1
TITLE PAGE
THE NIGERIAN CHRISTIAN ATTITUDE TO CIVIC DUTIES: AN EXEGETICAL
APPLICATION OF ROMANS 13:1-7.
BY
UZOIGWE, AMARA MARY
PG/MA/09/51316
DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
ENUGU STATE.
AUGUST, 2011.
2
REQUIREMENT PAGE
THE NIGERIAN CHRISTIAN ATTITUDE TO CIVIC DUTIES: AN EXEGETICAL
APPLICATION OF ROMANS 13:1-7
BY
UZOIGWE, AMARA MARY
PG/MA/09/51316
A DISSERTATION
PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES,
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR MASTERS DEGREE IN RELIGION
(NEW TESTAMENT)
SUPERVISOR: REV.DR.EZICHI ANYA ITUMA
DATE: AUGUST, 2011
APPROVAL PAGE
This dissertation has been approved for the Department of Religion and Cultural Studies,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
3
_______________________
______________________
Rev. Dr. Ezichi Anya Ituma
Rev. Dr. Ezichi Anya Ituma
Supervisor
Head of Department
________________________
_______________________
External Examiner
Prof. E. O. Ezeani
Dean of Faculty
4
CERTIFICATION
We certify that Uzoigwe, Amara Mary (PG/MA/09/51316) has satisfactorily carried out
all the corrections on this work as suggested by the External Examiner.
_______________________
________________________
Rev. Dr Ezichi Anya Ituma
Rev. Dr Ezichi Anya Ituma
Supervisor
Head of Department
___________________________
Prof E.O. Ezeani
Dean of Faculty
DEDICATION
5
This work is dedicated to God Almighty whose love sustained me in the cause of
this program.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Academic research is not only interesting but also a Herculean task. The rigours
and pains therein would have made a shipwreck of my vision if not for the inestimable
efforts, assistance and encouragements of men and women of goodwill. To these noble
figures I pledge my gratitude.
6
To the invisible reality, the Master planner, I offer my very special thanks for His
immeasurable mercies and love in my life especially in the cause of this programme.
Special appreciation to a distinguished academia, an erudite scholar, a motivator,
an achiever, a leader, a workaholic and my very supervisor Rev. Dr. E.A Ituma who
painstakingly groomed me especially in Greek courses. His desire to have an outstanding
biblical scholar exposed me to the art of writing. His commitment to duty and mentoring
expertise spurred my interest more in biblical studies. Revd. and dear sir, I remain
grateful.
My unalloyed thanks extend to all the lecturers and the entire staff of the
Department of Religion and Cultural Studies University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
I cannot record the success of this programme without commending the assistance
of the staff of the Department of Religion and Human Relations Nnamdi Azikiwe
University Awka. Amongst them is my amiable Head of the Department Rev. Fr. Prof.
A.B.C Chiegboka. Other lecturers in the spirit of Religion and Human Relations spurred
me to positive actions.Venerable B.O.S Udezo contributed immensely. To you all I say
thanks.
My desire to become a New Testament scholar would not have come to reality
without the special assistance of my dear friend, teacher, mentor, a motivator and a senior
colleague Rev. Fr. Prof. B.A.C Obiefuna. Prof. Obiefuna’s interest always is to see me
grow, stabilize and soar. Prof.may your days be long to see me thrive. In the same vein, I
wish to register my indebtedness to my friend, Rev. Fr. Hyginus O. Ebede for being very
supportive in this academic pursuit.
A team of friends contributed immensely towards the success of this work.
Amongst them is Rev. Fr. Joel Okechukwu who took the pains and risk of taking me to
the Catholic Institute of West Africa (CIWA) library so as to enrich my work. Rev. Fr.
Sebastian Onuorah deservers a very big thanks in this regard. Rev. Fr. Dr. H.C. Achunike
I pray God to continue to bless you. Special thanks to Rev. Fr. Cyracus Okpalike who
played host to me and introduced me to Bigard Memorial Seminary library at Enugu.
Thanks to Fr. Jude Ezeokana (Associate Prof.) for his encouragements and Fr. Samuel
Ezeibekwe for his material gifts that helped me a lot in this programme. I cannot forget
Rev. Fr. Prof. J.O Oguejiofor who provided me with materials. Rev. Fr. Barr. Dr. Ikenga
7
Oraegbunam has been very supportive. Special thanks to Rev. Sr. Dr. Jerome Obiora for
her keen interest and support towards the success of this work. Arch. and Mrs. Iyk
Okechukwu are wonderful. They hosted me during my research at CIWA Port Harcourt. I
pray God to continue to make you joyful in your marital life. Mere words cannot express
enough my appreciation to you, Mr. Kanayo Okoye for your assistance throughout my
programme. May God permanentize your happiness. Barr. S. Okeke, Barr. Kingsley
Ehujuo and Nwachukwu Obiakor are worth commending for their concerns. Thanks also
to my colleague Callister Ugwu and Rev. Chijioke Ude for their courage.
Immense gratitude to you my very good friends Dr. Dennis Nduka Oboru the
Medical Director Onyebuchi hospital and maternity Umunze and Dr. Ernest Ifebi
Medical Director Ifebi Hospital and Maternity, Awka for their invaluable help. To you
my good one Mr. Chidozie Anetoh (Uncle Leo), I say thank you and may God perfect
His plans in your family.
Special thanks to my wonderful cousins Chiedozie (Dodo), Chijioke, Esomchi
and their parents Sir and Lady J.E Okafor for their assistance and concerns respectively.
The very efforts of my family members, my beacons of hope are unquantifiable
that I cannot thank them enough especially my mother and granny. May God keep you all
in good health to reap the fruits of your labour. It will be a mark of ingratitude if I fail to
appreciate the efforts of my brother Ifeanyi who not only linked me with friends who
helped me in my research but also accompanied me with prayers. Nnaa, may God perfect
His plans in your life.
Finally, I acknowledge the innumerable authors whose works facilitated my work
as well as individual and institutional libraries. Thanks a million times. To you I say
thanks my typist Esther, the inmates and Management of Holy Family Youth Village
Amansea, Awka for being friendly. Anyone worth mentioning but not mentioned know
you that your thanks is uncountable.
8
ABSTRACT
The development of the State is solely dependent on the relationship between the
government and the citizens. Where the government and the citizens are committed and
responsive to their God-given roles, dividends abound; peace, justice, order, equity e.t.c;
but where there are lapses from either the state or the citizens, the reverse become the
case. The pursuit of the common good is the primary goal of the government. The
citizens also contribute in the actualization of the common good by fulfilling their civic
duties. However, civic duties are those social obligations inherent and incumbent on the
citizens as social beings and members of the state aimed at fostering the common good. It
varies from one country to the other. Civic duties include: obedience to the law of the
state, allegiance to the government, payment of taxes and levies, participation in politics
e.t.c. These and more components of civic duties make or mar the state. The Nigerian
Christians have a stake in this regard not only as religious members but fundamentally as
citizens of the state. Christianity teaches that there is no authority except from God (Rom
13: 1). This teaching laid bare the moral ground on which civil authorities should be
obeyed. Romans 13: 1-7 clamours for civil obedience. In the light of the above text, it has
been observed that the attitude of some Nigerian Christians seem passive. There is a
noticeable lack of conscientious commitment among Nigerian citizens towards that which
benefits all. Some dichotomize between profession of faith and commitment to public
issues especially in the political terrain. Very few Nigerian Christians have wholesome
attitude towards civic obligations. It is therefore against this backdrop that the researcher
investigates the attitude of Nigerian Christians towards civic duties from the perspective
of Paul’s injunctions in Romans 13: 1-7. The task is achieved using textual, redaction
critical methodologies and other extra-biblical tools. The paper concludes that some
Nigerian Christians are responsive in their response to civic obligations. But then, there is
still a need for attitudinal change. Active commitment to civic duties is not an option; it is
a religious venture that stems from the conscience. It has enduring moral values.
Christians should be the pace-setters in this regard for Christianity cannot have any
influence in a decayed and ‘ichabodized’ society. Romans 13: 1-7 if conscientiously
applied in the Nigerian society will spur societal harmony, peace, equity, justice and the
common good actualized.
9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Approval page -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
iv
Certification
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Acknowledgements
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
vii
Abstract
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Chapter One: INTRODUCTION
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
1.0
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
i
Blank page
ii
Requirement page
iii
v
Dedication
-
vi
-
x
Table of contents
xi
Background of the study
1
1.1
Statement of the problem
4
1.2
Aim of the study
-
7
1.3
Significance of the study
7
10
1.4
Scope of the study
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Research methodology
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
11
-
-
-
-
-
-
EXEGESIS OF ROMANS 13:1-7
-
-
-
24
End Notes
-
-
-
-
7
1.5
8
1.6
Definition of terms
9
End notes
-
10
Chapter Two: LITERATURE REVIEW
End Notes
-
21
Chapter Three:
-
-
-
40
Chapter Four: THE NIGERIAN CHRISTIAN ATTITUDE TO
CIVIC DUTIES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
43
4.1
The Nigerian Situation
-
44
4.2
Reasons for the Nigerian Christians’ poor response to civic duties 51
4.3
Civic duties as The Christians’ moral Obligations
-
-
-
61
-
-
-
-
-
Chapter Five: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION -
-
-
-
70
5.1
General Assessment -
-
-
-
-
-
-
72
5.2
Limitations of the study
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
End Notes
-
-
-
66
74
5.3
Suggestions for further research
74
11
5.4
Recommendations
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
75
5.5
Conclusion
77
End Notes
78
BIBLIOGRAPHY
79
12
Chapter One
Introduction
1.0 Background of the Study
The development of every Sate is highly dependent on the relationship
between the governing authority and the citizens. Where there is appreciable
relationship between the authorities and the governed in the form of duties
and obligations, a more organized society is formed. Such a society is
significantly marked with order, peace, justice and equity, while the
common good is not only ensured but also enhanced. It is the responsibility
of the government to provide the citizens with rights and protections. Every
right goes with obligations; therefore the citizens are required to respond to
the societal development by fulfilling their civic duties. The social
obligations incumbent on the citizens as members of the state towards the
actualization of the common good is what is being referred in this context as
civic duties.
According to Pendola, civic duties are “acts that citizens engage in to
fulfill their implied responsibilities to the society and the public interest”.1 It
entails every social duty inherent on the citizens as members of the state
which in the observations of Byrne is for “the betterment or improvement of
the community”.2 Elaborating on the intrinsic value of this demand,
Rockefeller associates civic duty with “the social force that binds you to
course of action demanded by that force”.3 The use of the word “force” in
this context does not imply violent physical action used to achieve or obtain
something. Neither does it imply the idea of force as used in physical
sciences. It refers to that urge or internal motivation that spurs one as a
13
citizen to contribute to the societal good. This is based on the fact that civic
duty is not an individualistic concept but a societal demand. Civic duty could
also be understood as the legal enforceable duty of a citizen. According to
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, “It varies from one country to another”.4
surprisingly enough is the fact that many people do not understand the scope
of civic responsibilities thereby limiting civic duty to payment of taxes
alone. Although the latter forms part of it but then, it embraces every social
obligations of a citizen.
However, the Catholic Secretariat of Nigeria (CSN) articulated the
Civic duties of the Nigerian citizens thus:
Allegiance to the government, obedience to the law of
Nigeria, payment of taxes and levies, participation in
census, respect of the right of others, exposition of
human right abuse/ mobilization of social action against
such abuses, and promotion of the development of the
society.5
In addition to the above stipulations, civic duty also include voting in
election, registering for military services, serving on a jury and participation
in political life. So important is the concept of civic duty that the fathers of
the church in the Second Vatican Council equated it with some degree of
sacredness as man’s social obligations. Literally, they described it thus “Let
everyone consider it his/her sacred duty to count social obligations among
man’s chief duties today and observe them as such”.6
Nigeria is a multi-religious society, Christianity having a greater
number of adherents. Fundamentally, a Nigerian Christian is a citizen of the
state. The fact remains that the Nigerian citizens whether a Christian or not
seem to be utilitarian in character. People’s interests most often are on what
they would gain rather than in what they will contribute or put in. They go
for things that will benefit them. This kind of attitude manifests in different
14
sectors of life even in the smaller unit like the family. Oraegbunam
encapsulates such mindset as “grabbing mentality”.7 People pay much
attention to what interests their-personal life-as against the communal wellbeing which the common good connotes. People pay allegiance to the
government only when it is convenient for them. Such attitude manifests in
their attitude to work, lassie-affair response to the government owned
properties etc. Consequently, the common good suffer.
