t e m a t i c v a r i a n c e in his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
p e r s p e c t i v e s of v a r i o u s g r o u p s ?
W h a t w e r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d by various m e t h o d s ?
W h a t w e r e t h e levels of confidence t h e r e s e a r c h e r placed in
v a r i o u s conclusions?
W h a t w a s some of t h e n e g a t i v e evidence?
I t is i m p o r t a n t to r e a l i z e t h a t a full discussion of t h e s e i s s u e s is
impossible w i t h i n t h e l e n g t h l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e u s u a l vehicles of
c o m m u n i c a t i o n . W i t h i n m o n o g r a p h s a n d books e t h n o g r a p h e r s do
u s u a l l y discuss t h e s e i s s u e s in appendices. W h a t is c u s t o m a r i l y
done in s h o r t e r f o r m a t s , h o w e v e r , is a compromise. The res e a r c h e r offers a b r i e f h i s t o r y of t h e r e s e a r c h i n v o l v e m e n t , a
discussion of some of t h e m a j o r issues in c o n d u c t i n g t h e r e s e a r c h ,
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a d i s c u s s i o n of p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o b l e m a t i c c o n c l u s i o n s , a n d a n
a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e field d a t a w i t h i n t h e t e x t a d e q u a t e f o r r e a d ers to m a k e i n d e p e n d e n t j u d g m e n t s .
E t h n o g r a p h y is n o t j u s t a n e w f a d ; r a t h e r it is p a r t o f a
long-respected research tradition that for various historical
r e a s o n s h a s r e m a i n e d o u t s i d e t h e m a i n s t r e a m of e d u c a t i o n a l
r e s e a r c h . S i m i l a r l y , it is n o t a s t a t i c t r a d i t i o n ; r e s e a r c h e r s a r e
c o n s t a n t l y w o r k i n g to refine t h e m e t h o d s . A t p r e s e n t , invest i g a t o r s a r e e x a m i n i n g w a y s in w h i c h q u a l i t a t i v e a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s c a n s u p p l e m e n t e a c h o t h e r (CNS, N o t e 3), t h e
w a y s t e a m s o f q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h e r s c a n be u s e d t o g u a r a n t e e
m u l t i p l e p e r s p e c t i v e s , a n d in a f o r t h c o m i n g C N S p u b l i c a t i o n t h e
w a y s q u a l i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s c a n be u s e d in e v a l u a t i v e r e s e a r c h
will be e x a m i n e d . E d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h will be c o n s i d e r a b l y
e n r i c h e d as q u a l i t a t i v e a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h e r s l e a r n to
integrate their approaches.
Reference Notes
1. Nelson, H., Lundin, S., & Giannotta, F. Multidisciplinary evaluation of educational innovations: A n anthropological perspective. Paper presented at the
meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, 1974.
2. Ianni, F. (Chair.), Becker, H., Varenne, H., Dalton, W., Leichter, H., & Levine,
D. Social organization of the high school. Symposium presented at the meeting
of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, 1973.
3. Center for New Schools. A quantitative-qualitative study of student subcultures
in an alternative high school. Paper presented at the meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, Chicago, 1974.
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AUTHOR
STEPHEN WILSON Address: Center for New Schools, 59 East Van Buren,
Chicago, Illinois 60605. Title: Research Coordinator. Degrees: A.B., Antioch
College; M.Ed., Boston College; Ph.D., University of Chicago. Specialization:
Research and evaluation methodology, social psychology of education, innovative process.
265