However, it is more or less surprising that such attitude and ideology
thrives in a society that has a greater number of Christians to her credit. In
the words of Dim, “Christians although a set-apart group need to live and
function within the realities of their time and age”.8 As members of the state,
they are to serve as models in issues of societal welfare especially in
facilitating the actualization of the common good. The Christians should
take the lead of fostering the good of all by paying allegiance and being
submissive to the governing authorities as the power of the latter is derived
directly from God. In so doing Dim opines, “They (Christians) would be
able to exhibit the peace and profound genuineness of the Christian religion
among their non-believing neighbours and at the same time influence the
entire polity for the better”.9
It has been observed that some Nigerian Christians do not show
active commitment to their social obligations. Some are unwilling to respond
to their civic duties and contribute fairly to it. Confirming the above
situation the fathers of the church in the Second Vatican Council observed
that “there are many in various countries who make light of social laws and
directives and are not ashamed to resort fraud and cheating to avoid paying
just taxes and fulfilling-other social obligations”.10 A good number of
Nigerian citizens capitalize on the corrupt practices of the men at the
15
corridors of power and as such neglect their God-given duties. They leave on
the impression that no individual dutifulness would make significant change.
That explains for instance why they neither register nor partake in voting
exercises. Some people do not consider civic duty as a moral obligation
rather they see it as what they do for the government. For an average
Nigerian, civic duty is all about payment of taxes and rates. That explains
why both in rural and urban areas, people play truancy with regard to their
civic responsibilities.
Apostle Paul abreast with the societal complexities and challenges
calls Christians to attitude that will distinguish them among the members of
the society. Perhaps, his missionary exposure to the religious and sociopolitical milieu of the then Roman empire may have furnished his thoughts.
Hence, the text Romans 13:1-7.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
The idea of civic duty presupposes the concept of the common good.
According to the Second Vatican Council, “the common good is the sum
total of social conditions which allow people either as groups or as
individuals to reach their fulfillment more fully and more easily”.11 It
comprises of those values that are beneficial to the people as a community
and not peculiar to the individual. Both the state and the citizens should
partake in this regard. It involves rights as benefits and obligations as
responsibilities. The issue of the common good stems from the fact of the
intrinsic dignity of the human person as God’s creature, a social being and a
member of the society. With this in mind, Okeke asserts “to shun our
legitimate duties and still expect our benefits is tantamount to bad
membership and makes one a nuisance”.12
16
However, the Christian teaching that there is no authority except from
God (Rom. 13:1) needs in-depth comprehension. According to Grisez, “it
points to authority’s moral ground due to which civic duties are moral
responsibilities which may not be set aside without adequate reasons”.13
Apparently, the counsel on the Christian relationship to civil authorities runs
across the New Testament. Among the passages, Romans 13:1-7 is regarded
as the clearest and most detected in describing the appropriate Christian
attitude towards civil authorities.
In the light of the text, the injunction challenges the people to proper
patriotic commitment to the societal good. Despite of the importance and the
universalized demand of the civic duty on members of the society, the
attitude of some Nigerian Christians seems passive. In support of the above
point, Okeke observed that “the attitude of some present day Nigerians has
not always shown enough understanding of responsibility towards the
common good”.14 There is a noticeable lack of conscientious commitment
among Nigerian citizens towards that which benefits the public. The Spirit
with which many of the Nigerian Christians attend to religious issues like
paying of tithes differ from the attention being given to civic duties. Some
people do not consider civic duties as a divine injunction. Okeke remarked
this type of attitude as “disappointing and sometimes near barbaric”.15 Very
few Christians have wholesome attitude towards civic obligations. On the
part of some of the people saddled with authority, their sense of
responsibility sometimes amount to zero. Some people capitalize on the
corrupt practices amongst governing authorities consequently, they become
apathetic, hide from the law and neglect the social responsibilities incumbent
on them as members of the society. They see public things as what should be
scrambled for and made away with. To buttress this point, Okeke stated “the
17
ugly incident of fire burning hundreds of adults in their attempt to scoop fuel
from a broken pipe shows our general attitude to public properties”.16
However, the laxity among some Nigerian Christians in responding to
their civic obligations may not be out rightly divorced from the attitude of
some church leaders who appear indifferent in taking into consideration the
need to enlighten the people on the essence of civil obedience. Some do
refrain from the social obligations in the political process that shape the
destiny of the nation on the grounds of religious conscientious objections.
The above observations however, could be antithetical to Paul’s admonition
that presents civic duties as the Christians moral obligations. The passive
involvement also challenges the enhancement of the common good which is
the sole purpose of public authority. In the light of the above points, Pendola
asserts that “the civic duty if left unfulfilled threatens a breakdown in
various segments of the society including government justice and public
safety”.17 Having noted the intrinsic value associated with civic duty, the
challenge therefore is what should be the rightful Christian attitude to civil
authorities. Can a Christian neglect his/her civic obligations on grounds of
government irresponsibility and still be justified? In the light of Paul’s
injunctions, Christians are to yield to civil authorities. They should set the
pace and standard of rightful attitude with regard to civil obedience. Their
actions in the society should stem from love which is the language of
Christianity. By so doing, they will influence the polity and the common
good will be actualized.
18
1.2 Aim of the Study
This research work aimed at evaluating the Nigerian Christian attitude
towards the civic responsibilities. The work also established the moral
background to the Nigerian Christian exercise of civic duties. It also
emphasized that the government dispositions to societal development has a
lot of influence on the people’s response to their civic obligations. The
researcher in line with the reference text Romans 13:1-7, maintains that civil
authorities are agents of God for societal development therefore should be
alleged to. Above all, the work emphasized on attitudinal change by both the
Christians and civil authorities as a key, means and bedrock of facilitating
the common good.
1.3 Significance of the Study
This research fundamentally, will bring about attitudinal change
among the public especially the Christians in their perception of civil
authorities. On the part of the government, it will bring about positive
dispositions to societal development. Consequently, church/state relationship
will be strengthened. Understanding of civic responsibilities as a moral
obligation will help in the fight against corruption, truancy and indiscipline
in both private and public services. The work shall also contribute to
scholarship and as well promote further research. Most significantly, the
research shall ensure the enduring value (morality) of Paul’s advocacy on
civil obedience.
1.4 Scope of the Study
Paul’s exhortation in Romans 13:1-7 is part of a larger unified literary
unit that begins with Romans 12:1 and continues through 13:14. The
19
distinctiveness of Paul’s worldview in this regard is apparent in 12 and 13.
Romans 13:1-7 should be understood in the context of Paul’s exhortation for
his readers to live lives of non-conformity to the world and of persevering
love for all.
In view of this, this research undertakes a study of the Christian
attitude to civic duties within the Nigerian context. Romans 13:1-7 remains
the prism through which this study would be made. Other parallel passages
in the scripture that projects civil obedience shall also be cross examined.
1.5 Research Methodology
The work on the Christian attitude to civic duty is a research that
examines and explores what the behaviour of the Christian should be in
matters of societal good. It takes as the point of departure, Paul’s
admonitions in Romans 13:1-7. Taking into account the text of the epistle
pericope, the recipients and the prevalent situation, the rhetorical devices
employed by Paul and the rationale behind Paul’s injunction, the researcher
deemed it necessary to employ textual and redaction critical methodologies.
With textual critical method, the researcher examined the textual variants
viz-a viz its demands on civil obedience. Possible objections to the variants
were examined and judgment on the adopted rendering passed. This gave the
researcher a firm grip on the situation in life, (sitz im leben).The situation in
life offered a good context to explore the theological motif of Paul. Again
the theological rationale or motif behind Paul’s instructions in Romans 13:17 were surveyed having noted that civil authorities as an institution is the
agent of God.
20
Extra Biblical materials offered a veritable support to Biblical
interpretations. Extra Biblical tools such as bible dictionary, bible
commentaries, lexicon and various journals, books, related publications and
internet materials were among the materials in this category.
1.6 Definition of Related Terms
ATTITUDE: Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defines attitude as the
way one thinks, feels and behaves about something or somebody.
Contextually speaking, the term attitude refers to the way the Nigerian
Christians understand, behave and respond to civic duties in the light of the
actualization of the common good.
CIVIC DUTIES: They are those social obligations incumbent on the
citizens as members of the state towards the realization of the common good.
COMMON GOOD: According to the Second Vatican Council, common
good is “the sum total of social conditions which allow people either as
groups or as individuals to reach their fulfillment more fully and more
easily.”18
STATE: State could be defined as a definite entity where law and order are
maintained within a defined boundary by a supreme or coercive authority.
But in the context of this work, the term state refers to the government-the
constituted authority in charge of human affairs.
21
End Notes
1
Rocco Pendola, “What are Civic Duties” www.ehow.com, Retrieved
1 April, 2011.
2
Drake Byrne, “The responsibilities of a Citizen” www.ehow.com
Retrieved 1 April, 2011.
3
John D. 1 Rockefeller, “Civic Responsibility”. http://www.the
freedictionary.com/civic + duty. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/citizenship.
4
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/citizenship, Retrieved 1 April 2011.
5
Catholic Secretariat of Nigeria, Civic Education Manual for
communities and Schools (Lagos: Gazub Prints Ltd, 2006), p.60.
6
Austin Flannery ed; Vatican II; The Concilliar and Post Concilliar
Documents (Dublin: Dominican Publications, 1975), p. 818.
7
Ikenga Oraegbunam, “Some fundamental Problems in Nigeria
Public Service System: The need for a Genuine worth-Ethic” (Enugu: Snaap
Press Ltd, 2005), p.33.
8
Emmanuel Dim, The Christian and the Governing Authorities Rom
13:1-7 (Nimo: Rex Charles & Patrick Ltd, 2009), p. 3
9
Ibid. p.1
10
Vatican Council II The Conciliar And Post Conciliar Documents
in Austin Flannery ed. Mumbai: St. Paul’s Publications, 1975.
11
Op. Cit.pp861-862
12
V.M Okeke You And The Common Good Pastoral Letter 2007
(Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 2007) p. 13
13
Germain Grisez, “Living a Christian Life : Patroitism, Politics and
Citizenship” www.+wotlj.org/G-2-11-B.html Retrieved 15 June 2011
14
Okeke, Op. Cit.p.37
15
Ibid.
16
Ibid
17
Pendola, Loc. Cit.
22
Chapter Two
Literature Review
The idea of civic duty presupposes the incomparable essence, place
and dividends of the common good. The common good whether addressed
as common good, social contract or good governance Kukah says “the idea
is the same: namely, the attainment of the good of the whole”.1 Law and
order as part of the dividends of the common good is the bedrock for the
rising and development of any civil society. It is however, the government
together with the people that will champion in the realization of the common
good. Buttressing the above point, the Nigerian Catholic Bishops’ in her
Joint Pastoral Letter noted that “the common good is not simply provided
by an omnipotent government but comes from the united efforts of the
whole citizenry, both governed and governors”.2 Situating the demand
within the Nigerian context, they stated: “Our Nigeria needs us and we need
Nigeria”3. Considering the inevitability and indisputability of the constituted
authorities in this regard, it becomes necessary to review scholarly opinions
towards civil obedience that Paul advocates.
However, the Sate as Gotan highlighted “is a definite entity where
law and order are maintained within a defined boundary by a supreme or
coercive authority”4. In a broad sense, state is used within this context to
denote the government, that is, people at the corridors of power entrusted
with the duty of spearheading the activities of the populace in an organized
manner. The authority, they dispense is primarily for the good of all given
the fact that the state as an institution is the product of God’s ingenuity (cf.
13:1).In view of this, Pitch recognizes the structured pattern of creation and
human society hence the need for orderliness. Narrowing further, he stated
23
that: “God ordered all of creation and expects order in the political
community as well”.5 In other words, civil authorities are the custodians of
the human society and therefore, maintain societal order. In other to achieve
this order which begets tranquility, justice, peace and equity, obedience
should be accorded to civil authorities. The societal order is not an abstract
concept but an ideal demand that could be realized through responsive
commitment of both the government and the citizens. The church also has a
stake in this regard. Okafor says “…the mission of the church in Nigeria is
to transform the economic, political and social life of Nigerians by throwing
the light of Christ on them.”6 The church through her social teachings laid
bare the duties of the Christians not only as members of the church but also
that of the state. In the Joint Pastoral Letter of the Nigerian Catholic
Bishops,’ the church reiterates thus:
The exercise of one’s responsible citizenship, then, is
itself a function of one’s Christian commitment. Not
only should there be no conflict between them, they
should also be mutually supportive. Thus our
encouragement to all men and women of civic
capability…to undertake their citizenship as Christians
committed to the love of our common heavenly father
and his children, our fellow-Nigerian brothers and
sisters.7
Therefore, Christians must play their roles of constructing and nurturing a
more humane society and by so doing justify their religious stand as
pilgrims renewing the face of the earth. This demand is of paramount
importance, given the intrinsic value of the common good. According to
Althaus as cited by Stuhlmacher, allegiance to civil authorities is not a
limitless counsel rather a call to recognition of the state and appropriate
respect having been instituted by God. His argument is articulated thus:
24
Paul is not intending to speak timelessly of the divinely
established nature and mandate of the government.
Rather, he is calling for an appropriate respect before
those who bear the power of the state and who exercises
the governing authority according to God’s ordinance.8
The above point gives us an insight that the dispositions of the government
towards the common good could influence the people’s response but then,
the authority as a divinely constituted institution should be adhered to. It is
in the light of the above observations that Allen says “the Christian view is
conditioned by the relationship between God and the state. God is no merely
religious God: in his providential cares are included the control of nations
and the maintenance of civil order within them”9. This explains that in as
much as the Christians religious demands are being taken care of, it should
also be noted that God is the initiator and the brain behind the institution of
the civil society. Note should be taken that the above stated point does not in
any way support tyranny in the government.
Furthermore, Nygren shares similar view with Stuhlmacher by
maintaining that civil obedience is part of the theological outlook of Paul.
He however, stated that “He (Paul) is not giving casuistic counsels on how
his readers should act towards the authorities in “different situations; he is
setting forth the basic Christian view about worldly government”10 From his
perspective, submission to civil rulers is a fundamental character that
distinguishes the Christian in the society irrespective of the limitations of the
civil authorities. In projecting the desired character that should distinguish
the Christian in the state, the Second Vatican Council in her document
entitled Church in the Modern World No.93 corroborates thus:
Christians can yearn for nothing more ardently than to
serve the men of this age with an ever growing
generosity and success. Holding loyally to the gospel,
25
enriched by its resources, and joining forces with all
who love and practice justice, they have shouldered a
weighty task on earth…11
Although the realization of a just society is the task of the
government but then, Gotan remarked that “the promotion of justice through
efforts to bring about openness of mind and will to the demands of the
common good is something which concerns the church deeply.”12 Church
here refers to the Christians. Implicitly, the above statement suggests that
unless the Christians take their roles in the society just like in the church, the
common good may not be actualized.
For Avery, civil authorities have divine aura therefore. “The
Christian should be a good citizen and respect authority. The state is there to
serve God for your benefits.”13 The synopsis is that the positions the rulers
occupy be it as king or emperor is of divine origin, as such they deserve the
citizens’ obedience as an act of homage to God. Best is not indifferent in this
regard. Considering the authority as God’s agents of maintaining stability he
stated that “Stability requires that the Christian must accept the existing
order of society by co-operating with it in his obedience; if he does so it
works for his good.”14
The exhortations of Paul that Christians should yield to the
governing authorities according to Aletti is “an indication that the field of
Christian action and discernment extends even to the political and to show
how the baptized can live as full fledged citizens wherever they are”15. This
explains that it is within the political terrain that the policies that affect the
entire populace are determined therefore, Christians positive commitment to
politics as part of their civic duties would among others things be
appreciated. The above view implicitly explains that the Christian is not only
26
a religious being but also a political being. In an attempt to buttress the
indispensability of the Christians in the political community, the Catholic
Bishops of Nigeria as Uzukwu recorded: “declared “political involvement”
to be “a sacred mission of service.”16 The Christians submission to the
authority in this regard towards the actualization of that which will benefit
the human society would be considered as civic responsibility. The above
point synchronizes with the assertion of the Catechism of the Catholic
Church which explicitly stated that:
It is the duty of citizens to contribute along with the
civil authorities to the good of society in a spirit of
truth, justice, solidarity and freedom. The love and
service of one’s country follow from the duty of
gratitude and belong to the order of charity.
Submission to legitimate authorities and service of the
common good require citizens to fulfill their roles in
the life of the political community. Submission to the
authority and co-responsibility for the common good
make it morally obligatory to pay taxes, to exercise the
right to vote, and to defend one’s country.17
With this, it becomes evidently clear that the Christian has a moral
rectitude as not only a religious being but also a socio-political being to
contribute to the societal good. The Christian message cannot thrive where
there is no pattern or order in the human society. Therefore, for the Christian
message to make impact, Ezumezu asserts that:
It is proper to the Christian message to illuminate
earthly realities with the light of faith, as a contribution
to the community of nations. This is because action on
behalf of justice and participation in the transformation
of the world is a constitutive dimension of the
preaching of the gospel, or, in other words, of the
church’s mission for the redemption of human race and
its liberation from every form of oppressive situation.18
[
27
. It is from this perspective that the Christian prophetic role would also be
appreciated. Leenhardt remarked that the Christian has a prophetic role as
God’s minister by “criticizing the state authority and enlightening it with
regard to its true task, warning it of its mistakes and helping it to correct its
ways”.19 This could be by way of cautioning erring government or by way of
encouragement through active commitment. The Christian prophetic mission
of the Christians would more be appreciated when the Christian as Ehusani
says “see the gospel of Christ as a catalyst for change towards a more just,
and a more humane society.”20 Baird, Blackman and others noted that
“Christianity is the agent of society’s redemption, not its disruption”.21
Christians could achieve this, by giving accolade to the civil authority as
they work towards maintaining societal harmony and also by giving
practical support.
Obviously, the state has a mission. Leenhardt upholds that the mission
of the state is in consonance with the practical requirements of faith.
Carrying out the task of controlling God’s providential will, “the Christian
will adopt a positive attitude towards it in the belief that his obedience will
contribute to the realization of God’s plan through the magistracy considered
as a particular instrument of divine mercy”.22 It has been observed that most
often the state appears insensitive of its divine mandates hence injustice,
corruption and general economic degradation that characterizes our human
society.
. Hunter’s perception on this issue is a challenge for the Christian to
collaborate with the authorities by a way of insisting that “such power be at
the service of a constitution which recognizes the fundamentals of the moral
law”.23 The essence of morality according to Kant as Hick cited “consists in
commitment to act for the general welfare as discerned by impartial
28
reason”.24 This establishes the place of conscience as a moral guide.
(cf.Rom.13:5) Consequently, Dodd observed that “the Christian lives by a
higher principles and obeys the government not because he fears retribution
which follows disobedience, but because his conscience bid him do so”.25
The implication therefore is that the allegiance Paul calls the Christians to
pay to the civil authorities stems from the conscience – the Christian moral
faculty, and this is epitomized by love of God and love of neighbour. A well
formed Christian conscience does not permit actions that are contrary to the
common good but strives towards the actualization of the good of all.
Meanwhile, allegiance to civil authorities has enduring moral values for
people of times.
However, Morris considers civil obedience as something that has
“abiding significance for Christian readers in all ages”.26 This goes to
explain that Christians obedience to civil rulers is not limited to Roman
Christians but to all Christians of every era. Fitzmyer asserts that “Paul’s
discussion of the duties of Christians toward civil authorities remains on the
level of general principle”.27 On that note, civil duty is binding on every
citizen. It is not limited to a particular group or era but it is something
incumbent on all peoples of all times as a general requirement or order. The
point of emphasis is that Christians should make this demand realizable
through conscientious commitment and by so doing serve as the vanguard
towards the actualization of the good of all. They should see civic
responsibility as an essential aspect of human life worth venturing into. The
Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria considered civic responsibilities in
the light of social dimension of man that cannot but be considered pertinent
thus:
29
Because ‘social life is not something added on’, but an
essential and indelible dimension of man, every
Christian man and woman should actively and
responsibly exercise his civic duties. For this reason,
individuals of their own respective volition freely enter
into a political community in order to shape public
opinion and influence the common good.28
The bottom line is that the Christian has a duty of collaborating with the
authorities since the good of all cannot be realized in isolation.
On the other hand, scholars like Kallas in Herrick refuted the idea of
civil obedience. He based his claims on grounds that the epistle pericope that
advocates civil obedience is an alien work. The question then is should such
a claim by Kallas be upheld? Neufeld contends with Kallas opinion by
maintaining that the issue of civil obedience should be understood within the
context of the text. Stubb stated that the demand on civil obedience should
be understood in the light of its surrounding verses (12:1-13:14) which
suggests more of a call for Christians to acknowledge their social reality in
relation to the state which is part of the existence of life in the Christian
community.
Man as a social being is not sufficient in himself alone to attain full
development hence the need for the other which in turn gives rise to idea of
community (state). It is in the community that man realizes himself and his
true nature .This is also the position of scholars like Plato who while tracing
the origin of state as cited by Egbuogu remarked that:
The state emerges as attempts are made by individuals
to meet their needs, which promote their communal
well-being through the state, shows the fact of the wellbeing of the people as that which answers the question
regarding the origin of the states or political
communities29
30
Although Plato’s view may not claim the support of all but the point is that
it is in the state with the collaborative efforts of the people that he (man)
realizes his human nature. The presence of the constituted authority
therefore, should be recognized and appreciated.
Be that as it may, Martin Luther’s reformed theology according to
Egbunu, stated that “The state was part of the created order and had a right
to exist.”30 Its legitimate function is to propagate the common good. This
demand however, cannot be actualized in isolation. The collaborative
involvement of the people is required .In view of this civil obedience
becomes a paramount responsibility of the people. This obedience cannot be
ensured if civic duties are not fulfilled. Invariably, observance and
fulfillment of one’s civic duties implies civil obedience. It is a worthwhile
venture a Christian as a member of the state cannot but oblige. For Pope Pius
XII on this note would remark that
The absolute order of living beings and the very
purpose of man-an autonomous being, the subject
of duties and inviolable rights, the origin and
purpose of human society have a direct bearing
upon the state as a necessary community endowed
with authority. Divest it of its authority, and it is
nothing, it is lifeless.31
It is therefore, a mark of Christian virtue to imbibe issues that will
facilitate the common good. Dim opines that “Paul counsels submission in
earthly matters as an expression of the Christians relation to God and to his
order of things”32
In conclusion, Paul’s advocacy on civil obedience holistically
viewed suggests the need for the observance of social reality that calls for
positive commitment of all and sundry towards the realization of the
common good .Christians have outstanding task in this regard. In the Gospel
31
of Matthew chapter 5:13-14, Jesus calls the Christians “salt of the earth and
light of the world” .As salt of the earth, the Christians are charged with the
duty of giving taste to the people and as light of the world to give radiation
to every aspect of human existence. This demand is not restricted to the
church alone but to every facet of life. In this regard, Obiefuna stated:
“Though you should be a light to your church and fellowship members, it
must not stop there. You are to be a light to others.”33 By implication, the
Christian should shine also in the civil society as the vanguard of the human
society. With this, one should understand civil obedience that Paul advocates
in the light of the Christians moral obligation and respond accordingly. Civil
obedience as McDonald in Neufeld remarked is devoid of every dogmatic or
philosophical propositions “but Paul’s assessment of the positive function of
the authorities…” 34 Although, the authorities may be found wanton in their
respective duty post, it should be noted however, that the call for civil
allegiance transcends beyond the authorities positive yields but seen as a
duty that springs from the conscience. Therefore, civil obedience is a moral
duty that should be responded to with every sense of Christian commitment.
32
End Notes
1
Matthew H. Kukah, Democracy and Civil Society in Nigeria
(Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd, 1999), P. 216.
2
Joint Pastoral Letter of the Nigerian Catholic Bishops,
Civic
and Political Responsibility of the Christian (Benin: Manla Enterprise
1979), p.5
3
Ibid.p.5
4
Cletus T.. Gotan, “A Catholic Perspective on Religion and State
in Search of the Common Good” in The Nigerian Journal of Theology
(Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd,2008),p.
5
John J. Pilch, New Testament-6 Galatians and Romans (Mumbai:
ST Pauls Publishers, 2001), P.63.
6
Dominic Okafor, “The Social Mission of the Church and
Nigeria’s Social problems “in Journal of Bigard Memorial Seminary
(Enugu:Snaap Press Ltd,2008)’p.98
7
Ibid.p.24
8
Peter Stuhlmacher, Paul’s letter to the Romans: A commentary
(united State: Westminister/John Knox Press, 194), P.204.
9
Allen,L.C. Romans New International Bible Commentary.
Michigan: Pickering and Inglis Ltd, 1979.
10
Andres Nygren, Commentary on Romans (Philadephia: Fortress
Press, 1972), p. 429.
11
Vatican council II “The Political community” in Pastoral
constitution on the church in the Modern world in Austin Flannery ed; the
Concilliar and Post Concilliar Document (Dublin: Dominican Publications,
1975),p.879
12
13
Gotan, Op.Cit, p.64
Margaret Avery, The Dimension Bible Guides Roman, 1 and 2
Corinthians, Galatians and Hebrew (New Jersey Denville, 1972), P.17
33
14
Ernest Best, The Letter of Paul to the Romans (London:
University Press; 1967), P.148
15
Jean N. Aletti, “Romans” in William R. Farmer ed, The
International Bible Commentary An Ecumenical Commentary for the
twenty-first century (Bangalore: Theological Publications, 2004) P.1674
16
E.E.Uzukwu ,”Church-State Relations in the Early Church and
the Crisis facing the Christian Church in Nigeria” in the Bulletin of
Ecumenical Theology(Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd,1989),p.39
17
The Catechism of the Catholic Church (Ibadan: Intec Printers
Ltd 1994) p.523
18
Francis N. Ezumezu, “The Catholic Church and the Social
Concern” in a Journal of Bigard Memorial Seminary (Enugu: Snaap Press
Ltd, 2008), p.33
19
Franz J. Leenhardt, The Epistle to the Romans A commentary
(United States: The World Publishing Company, 1957) pp. 323-324.
20
George Omaku Ehusani, A Prophetic Church (Osun: Provincial
Pastoral Institute Publications, 1996), p.58
21
William Baird, Cyril E. Blackman et-al, Interpreters Concise
Commentary Acts. & Paul’s letters (Nashville : Abingdon Press, n.d), p. 171
22
Leenhardt Op.Cit, P.323
23
A.M Hunter, The Epistle to the Romans Introduction and
Commentary (London: SCM Press Ltd, n.d ), p. 113
24
John Hick, An Interpretation of Religion: Human Responses to
the Transcendent (London: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 98
25
C.H. Dodd, The Moffatt New Testament Commentary The
Epistle of Paul to the Romans (London: Hodder and Stoughton Ltd), P. 204205
26
Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Michigan: William B.
EErdmans Publishing Company, 1988), P.458
34
27
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The New Jerome Biblical Commentary
(New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. 1990), P. 864
28
The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria, “Salt of the Earth
and Light of the World” (Digital Frontiers Solutions Ltd, n.d), P. 57
29
Martin O. Egbuogu, Christianity and the De-Sacralization of
State Power An Insight into the Theological Basis of Democracy (Enugu:
Snaap Press Ltd, 2006), p.83
30
F.E Egbunu, Religion, Politics and Patriotism in Nigeria: A
Christian perspective (Enugu Snaap Press, 2009), p. 147
31
Pope Pius XII, Peace on Earth encyclical letter of Pope John
XXIII (London: Catholic Truth Society, 1963), p. 21
32
Emmanuel Dim, The Christian and the Governing Authorities
Rom 13:1-7, (Nimo: Rex Charles & Patrick Ltd, 2009), p.7
33
Matthew G. Neufeld, “Submission to Governing Authorities: A
study of Romans 13:1-7” (http://www.direction journal.org/article),
Retrieved 30 April 2011
35
Chapter Three
Exegesis of Romans 13:1-7
13:1 πάσα ψυχή έξουσίαις ύπερεΧούσαις ύποτασσέσθω.ού γάρ έστιν
Έξουσία εί μή ύπό θεου,αί δέ ουσαι ύπό θεου τεταγμέναι είσιν.
13:2 ώστε ό άντιτασσόμενος τή έξουσία τή του θεου διαταγη άνθέστηκεν, οί
δέ άνθστηκότες έαυτοις κριμα λήμψονται.
13:3 οί γαρ άρχοντες ουκ είσιν Φόβος τω άγαθω έργω άλλά τω κακω.
Θέλεις δέ μή Φόβετσθαι τήν έξουσίαν; τό άγαθόν ποίει,καί εξεις επαινον
έξ αύτης
13:4 θεοΰ γάρ διάκονός έστιν σοί είς τό άγαθόν. έάν δέ τό κακόν ποιής,
φοβοΰ. Ού γάρ είκή τήν μάχαιραν Φορεί. Θεοΰ γαρ διάκονός έστιν, έκδικος
είς όργην τώ τό κακόν πράσσοντι
13:5. διό άνάγκη ύποτασσεσθαι, ού μόνου διά τήν όργήν άλλά καί διά τήν
συνείδησίν.
13:6. διά τοΰτο γάρ καί φόρους τελείτε, λειτουργοί γαρ θεοΰ είσιν είς αύτό
τούτο προσκαρτερούντες.
13:7 άπόδοτε πάσιν τάς όΦειλαίς, τώ τόν Φόρον τόν Φοβον, τώ τό τέλος,τω
τόν φόβον τόν φόβον ,τω τήν τιμήν τήν τιμήν.
[
36
The text under study has entertained a very wide divergence of
opinion on how it should be understood and interpreted. There is no general
consensus among scholars on the possible situation in life associated with
Paul’s exhortation in Romans 13:1-7. A glance at the passage stares
surprises for it appears Paul advocates Christians’ absolute obedience to the
ruling authority. This however, raises some pertinent questions thus: could it
be Paul’s personal encounter with the imperial Roman government that
influenced his thoughts? Would Paul have advocated for civil obedience had
he sent his letter to the capital during the persecution of Christians in A.D.
60?
Were
Roman
Christians’
manifesting
civil
disobedience
or
irresponsibility given Paul’s theology of freedom from the law and heavenly
citizenship, perhaps Paul writes to effect corrective measures? These and
other related questions has spurred the researcher to examine the setting or
possible situation in life that prompted Paul’s admonitions on civil
obedience. The work shall take into account the historical context, literary
context, key terms, situation in life (sitz im leben) and meaning of the text.
Setting
From the historical point of view, Malick asserts that Paul wrote,
“from Corinth in the winter of A.D. 56-57 to Rome”.1 At this point, there
were some Jews back in the city after being expunged in A.D 49 by the edict
of Claudius. Probably some of those Jews were Christians expelled for
embroiling themselves in a dispute with other Jews over “Chrestus”. By the
reckoning of the state within the period, Christians and Jews were basically
considered one and the same group. The Roman Church apparently was
made up of Jews and Gentile Christians. Consequently, there would have
been varied degrees of adherence. Herrick observed, “There was no central
37
organization per se or a central place of worship”.2 Some Roman Christians
were familiar and in conformity with Paul’s messages, perhaps others
opposed it. Meanwhile, Morrison opines “there were differences of faith and
practices.”3 It should also be noted that Paul wrote to the Roman Church
though he did not found it and had no personal contact with the Roman
Church. According to Barclay:
When Paul wrote his letter to the Romans he was
writing to a church which he did not know personally
and in which he had never been. He was writing to a
church which was situated in the greatest city in the
greatest empire in the world4
Unlike some other epistles addressed to churches in which Paul was
the founder for instance the Corinthian Church, it is evident that Paul never
visited Roman Church but he longed to preach in Rome (Rom. 1:15, 15:23)
on his way to Spain. Paul wrote the Roman Church during the reign of Nero.
There was a relatively stable condition within the era for Christianity at this
point was considered a religio licita (legal religion). In the words of
Morrison,
The timing is particularly important for Paul’s
instructions in 13:1-7. Jews had been expelled from
Rome, and only recently allowed to return. It would be
natural for them to resent Rome government and the
anti-Jewish attitude in Rome. They may have
considered Rome to be an evil enemy, an opponent of
the messiah.5
However, there was also the problem of “tax protest” under the
Neronean principate in A.D58. According to Stuhlmacher, Pholmann and
Friedrich as cited by Coleman, “It was the tax protest in conjunction with the
disturbances over Chrestus in A.D 49 that resulted the eviction of the Jews
from Rome. This they contend was why Paul wrote as he did in Roman
13:1-7”.6 Accordingly, Paul was encouraging the Christians in the light of
38
the former Jewish exile to avoid drawing attention to themselves and to
fulfill their obligations. Kasemann opines that the prevalent condition of the
Romans that prompted the text is traceable to certain Christian enthusiasts
who had thrown off all restraints in the light of their heavenly citizenship.
They therefore, regarded earthly authorities with indifference. In the same
vein, Borg argues that it was the Jewish agitation for nationalism that
resulted their expulsion hence Paul’s letter to warn them not to be repulsive
rather to be submissive to the ruling authorities.
Be that as it may, the literary context of the text gives appreciable
insight. Romans 13:1-7 is part of a large unified literary unit that begins with
Romans 12:1 where Paul urges Christians to offer themselves as a living
sacrifice. One could infer a link between the preceding chapter12 and the
following chapter13:8ff. The imperative in 12:2) “Do not conform
yourselves to the standards of this world…” brings to fore the fact that
though Christians are in the world but they are not of the world. This implies
that their lives, attitude and behavioural pattern should be distinct. They
cannot blindly conform to every social trend. Rather the standard of their
conduct should be determined by God and be in conformity with God’s
stipulations. Meanwhile, the distinctiveness of Paul’s worldview is
obviously manifest in Romans 12 and 13. Paul sets the whole sequence of
his exhortation under the rubric of love (12:9). In Romans 13:1-7, Paul
exposes what the believers’ attitude should be even to unbelievers and by
extension to the government. Morrison captures it accordingly when he says,
“In the literary setting, Rom. 13:1-7 is in the context of relationship with
unbelievers. It addresses the specific issues of Christian’s relationship to the
government”.7 By being supportive and paying allegiance to the
government, the Christian also sets a good example. This is one of the ways
39
in which they can take thought for what is noble in the sight of all and live
peaceably with all (12:17-18).
Having justified the grounds for the Christians submission to the civil
authorities, Paul buttresses the concept of ‘owing’ to include honour, respect
and love (13:7-8). Morrison contends that
Paul uses commandments that are accepted by both
Jews and Gentiles as illustrations to show that they
are applications of the principles of love (13:9-10).
Paul recognizes that this world is temporary and
love should therefore be put into immediate
application (13:1-14). He concludes this section with
the general admonition to “clothe yourselves with
the Lord Jesus Christ” (13:15)8.
Romans 13:1-7 therefore, should be understood in the context of Paul’s
exhortation for the Christians to live lives of non-conformity to the world
but of persevering love for all.
Having established the above facts, one could deduce a number of
factors with regard to the setting of the text. Obviously, the unrest situation
of the Roman Church may have prompted Paul’s writing. In view of this
Byrne and Harrignton posit “in such a context, it is well conceivable that he
(Paul) might have adopted for his own purposes an instruction concerning
obedience to earthly rulers framed in traditional, conventional terms and
circulating in Hellenistic Jewish Diaspora communities”9.Some of the
languages in the text reflect standard Hellenistic ways of describing duties
towards civil authorities. The closely parallel but independent instructions
appearing in 1Pet 2:13-17, 1Tim. 2:1-3, Titus 3:1-2 show that here we are
dealing with an attitude, a set pattern of instruction shared across a range of
early Christian communities.
40
Furthermore, it should also be noted that the letter to the Romans is
one of the proto-pauline letters. As has already been stated, Paul neither
founded nor visited Roman Church. Rome being the greatest empire having
a good number of Christians could have attracted Paul’s letter. Apparently,
an exhortation, that sets bare the general principle that should guide the
believers. He explains what the relationship of the Christians should be with
non-believers as well as the government. This position however,
synchronizes with Aletti’s argument thus: “The exhortations of Paul in
Romans 13:1-7 is an indication that the field of the Christian action and
discernment extends even to the political, and to show how the baptized can
live as full-fledged citizens wherever they are”.10 Suffice it to say that Paul
more importantly took cognizance of the interconnection of people living in
the society. There is a need to co-exist, associate and interact with a viable
organized form and identifiable leadership. With this in mind Barclay
asserts: “no man can in conscience opt out of the nation. As a part of it, he
enjoys certain benefits which he could not have as an individual; but he
cannot reasonably claim all the privileges and refuse all the duties.”11
Sequel to the above points, Paul’s letter to the Roman Christians could
be considered apt and adrem. He exhorts them for the sake of conscience to
submit to the constituted authorities having been established as agents of
God. He urges the Christians to fulfill both tangible and intangible
obligations to the state in which they live and have a part.
41
Textual Analysis
In an attempt to drive home his message on the Christians obedience
to civil authorities, Paul employed certain key words. It is therefore,
pertinent at this point to analyze these key terms as used by Paul in this
context.
From verse 1, the phrase πάσα ψυχή (Pasa Psuche) translated every
soul, according to MacArthur, is a hebraism for “every person”.12
Considering its Semitic background, it stands as a metonymy for the
‘person’ as a living being. In typical Old Testament and Jewish fashion,
according to Moo, “Paul uses ‘soul’ (Psuche) to denote not one part of the
human being… but the whole person”.13 The emphasis is on every
individual person. This however rhymes with Souter’s position that pasa
suggests “the whole”14 Strong explains psuche to refer “to human soul in
so far as it is constituted, that by the right use of the aids offered it by God…
the soul is regarded as a moral being designed for everlasting life (3Jn 2;
1Pet 2:11)”.15 In that case, “the translation every person(NRSV) or
everyone(NIV) Moo argues is justified”.16 The emphasis is on every
individual as a person-Christian or non-Christian. It is a universal call on all
souls as persons, individuals and as citizens to oblige a universal duty of
being submissive to the government.
The attitude to be adopted towards the constituted authorities is
indicated by the word ύποτασσέσθω (hupotassestho) meaning ‘subject’.
According to Gingerich, “It is a verb with imperative tone in the present
passive and the (3rd) third person singular. Its root word ύποτασσω denotes
subject or subordinate”.17 In the original Greek text, the word hupotassestho
has a variant reading thus ύποτασσέσθε (hupotassesthe). According to
Gingerich, it is a verb, an imperative in the present passive but second (2nd)
42
person Plural.”18 From the manuscript evidence, hupotassestho has its
supporters viz: Aleph Sinaiticus ‫א‬, Alexandrinus-A, Vaticanus-B and others.
On the other hand, Papyrus 46(p46), Bezea Cantabrigiensis and original
hand of manuscript support hupotassesthe. Although, the alternative reading
has papyrus and original hand of the manuscript as the supporters, but then
its usage by Paul is still doubtful.Paul probably may have used
hupotassestho.Be that as it may, the first reading is preferred based on the
external evidences of the manuscript. Analyzing the context, Paul addresses
every individual to be submissive to the ruling authorities hence the use of
the term ‘submission’ in the present passive middle imperative. The phrase
everyone lays credence to the above point.
However, one might ask does submission imply or connote
obedience? Does it mean that civil authority should be obeyed even when its
demand contradicts God’s commandment. But if no, then what type of
submission is Paul referring to as being required of a Christian? Evidence of
the use of the word hupotassestho abound in the New Testament. According
to Herrick “It is used 18 times in Paul and other times in the New Testament.
Paul uses the term to refer to submission of all things to Christ in the process
of redemption (1Cor 15:27, 28, Heb. 2:5, 1Pet. 3:22)”.19 Hupotassestho is
used in the New Testament to refer to husband/wife relationship. In 1Pet.
3:1-5, Titus 2:5, Eph 5:24, Col 3:18, wife is to submit to her husband as to
the Lord, slaves also to their master. Same word could also be seen in Lk
2:51. The use of the term submission by Paul fundamentally espoused the
idea of humble informed submission in the light of God’s will and
redemptive work. In support of the above point, Byrne and Harrington noted
that “be subject’ means primarily to recognize that one is in a subordinate
position to those governing authorities who are placed over”.20 The
43
implication is that having been placed under somebody’s guide, one should
be ready to act in accordance with this recognition. Kaylor’s view is that:
“Submission could imply recognizing subject status without necessarily
saying that believers should obey every particular state”.21 The view of the
above scholars cannot be absolutely contend with. Although, the Greek word
for obedience is ύπακοή and Paul uses hupotassestho both implies same
thing-submission, obedience. Their views could be appreciated in the light
of Morris argument that “there is nothing servile about the attitude to
authority that Paul is advocating. He simply looks for a due recognition of
the subordinate place that is part of the Christian understanding of life”.22
The use of the term servility suggests when the authority makes a demand
which might contradict the commandment of God. In such a situation, the
message of Act 5:29 be appropriated. Delling’s opinion as noted by Neufeld
explains that “the subordination which hupotassestho connotes may be
voluntary or compulsory”.23However, from the preceding chapter (Rom.12),
it becomes clear that Paul is advocating for voluntary submission in the
spirit of love.
On the strength of the above points, the question that follows is to
whom shall this submission be made? The expression έξουσίαις
ύπερεΧούσαις supplies the demand. According to MacArthur, the phrase
έξουσίαι ύπερεΧούσαις litrarally means “the authorities who have authority
over us… they are the supreme ruling power”.24 Supreme here does not
imply divine power but used within this context to refer to those in higher
positions-the duly constituted authorities.The word έξούσιαίς is a noun,
dative feminine plural of έξούσια. έξούσια according to Moo, “Broadly
refers in secular and biblical Greek, to the possession and exercise of usually
legitimate power”.25 Herrick observed that authorities here could be referred
44
“not to the principle of authorities as such nor the domain in which a certain
authority is carried out. Instead it refers to the rulers themselves who are
charged with exercising such rulership”.26 From Morrison point of view
“Paul is not referring to specific persons but to the offices of authority, or the
general principle of civil rule”.27 Earle as cited by Morrison buttressing
further argues:
The primary emphasis is on the authority of government
to rule. It should not be inferred from this passage that
all rulers are chosen by God, but rather that all rule is
divinely ordained… God has ordained that there should
be ruling authorities to keep law and order.28
That all rulers are not chosen by God is a fact. But then rulers cannot operate
or be discussed outside the principle of rulership. It could be argued
therefore, that Paul was making reference to people- individuals on whom
the principle of rulership is bequeathed.
Furthermore, debates abound among scholars like O’Cullmann on the
use of έξουσια in the plural form. Could it be Paul was also making
reference to angelic rulers O’Cullmann in Herrick says:
Authorities in Romans 13:1 are indeed human rulers,
but they are controlled by angelic powers. The book of
Daniel provides support to this. In 1Cor 2:8 Paul
manifestly means both invisible Prince of the world
who are often mentioned as such and their actual human
instrument Herod and Pilate.29
On the other side of the coin, Moo opines that it is unlikely that Paul’s
use of the plural-authorities connotes both spiritual beings. Neufeld
supported this point of view by maintaining that Paul was referring to human
beings in position or authority, hence the NRSV translation authorities.
Fitzmyer, aligned with Neufeld by asserting that the authorities here are the
ordinary civil authorities on whom Christians are dependent and to whom
45
they are expected to submit themselves. Kasemann buttressing further
asserts “the apostle is using the vocabulary of Hellenistic administration”.30
Dim confirming the above fact says “In fact, 1Pet. 2:13-17 has this
advantage of making it more precise what it has referred to as ‘every human
institution’ by mentioning specifically the emperor or the governors
commissioned by him”.31The use of authority in plural form in Rom13:1 has
its origin in the vocabulary of the secular government in the Hellenistic
world not in Judaism with its view of angelic rulers. Its use therefore should
contextually be understood and interpreted.
These authorities to whom submission should be made as admonished
by Paul are said to be constituted by God hence the use of the term
τεταγμέναι. According to Zerwick and Grosvenor, τεταγμέναι “is periphrastic
perfect passive meaning appointed to put there by God”.32 It emphasizes the
aspect of appointment. It is from the word τασσω . As a verb, it denotes ‘to
appoint’, ‘to assign’, ‘order’ with such nuances as to ‘establish,’ ‘set in
place’ and ‘arrange’. It can also simply mean ‘to point out’, ‘choose’ or
indicate as in the case of Jesus choosing the mountain where He would meet
His disciples (Matt. 29:16). From the theological point of view, its usage
implies God as the person who ‘appoints’. It could also be understood as
‘delegated authority’ an office given or delegated by God in line with his
view about maintaining societal order; peace and harmony. They are more
importantly accountable to God-the initiator of the office which they are
occupying. The use of the term τεταγμέναι is traceable to Old Testament and
Jewish background. It implies that God having ordained the state expects the
state to function within its God-given ordering. It also explains that the state
is under God’s judgment who is the final arbiter should they overstep their
boundaries. The implication remains that the idea of the ‘state’ is not
46
accidental. The existence of the state as the dispenser of divine providence is
the ingenuity of God.
For the fact that God is the initiator of the constitute authorities,
anyone who resists or opposes the authority as the word άντιτασσομενος
suggests
de
facto
opposes
God.
άντιτασσομενος
stems from the verb antitasso which is the combination of two words anti
(against) and tasso (to order) literally it means opposing or against the order.
Luke uses same term to express the opposition and abuse meted to Paul in
Acts 18:6.Same word could also be seen in the Old Testament prov.3:34.
Here God is presented as the opposer of the proud and exalter of the humble.
God opposes them perhaps as a result of their pride and arrogance. Paul
would therefore not want the believer to resist or oppose the authorities for
such is tantamount to opposing God undoubtedly, it goes with punishment.
The use of the word διαταγη which means ‘ordinance’, direction or
‘instruction’ suggests the idea of God’s order and structuring (design). The
world maintains its order by the virtue of the directions of the creator.
Governing authorities are being projected as ruling in consonance with a
divine order. Anyone who resists the constituted authority opposes the
order/structure that comes from God. Out of the 14times of its occurance in
the New Testament, άνθεστηκεν appeared 8 times in pauline texts.
Those who resist the authority will receive judgment (κριμα). Could
this judgment be immediate or eschatological? κριμα is used about 48 times
in the New Testament. Out of which 6 appears in Romans. Within the
context, Paul refers to the temporal judgment that awaits an oppose or
offender which will be leased out by the state. Being God’s agents, it is
obvious that the government will have the ultimate right for taking punitive
actions on defaulters. Dunn sees the judgment as divine and eschatological,
47
the result of a program of deliberate opposition to God’s instituted authority.
Barrett captures the argument by contending that when resistance is given to
the state, the divine judgment comes to fore by means of the state’s own
judicial procedures.
On the strength of the foregoing, άρχοντε (rulers) therefore has no
metaphysical undertone. It refers to human rulers. Whoever fails to comply
is liable to their discipline. Defaulters definitely entertain fears. Do you not
want to fear the authority? Paul then says τό άγαθόν ποιει which means do
good. This is a conditional statement that leaves the individual with the
opportunity of making choice. Moreover, doing good goes with praise
(έπαινοv) in form of reward. Paul however, seems to have taken an oversight
of unjust authorities. Sequel to this Cranfield in Herrick argues that such a
thing could be as a result of the good experiences Paul enjoyed under Roman
government. On the other hand, it could also be that Paul even though he’s
aware of the possibility that the state could commit evil. But then tries to
bring to limelight the natural duty inherent in the government as a magistrate
appointed by God. With that in mind, positive norm and just attitude be
appropriated.
Meanwhile, the authorities are said to be God’s servant (θεου
διακονος). According to Herrick,
Nowhere else does Paul or another New Testament
writer refer to the state as the servant of God. But the
term does appear to have been used this way in and
around the time of the New Testament and instances of
such usage can be seen in the LXX (Esther 1:10;22;6:3)
as well. It is probably from these sources that Paul
derives his language of the state as God’s servant33
Be that as it may, the use of the phrase ‘theos diakonos’ could be for
emphasis reasons. Having established the fact that the state is the servant of
48
God with the duty of maintaining order, Paul explains their capability of
dealing with those who do evil thus the expression έαν δέ τό κακον ποιής
Φοβου literarily rendered ‘but if you do evil fear.’ Whoever chooses to
undermine the societal order through act of disobedience and noncompliance ought to fear because of the punitive function of the state. This
evidently explains Paul’s use of the word μάχαιραν (sword). The state
definitely does not carry the sword in vain. Sword symbolizes the states
ability to exercise judicial actions against anyone who opposes the
government. It refers to the authorities’ right to effect corrective measures
on the defaulters inform of punishment. The state as God’s servant is an
avenger (έκδικος) in dishing out the divine wrath (όργήν) on the wrong doer.
An avenger according to Herrick could be understood in three senses:
One who places himself outside the law by committing
an offense against it. Second, it can refer to a legal
‘officer’ but this usage tends to be somewhat earlier
than the New Testament. The third sense appears what
we have in Rom 13… not one who is outside the law
(criminal), but one who decides a legal process i.e. an
avenger.34
The beauty of the word avenger could be seen in 1Thess 4:6, where Paul
states that the Lord is an avenger against those who wrong their brothers on
issues of sexual purity. In the context of this work, it refers to the
governments’ active pursuit of those who do wrong/evil.
In most of the New Testament passages, the use of the word όργή
(wrath) suggests what will happen to people on the final day as a result of
their sins (Rom 2:5,5:9). Could one make same meaning in verse 4 of
Romans 13? Arguing from the context, the wrath means not God’s wrath but
the punishment that could be meted out by the ruler. It could be understood
49
as the anger of the human rulers on the defaulters and not necessarily, God’s
anger on the Day of Judgment.
It is therefore important to submit to authorities not necessarily
because of fear of punishment or anger but on grounds of conscience
(συνείδησιν). Conscience as used by Paul in this context refers to the
knowledge a Christian possesses of God as the ultimate author of the states’
authority. It occurs in the New Testament about 30 times. According to
Herrick it occurs in this order “Acts 2x, Rom. 3x:2:15,9:1,13:5,I and II Cor.,
I and II Tim, Titus, Heb. and IPeter. Paul uses it 22 times”35
Conscience is that moral faculty in man that prompts him to do good
and avoid evil. Like the gift of rationality, conscience makes clear
distinction between man and brutes. This obviously is a gift from God to
man. It is therefore expected of a Christian to act in accordance with that
which promotes societal welfare. Paul exhorts Christians’ obedience for the
sake of conscience as against the fear of punishment. The point above could
be tagged the vertical reasons for civil obedience. In verses 6 and 7 the
horizontal ground which is practically oriented now follows.
The use of the expression διά τουτο (because of this) gives an
intensive ground, taking also into account not only for the conscience sake
but also the entire notion Paul has presented regarding the origin of state and
its functions. Διά τουτο γάρ καί φόρους τελείτε (because of this also you
pay taxes). Taxes are collected by authorities because they are public
servants (λειτουργοι).Public servants explains the inherent relationship or
link between the state and God. Although the state’s authority is not absolute
but delegated, Paul explains that collection of taxes by them is continual
hence the word προσκαρτερουντες. They are committed to the process of
collecting takes perhaps for societal good.
50
Paul however, urges Christians to give to all men (πάσιν)
their dues (όφειλάς). This is a call to respect and honour all men
accordingly. Barrett in Herrick summarizes this injunction thus:
Honour and respect are due to earthly rulers not because
they are powerful and influential men, but because they
have been appointed by God. It follows that to treat
them with less than due of honour is to dishonor God;
and honour without practical corollary of the due
payment of taxes for the maintenance of the authority
would be a mockery.36
Allen in support of the above point says:
The Christian is under obligation to pay his dues to the
state because, as a beneficiary of it, he owes it some
payment in return for the protection and amenities it
provides, and because no state can function without
resources and therefore a fundamental refusal to pay
taxes would be a fundamental ‘No’ to the state a such.37
On the strength of the above point, it could also be inferred that Paul is
laying down the foundation on which a Christian should participate in
political field.
51
End Note
1
David Malick, “An Introduction to the book of
Romans”http://www.bible.org/article/intorduction-book-romans Retrieved
25 June, 2011.
2
Greg Herrick, “Paul and Civil Obedience Romans 13:1-7”
(http:///www.bible.org/article/Paul
3
Michael Morrison, “Romans 13 and Christian Submission to
Civil Government” (http://www.dev.gov.org/pastoral/Romans 13
4
William Barclay, The Daily Study Bible the Letter to the Romans
(Bangalore: Theological Publications, 1955), p.1.
5
Morrison, Loc. Cit
6
Thomas M. Coleman, “Binding obligations in Romans 13:1-7: A
semantic
field
and
social
context”
(http://www.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/library/tynbull-1997), p.325 Retrieved
30 April, 2011.
7
Morrison, Loc. Cit
8
Ibid
9
Brendan Byrene and Daniel Harrington, Sacra pagina Series
Vol. 6 Romans (Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1996), P.386.
10
Jean N. Aletti, Romans. The International Bible Commentary
An Ecumenical commentary for the twenty-first century (Bangalore:
Theological Publications, 1998).p.x
11
Barclay, Op.Cit., p.17.
12
John MacArthur, “The Christian and Government the
Christian’s Responsibility to Government” http://www.bible 66.
Com/files/mac/sg45-97 html Retrieved 18 March 201
13
Moo,D.J. The Epistle to the Romans (Michigan: William B.
Eerdmans Publishing Company 1996.)p.794
14
Souter Alexander, Compact Greek-English Lexicon of The New
Testament.(Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2008)p.132
52
15
James Strong, The New Strong’s Expanded Exhaustive
Concordance of the Bible (Nashville Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Inc, 2011)
p.275.
16
Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans (Michigan: William
B. EErdmans Publishing Company, 1996)p.794.
Morrison, Loc. Cit.
17
Wilbur F. Gingerich, Shorter Lexicon of the Greek New
Testament. (Chicago: University Press, 1979) p.119
18
Ibid
19
Herrick, Loc Cit
20
Byrne and Harrington Op. Cit.p.387
21
David R. Kaylor, Paul’s Covenant Community: Jew and Gentile
in Romans (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1988) p. 206.
22
Morris, Op. Cit p.461
23
Matthew G. Neufeld, “Submission to Governing Authorities. A
study of Romans 13:1-7” (http;//www.directionjournal.org/article)p.4
retrieved 30 April 2011.
24
MacArthur,LoC.Cit
25
Moo, Op. Cit.p. 795.
26
Herrick, Loc. Cit
27
Morrison, Loc. Cit
28
Ibid
29
Herrick,Loc.Cit
30
Erenest Kasemann, Commentary on Roman (Michigan :
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1980)p.351.
31
Emmanuel Dim, The Christian and The Governing Authorities
Romans 13:1-7, the Nigerian Situation (Nimo: Rex Charles & Patrick Ltd.,
2009) p.7
53
32
Max Zerwick and Mary Grosvenor, A Grammatical Analysis of
the Greek New Testament (Rome: Editrice Ponificio Istituto Biblico, 1966)
pp. 488-489.
33
Herrick, Loc. Cit
34
Ibid
s
35
Ibid
36
Leslie C. Allen Romans New International Bible Commentary
(Michigan: Pickering and lnglis Ltd, 1979) p.1340.
54
Chapter Four
The Nigerian Christian Attitude to Civic Duties
It is an established fact that civic duty is an inherent and incumbent
duty on the individual as a member of the state. This stems from the fact that
man is a social being more importantly in a web of interconnection. This
brings to fore the necessity for collaborative assistance and commitment of
both the state and the citizens. The state is the product of God’s ingenuity
and as such, it has a right to exist principally for the good of all. The fact is
that every individual has the obligation to exercise his basic rights in a
responsible and ethically justified manner. This is not without the
corresponding duties that make the building of the society possible and
feasible. In view of this Arinze opines “…Christians should be model
citizens and partroits”1. They should take the lead by responding to their
duties volitionally as against fear of punishment. It therefore becomes an
obligation bound in conscience for the Christian to participate in all the
activities that foster and ensure the realization of the common good.
Allegiance to the constituted authority through active response and
commitment to civic duties shall help in actualization of the above fact.
Therefore, any form of negligence to such a basic demand of the society will
make a shipwreck of the society.
It is however, from this perspective that the researcher examined the
Nigerian Christian attitude to civic duties. The synopsis of the Nigerian
situation would be highlighted while civic duty would also be substantiated
as the Christians’ moral obligation.
55
4.1
The Nigerian Situation
The common expression “the Nigerian situation” has assumed some
connotations. According to Okeke, “it is an expression used to say that
things are not going according to the normal practice all over the world,
Nigeria is a country where things are not working well”2 Suffice the above
expression is the fact the Nigeria is a multi-religious nation. The number of
churches, mosques and shrines in every corner of the Nigerian society laid
credence to the above point. Their messages remain a call to a just, pure and
moral life. According to Tasie “In a society with such a religious tradition
one expects a high sense of morality and decorum in both public and private
lives. But Nigeria is an enigma”3.
The difficulties that characterize the Nigerian society could be felt in
different sectors of the nation. Suffice it to say that Nigeria is categorized as
one of the richest countries in Africa, richly endowed with both human and
natural resources. Nigeria is often referred to as ‘the giant of Africa’.
Paradoxically, there is little or no commensurable dividend to show for the
astute wealth of the Nigerian nation. Dim observed:
Almost all other African nations -and indeed all
Africans in the diaspora- are desperately looking up to
Nigeria as that country which must take the lead in
liberating them from the shackles of colonialism, neocolonialism, economic and social slavery, exploitation
and degradation… unfortunately, all these heart-felt
yearnings seem, regrettably, only a hope against hope
and shadow chasing.4
Furthermore, a reflection on a few areas of the different sectors of the
Nigerian society shall make the above points clearer. Thus: the board incharge of power supply- Power Holding Company of Nigeria-has strictly
maintained their name. The level of electricity supply in Nigeria is nothing
56
to reckon with. The problem of Power Supply has exposed Nigerians to
environmental health hazard associated with the use of generator.
Consequently Dim asserts “…its harm on business and investment
opportunities which would otherwise have become blessings and
developmental avenues for the country are better left undiscussed”5. The
effect of the above plight is undeniably evident in the unfeasible supply of
water perhaps where there exists taps at all.
What about the educational sector? The same story abound. It is the
issue of off and on just likes the epileptic power supply. Strike has become
the order of the day at primary, secondary and even university level. The
resultant effects abound viz: high level of moral decadence, different kinds
of social ills e.t.c. Meanwhile, the state of the Nigerian economy dilapidates
on daily basis. Poverty remains the nations ‘anthem’. People die of curable
diseases because the government owned hospitals are poorly equipped.
Pregnant women and nursing mothers invariably are victims of these
horrible situations giving rise to high mortality rate.
The report is not different when it comes to the Nigerian road
networking. Most of the roads are synonymous with death trap. Properties
worth of huge sum of money have perished on the roads, while the lives of
the citizens whose blood wasted like uncontrollable flood cannot be
underestimated.
Historically, data has shown that in the political terrain, same story
runs across. People opt for political positions not for the sole purpose of
rendering services to the people but for self aggrandizement. The manner in
which election campaign is being conducted in Nigerian would attest to this
point. On that note Ugwu stated that “Politicking in Nigeria is scary: Killing,
Poisoning, character and real assassination, occultism have become
57
associated with it… Party membership and opposition are not understood as
differences in vision or opinion but rather as enemity”.6
Some political leaders embezzle, misappropriate and divert public
fund to their personal account. These and more are some of the issues that
challenge the political arena and in fact the society at large. What could
account for the misdemeanors that characterize the Nigerian society? A
number of factors could be linked with the general problem of the Nigerian
society. Okeke observed, “The main causes of these are corruption which
has eaten deep into the fabric of our society”.7 In the light of the above
observation, the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace stated “The
Phenomenon of corruption has always existed, nonetheless it is only in
recent years that it’s awareness has grown at the international level”.8
Considering its wave and level of expansion, Anozie asserts
The worry about corruption in Nigeria is actually in the
expansion of its territory, the increase in its depth and
breath and the total lack of will by persons and
institutions that can curb it to do so. To be sure,
corruption is not a class disease it cuts across all classes.
It is not an exclusive public sector cancer; the private
sector is afflicted by it too. There is considerable
ingenuity in the fraudulent manipulation of almost
everything. In Nigeria corruption practices are truly a
way of life and nobody seems to have the clue, with
regard to the taming of this monster…almost everybody
and all sections of our national life are involved.9
Similarly, Achebe decried that the root causes of the problems in
Nigeria is simply encased in leadership problem. He bemoaned:
The trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a
failure of leadership. There is nothing basically wrong
with the Nigerian character. There is nothing wrong
with the Nigeria land or climate or water or air or
anything else. The Nigerian problem is the
58
unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the
responsibility, to the challenge of personal examples
which are the hallmarks of true leadership.10
From Achebe’s point of view, Nigerian leaders are found wanting in
ideal characters that extol governance. Their attitude to the leadership
requirement is faulty, unimpressive and substandard. The resultant effect is
egocentrism, looting, corruption. On the part of the society poverty, moral
depravity, social vices, unemployment and e.t.c become the dividend.
Although the case in point is the Nigerian situation, it should also be noted
that the malaise highlighted above is more or less the same in a number of
African countries, for instance; the unhealthy state of confusion and anarchy
in Zimbabwe. Think about the war in the Democratic Republic of Congo and
others. Okere in Dim sums these wide spread problems in Africa as the
failure of governance. Analyzing further he stresses “Since this is a situation
that could have been taken care of by good governance, and since that is not
the case, this is partly why we can say there is a crisis of governance in the
whole of Africa”11
However, Okoye attributed the problem with Nigeria with narrowmindedness, selfishness and clannishness. When the interests of the masses
are not adequately considered, selfishness thrives and the resultant effect is
bad governance. This problem is common to African nations. Articulating
his points, Okoye says:
It may be that part of the problem of governance in
Africa is that the individual is not put seriously enough
into consideration. Thus, bad and selfish governors are
often tolerated in the name of ethnic groups, language
groups, clans and regions.12
In Nigeria, the issue of ethnicity raises dust especially when it comes
to who holds strategic positions in the country. Oguejiofor tracing from a
59
wider scope links loss of proper sense of identity on the part of the African
as the greatest contributory factor to the Nigerian problems. This was as a
result of the slave trade and colonialism.13.The above highlighted points are
facts that cannot be disputed.
Tasie corroborates “the Nigerian society seems helplessly submerged
in corruption and bad leadership”.14 The helplessness of the Nigerian society
in terms of bad governance, leadership crises, loss of proper identity, bribery
and corruption has an obvious root. However, the shambles and
misdemeanours in different sectors and in the Nigerian society at large is
traceable and commonly rooted in the Nigerian peoples irresponsible and
poor-commitment to their civic duties. The concept of the civic duties
presupposes the idea of the common good. The common good in turn
implies that which benefits all as members of the society. Okeke reiterates
God has blessed our country with great human and
natural resources. But the present social atmosphere of
rampart corruption, deteriorating material conditions,
declining sense of responsibility towards the society,
poor attitude towards the cherished values, wealth and
legacies of the society, growing culture of selfishness
violence and lawlessness seem to be dragging our
society backward.15
Undoubtedly, the cherished values of the society are tampered with.
Selfishness and lawlessness become a growing culture while corruption
thrives. These are simply because the idea of the common good taking
precedence has gone the drain. People no longer vie for political posts
simply because they want to serve the people. Their mission statements
implicitly are to be served. In Matthew 20:28 Jesus gave what could be
called his political mandate as service to the people. The common good
spurs the good citizen to perform his or her civic duties. And one of the
60
citizen’s civic duties is active participation in politics. The message is simple
when the citizen participates objectively and conscientiously in the political
exercise and requirements, the output is good governance. The fruits of good
governance manifests in economic boom, political stability, societal
integration, sound moral society, standard health sector, harmony, peace,
justice e.t.c. Common good disgusts choice of leaders base on ones political
party, ethnic or clannish idiosyncrasies, tribe or religion. Common good
clamours for people of proven integrity, accountability, objective
mindedness, justice etc to be elected as societal leaders. When such criteria
are met, civic duties are performed. If the common good is held at high
esteem, the level of environmental health hazard would minimize, road signs
would be strictly adhered to, orderliness would be into the Nigerian market;
people would retire at the due time without falsifying their certificates. More
importantly, nobody would be dragged and chased around so as to pay taxes
and rates. In fact, people would be at their different door posts active.
However, that the problem with the Nigerian society is traceable to
poor conscientious involvement and commitment to civic duties does not
preclude the fact that there are citizens of Nigeria who are not only
competent but also positively contributive. There are some citizens who
contribute toward the development of the society through their
responsiveness in the areas of civic responsibility. In fact, the problem
hinges on the insignificant number of people that oblige when compared to
those who do not consider discharging their civic duties as a worthwhile
venture.
The just concluded 2011 general elections show that we are gradually
experiencing attitudinal change in the area of our civic responsibility with
regard to Nigerians exercising their franchise. The presidential election and
61
the manner in which the Independent National Electoral Commission
(INEC) chairman Prof. Atahiru Jega piloted the electoral process is a case in
point. According to Ihejirika, “Democracy is one of the conventional
common good given the fact that is geared towards the development of
man”.16 Buttressing further, Nwaigbo expresses democracy as the nexus
through which the ethical norms that sustains the society could be realized.
Based on the above fact, he stated:
Democracy is an important opportunity to awaken
people to play their civic roles and to become the
social instrument of Justice, peace and truth in
human society. Justice, truth and peace are ethical
values without which Democracy cannot function
well and therefore, democracy is incomplete
without this ethical norms.17
From the above point, one could deduce that in a democratic setting,
the citizens’ participation in politics is not only a fulfillment of civic duties
but also an avenue of facilitating and enhancing the good of the society. It is
therefore a civic responsibility for one to act with probity and credibility in
the exercise of authority just as President Goodluck Jonathan has
exemplified as against what obtained in 2003 and 2007 elections
respectively.
In view of the above point, Pope John Paul II opines “Our sense of
moral accountability need to be re-awakened if our society is to survive as a
civilization built upon justice and solidarity”.18 In other to achieve this,
Okeke added, “…we need to examine our attitude towards the society itself,
towards those things the society owns together, and reflect on our God given
responsibility towards these, and towards the betterment of all”.19 Sequel to
this
62
It is necessary for individuals to pay their taxes, obey
just laws, work hard in their places of work, join
approved associations and trade unions, protect public
property and render services that can contribute to the
betterment of the society. Christians called to be the
light and salt should show good example as they excel
in the fulfillment of their civic duties. Capable hands
should join political parties, seek political posts and
render selfless services to the community… voting for
good people is one way of contributing to the common
good.20
Nigerian Christians are to take the lead in this regard. People should
be conscious of the moral standard of the society in which they live and act
accordingly. The essence of morality, Kant in Hick says, “Consists in
commitment to act for the general welfare as discerned by impartial reason.
One should do that which pure reason-which judges on objective and
universal principles-can see ought to be done”.21
4.2
Reasons for the Nigerian Christians’ Poor Response to Civic
Duties
In as much as there are some Nigerian Christians who show positive and
conscientious concern and are responsive in matters of civic duties, there are
some who are predominantly indifferent. Apparently, there are some who do
not consider civil obligation as a worthwhile venture. A number of reasons
or factors may have shaped their mind in this regard. It therefore becomes
pertinent to examine some of these factors. Viz:
a. Poor Patriotic Spirit: The adjective patriotic is from the noun
patriotism which means love for one’s nation and willingness to
defend it. Its usage in this context shines better in the expression of
Egbunu who explains patriotism as a virtue. “Patriotism in this sense
63
is seen as a Christian virtue, a passion and devotion which urges the
Christian to act in every positive manner as to impact upon the wellbeing, growth, development, peace, progress, unity and stability of
the nation”22. According to Egbunu,
History shows that much of the mainstream Christian
response to patriotism in Nigeria has been some sort of
aloofness until very recent times. There existed some
kind of prudery which seems to say, “any talk of love of
nation indicates an incipient fascism”… just as on the
other hand, one often hears the call for social justice
being branded as outright political activism23
For some Nigerian citizens, being part of the movement that promotes
social justice implies political activism. However, our love for our nation
could be determined by our level of commitment to national issues. The
mindset of many Nigerian Christians and non-Christians alike always centre
on what we would gain from the nation instead of what we would offer.
Oraegbunam captures such a mindset and expresses it thus: “People are
more interested in what they gain from their work place than in what they
put in. They consume more than they produce. This is a grabbling
mentality”.24 Attitude of such kind cannot be doubted since it is prevalent
among many Nigerians. Obviously its effects abound. Okolo renders them
thus: “… people of consumer society generally also manifest low
enthusiasm or appreciation for higher values such as patriotism, love for the
truth, honesty, moral integrity good name or reputation…”25
Patriotism implies the citizens’ recognition and effective discharge of
their social responsibilities out of love. Our citizenship status under Social
Contract Theory goes with both rights and responsibilities. However, active
citizenship as a philosophy requires active commitment towards the
betterment of the community through economic participation, public service,
64
volunteer work and other such efforts to improve life for all citizens. Today
in various sectors of the economy, patriotic spirits tend to be lost. Some
people see public service as an opportunity to enrich themselves. They do
not see their work as what they should do for the good of all. The popular
expression “Olu Oyibo” (Whiteman’s Job) explains their mindset in this
regard.
Patriotism could be evaluated in two ways: what one can offer. Jesus
Christ is a typical embodiment of this virtue who offered himself for the
good of all. In the human perspective, reference could be made to people
like Nelson Mandela who sacrificed himself for the good of his nation.
Again, the second yard stick for evaluating patriotic spirit is obedience.
Historical figures like Abraham epitomized this great virtue of obedience
(Gen. 12:1, 22:1-19).
Nigerian citizens apparently are lagging behind in this regard. Some
Nigerians often treat national issues with apathy and trivialities. For
instance, in 2007, in Anambra State, a group of unidentified youths
destroyed the state owned properties at the state capital. But till date nobody
has been brought to book. Similar example is the case of people who
vandalize oil pipelines. These are pure expression of un-patriotism. There is
no appreciable sense of commitment in collective activities that engenders
common good. Such disposition in relation to public issues is undoubtedly
antithetical to the practical stipulations of the gospel of Christ that calls
Christian to life of service.
Against the poor patriotic spirit that hinders the common good, fathers of
the Second Vatican Council in the document Church in the Modern World
stated:
65
Citizens should cultivate a generous and loyal spirit of
patriotism, but without narrow-mindedness, so that they
will always keep in mind the welfare of the whole
human family which is formed into one by various
kinds of links between races, people and nations.
Christians must be conscious of their specific and
proper role …they should be a shinning example by
their sense of responsibility and their dedication to the
common good…26
In that case, the citizens response to the societal demand should be
embedded in love and as such patriotism considered a religious obligation.
b. Greed and Selfishness: Among the diseases that have eaten deep into
the fabric of Nigerian society is greed and selfishness. The
cankerworm has its hook on both Christians and none Christians. Its
adverse effects abound. Specifically, it manifests in the quest for
positions; often times political posts, acquisition of wealth etc.
Nigerian citizens often times manifest lack of contentment hence the
desire for more. Surprisingly enough some do employ illegal means in an
attempt to satisfy their quests and meet up with their targets. This type of
attitude by some Nigerian citizens has left the nation in the state of shamble
and corruption has become the order of the day. Some people show little or
no conscientious devotion to the general welfare of the society. There is a
paradigm shift from ‘we’, ‘us’ to ‘l’. Government offices have become an
avenue for enriching oneself rather than alleviating the masses of their
predicaments.
The attitude of some of our politicians who misused their
positions and misappropriated the public fund like Mrs Patricia Ete the
former speaker House of Representative, Demeji Bankole successor to the
former speaker House of Representative, Cecilia Ibru C.E.O Oceanic Bank,
66
Ikedi Pius Ohakim former Governor Imo State and a host of others are
cases in point. Service to the state is being relegated behind by many
Nigerians simply out of selfishness. This is a vice that might continue to
dwindle the societal development if not curbed. Jesus Christ is an
embodiment of selfless service. In Matthew 20:28, Jesus categorically
stated that He came to serve and not to be served. As a model, Christians
ought to follow his foot print who never considered himself more important
that anyone else. Jesus was abreast with the status quo of his era and
broadly challenged the unfavourable situation and brought relief to the
people. Such should be the mission of the Nigerian Christians.
c. Ignorance and poor Orientation: The use of the term ignorance in
this context does not in any way imply in-acquisition of formal education.
Rather, it is the inability to recognize, evaluate and adapt to issues
happening around one so as to adjust one’s position. An ignorant person is
subject to deception even as one is not aware of it. However, Christian
citizens’ poor response to civic duties is also connected with ignorance and
poor orientation. Given the above fact, Ugorji noted:
Ignorance
is
responsible
for
many
Nigerians
underestimating their ability to contribute to the good
governance of the nation and to effectively say no to poor
leadership and its accompanying effects. This accounts for
Why many Nigerians are resigned in their Oppression and
suffering and passively hope, in an almost fatalistic manner,
for an external liberator.27
Because of ignorance, many Nigerian Christians do not even know
their roles and rights as members of the society. They compartmentalize
between political society and religious society. Man is a social being
entrusted with social activities that promote life. On that note, the Catholic
Bishops’ conference of Nigeria noted:
67
Because “social life is not something added on”, but an
essential and indelible dimension of man, every
Christian man and woman should actively and
responsibly exercise his civic duties. For this reason,
individuals of their own respective volition freely enter
into a political community in order to shape public
opinion and influence the common good. They make
their choice of which to belong, free from coercion,
intimidation, or manipulation.28
From the foregoing, it becomes clear and imperative for Christians to
participate in political activities that determine the fate of the state.
Christians as citizen should form part of the government where issues
that make or mar the society are determined. Government in this context
could be understood in line with Ekwunife’s thought as “that
indispensable social organization established in every society for the
purpose of formally enacting, codifying and enforcing the laws and
values of that particular society. …every government therefore exists for
the common good of all her citizens.”29
Both the government and the church are institutions through which
God extends His services to humankind. The problem lies in the dichotomy
which springs from ignorance and poor orientation on the part of the
Christian citizens. With this is mind Ugorij observed:
Ignorance of democratic governance has assisted
unscrupulous political leaders to deceive the populace in
carrying out their selfish designs. Many of these selfserving leaders came into power unaware of the
intricacies and burden of political leadership. They lack
the humility to hand back power to the people upon
discovery that they lack the ability to rise up to the
demands of political office. They see the way out as
taking to dictatorship and suppressing any opposing
voice.30
68
Buttressing on ignorance of the Christians with regard to participation in
democratic governance .Egbunu recorded that
Some Catholic theologians like Paul Nitta is of the
opinion that the church does not have a mission to
establish social justice in the world. The church must
resist any attempt to be used for earthly goals, however
lofty they may be. She must also avoid even the
appearance of being an ideological and temporal pressure
group or of taking side with party solutions.31
These dispositions are backed up with scriptural passages. And that
constitutes what Ezeogu calls “Biblical factors militating against active
involvement of Nigerian Catholics in politics”.32 Some of the biblical
passages include John 13:36, where Christ said His Kingdom is not of the
world; Luke 12:13, where Christ broadly refused to be made a judge and a
promoter of human justice. Among this category also is the dominical saying
in Matt 22:21// Mk 12:17//Lk 20:25: “Render to Caesar the things that are
Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.” Among this category is the
Old Testament passage where the Israelites demanded for a king and God’s
objection to such a demand as tantamount to rejection of God himself (1Sam
8:11ff).The highlighted passages sometimes become problems for a
balanced Christian orientation to politics. Ezeogu rightly observed,
What keeps Nigerian Catholics from making their
rightful contribution to the political development of
Nigeria is not just an accident of history. The present
reality of our religious culture also shares part of the
blame. My point of departure is to say that these biblical
factors, in themselves, do not militate against politics,
rightly understood and practiced. Rather, their negative
effect on our culture is owing to the ways in which they
have been understood.33
Although the above observation is in reference to the Nigerian
Catholics, but it could be said unequivocally that such a mindset is obtained
69
among many other Christians. Some people refrain from their primary duties
because of poor interpretation and understanding of the scripture. This is
exactly what this paper refers to as ignorance and perhaps poor orientation.
God’s rejection of Israelites demand to have a king was as a result of
bad king and not a good king. It should be noted that God does not object to
a good political process that ensures a good and deserving ruler to power. In
the same vein, the issue of giving to “Caesar what belongs to Caesar and to
God what belongs to God” sometimes create problem to a balanced
Christian orientation. On the peripheral level, it may suggest that Religion
and Politics are two parallel lines that never meet and many Christians
imbibe such an interpretation and consequently via off from every political
engagements. According to Ezeogu,
Religion and Politics are two spheres of human activity
with different sets of rules that should be kept separate.
Religion should not interfere with politics neither
should politics interfere with religion. It is this way of
understanding this important teaching of our Lord that
made a former dictatorial Nigerian head of state warn
the Catholic Bishops’ conference of Nigeria to contend
themselves with preaching the gospel in church and
take their hand off the business of politics. The military
head of state, his being a Muslim notwithstanding,
actually quoted this biblical saying to the bishops.34
There are many Nigerian Christians who capitalize on the above
sayings and believe that the church has nothing to offer on issues of politics.
For them, Religion and Politics are compartmentalized with different goals,
they should, therefore be kept apart. Be that as it may, Odey corroborates
The human being is made up of the body and soul. The
soul needs faith and spiritual nourishment to survive.
The body needs material things to survive, and the bulk
of the materials things the body needs to survive are
controlled by the state and their equitable distribution
70
are determined by political dispensations. How could
Christians survive under the policy of separating
religion from politics? 35.
The above statement is a pointer to the fact that the Christian as a
citizen has a fundamental obligation of active participation in political
activities. Nothing justifies the Christian not to partake in political exercise
for it is in the citadel of power, as Egbunu asserts “that many far-reaching
decisions are taken concerning the fate of humanity.”36 The state is part of
the created order and its existence is ordained by God for the good of all.
However, the fathers of the Second Vatican Council in the document
Church in the Modern World explicitly declared,
The political community and the church are
autonomous and independent of each other in their
own fields. Nevertheless, both are devoted to the
personal vocation of man, though under different
titles. This service will redound the more effectively
to the welfare of all in so far as both institutions
practice better cooperation according to the local and
prevailing situation. For man’s horizons are not
bounded only by the temporal order; living on the
level of human history he preserves the integrity of his
eternal destiny. 37
Although Politics and Religion are two different, independent and
autonomous institutions, both have the good of mankind at heart. Ngwoke
lays credence to the above point by asserting that:
Religion and Politics draw their origins ultimately from
the same source, the first law of nature-their instinct of
self-preservation. Their goals are the same: the
enhancement of human life. Politics, which aims at the
common good, finds partnership with religion which is
“life’s ceaseless effort to preserve and perfect itself”.
The realm of politics is also the realm of religion which
is morality. In seeking an acceptable, life-enhancing
relationship between man and his fellows religion and
71
politics are bed fellows. Their methods however
differ.38
Therefore, the Christian though of heavenly citizenship (Phil 3:20)
should consider active involvement in politics as a God-given role towards
ensuring and fostering societal development. Church leaders should
therefore re-orientate the mind of their members on the inevitability of active
participation in politics. Their religious inclinations should help to moderate
politics and add flavour to the political activities. Odey opines that politics
like religion has become a sort of man’s second nature. We cannot do
without it. In itself, it is not bad. Its badness or goodness depends on our
understanding and use of it. He further remarked;
The point is that after creating the world, God
gave us a mandate to recreate it and make it a
better place where all and sundry would live and
feel his presence and his love. In the present
circumstance, not even our wildest dreams could
hope to make any meaningful contribution
towards marking the world a better place until
were have become directly or indirectly involve
in politics.39
Christians therefore cannot hope to make any meaningful impact or
effective influence in the world outside the field of politics. The church has a
prophetic role of proclaiming the demands of the gospel. This cannot be
achieved in isolation. Given the above point, Magesa and Nthamburi say:
“The church cannot abdicate its moral responsibility to the society, for to do
so would be disobedience to the gospel mandate”.40
From the above observations, it therefore becomes pertinent and as a
matter of immediate need to dethrone political ignorance that has entangled
the citizens especially the Christians and empower them with the mindset
that politics is a sine qua non for societal development which in turn
72
engenders common good. The ability to analyze socio-political issues should
be conscientized. Knowledge is a powerful weapon to dethrone ignorance.
When the Christian as a citizen is at home with the basic knowledge and
behaves accordingly, the societal development will be achieved.
4.3 Civic Duties as the Christians’ Moral Obligations
The idea of civic duty presupposes the concept of the common good.
In simple terms, the common good refers to those values and concerns which
belong to the community and not to a specific individual. These values
essentially contribute to the community welfare and at the same time take
into consideration the needs of the individual. The strength of the common
good stems from the recognition and acknowledgement that what affects all
takes priority over and above personal issues. In the expressions of the
fathers of the Second Vatican Council in her document Gaudium et Spes
No.74, “The common good embraces the sum total of all those conditions of
social life which enable individuals, families, and organization to achieve
complete and efficacious fulfillment.”41 Given the above fact, Onyema
noted,
This demands being considerate and the readiness to
share what is available equitably. That means that
one is not greedy or selfish only thinking of the self
and what serves the self. If goods are to be shared by
many, common good morality demands that such
good be so handled that each person gets at least
ones due without stress42.
The point above has no prejudice of private ownership of property that
boasts hard work and commitment. The concept of the common good has
biblical undertones in both Old Testament and New Testament. It is from
73
this perspective that civic duties shall be viewed, established and be
substantiated as the Christians’ moral obligation.
Be that as it may, the creation account in the book of Genesis exposes
God’s purposes and intentions to entrust with man certain responsibilities.
God having looked at everything He made and was very pleased (Gen 1:31),
He delegated authority to the first man (Adam and Eve). Man is used here in
a generic sense. Okeke pointed out that “God entrusted to man the duty to
lead the world and everything in it to the overall good of man and to the
glory of God”.43 This was consequent upon the power of dominion given to
man by God (Gen. 1:28). This also brought to fore the vertical and
horizontal responsibilities of man entrusted to him by God.
The responsibility given to man by God could be considered as an
obligation which fundamentally springs from conscience. This is exactly
what Apostle Paul in his parenesis tries to project in his epistle to the
Romans (Rom. 13:1-7). The Christians obedience to the constituted
authority is a fundamental duty, a moral assignment as attested by the
conscience. This goes further to explain that such a duty should as a matter
of importance stem from love. Love is the fulfillment of the law. This love
could be understood to be two dimensional. The love one has for God that
spurs him to respond to his God given responsibilities and the love one has
for the good of others. The latter is being propelled by affection, communal
living, societal development, in fact realization of the common good. On the
strength of the above point, Ihejirika noted “Anything that assures the
cohesion, well-being and progress of society as a whole could be referred to
as the common good”.44
According to Coleman, “Paul places obedience to authorities in the
moral realm; for the Christian, disregard of authority is a sin. This is because
74
the authorities are God’s servants. Christians have an obligation to give
obedience to civil authority”.45 The authority in this context is the state or
government as God’s institution through which the human welfare are being
attended to. Human society demands peace, order, justice, equity, fairness
and so on. Realization of these demands rest on the organization of the
society hence God’s institution of authorities to oversee the affairs of human
society. Having been constituted by God, it becomes a moral demand or a
moral obligation to oblige to the authority that fosters the common good.
Apparently, the common good could be made feasible through active
commitment and positive response to civic duties.
Meanwhile, morality as a concept basically refers to the rightness and
wrongness of an action. Ugwuoke citing Radda defines morality “as the
standard of human behavior determined either subjectively or objectively,
and based on what is considered ethically right or wrong”.46 Obiora added:
It also includes the accepted rules and standards of
human behaviour and the act of conformity to accepted
standard of general conducts. Christian moral teaching
is concerned with identifying and elucidating the
principles that determined the quality of human
behaviour in the light of Christian revelation.47
God deposited in man the gift of rationality that differentiates him
(man) from every other creature. This enables him to differentiate between
right and wrong and also propels him to doing good. Based on this,
Omoregbe declared,
You must live a moral life because you are a rational
being, and to be a rational being is to be subject to the
moral law. This means that to be obliged by the moral
law is part of what it means to be a human being, for it
is part of man’s rationality… Everybody, by the very
fact of being a rational being, experiences this
75
obligation of the moral law to refrain from evil and to
do good. 48
It is therefore worthy of note that the obedience Paul enjoins the
Christian to accord the constituted authority should spring from the
conscience as a moral act and not necessarily for the avoidance of
punishment. Therefore, civil disobedience is in contrast with the biblical
injunctions except where disobedience to the human government would be
pertinent so as to obey God’s command. On that note, Peter and other
apostles would say, “We must obey God, not man” (Acts 5:29).
However, Jesus though apolitical responded to some of the civic
demands of his time. Attending Jewish Passover is not only a religious duty
but a moral obligation towards the good of all as attested by the law. Jesus’
parents in Luke 2:1-7 epitomized true citizenship by obliging Emperor
Augustus who demanded citizens’ census. In Matthew 17:24-27 and 22:1521 Jesus exemplified true obedience to the constituted authorities by paying
tax which is part of his civic duties.
In 1Peter 2:13-16, Titus 3:1, Christians were reminded to submit to
every human authorities. This loyalty to the constituted authority is a form of
allegiance to God who initiated the idea of leadership and authority. The
ruling authority spearheads the activities in an orderly manner as God’s
instruments. It is therefore, a moral duty for every Christian to show
obedience devoid of compulsion or fear of punishment to the authorities,
who are the custodian of God’s providence. The question that follows then is
to what extent civil authorities should be obeyed? Could submission be
made also to tyrant rulers? In view of the above questions fathers of the
Second Vatican Council asserts:
When citizens are under the oppression of a public
authority which oversteps its competence, they should
76
still not refuse to give or to do whatever is objectively
demanded of them by the common good; but it is
legitimate for them to defend their own right and those
of their fellow citizens against abuses of this authority
within the limits of the natural law and the law of the
gospel.49
The above statement acknowledges the fallibility of the human rulers
but then the ingenuity of rulership or authority remains that of God. Both the
leaders and the led are God’s products. The good of the world is that of God.
The authority that rulers possess comes from God. Man is just but a
caretaker that must in turn account for his stewardship. The laws that the
government make are not merely penal law but moral laws.
Similarly, the Christian owes prayers to the authorities. This is mode
explicit in 1Timothy 2:1-2 “First of all, then, I urge that petitions, prayers,
request and thanksgiving be offered to God for all people; for kings and all
others who are in authority, that we may live a quiet and peaceful; conduct”.
Prayer is an indefatigable factor towards the well-being of the society. The
ruling authority desires prayer for effective and efficient result. It guarantees
proper conduct which in turn ensures harmonious co-existence and peace.
Considering its importance, Pope Leo XIII as cited by Ezeanya proposed
prayer in line with the Christian life as a remedy for the ills of our societies.
“Let then the habit of prayer be sacred to all; let soul and voice join together
in prayer and let our whole daily life agree together so that by keeping the
laws of God, the course of our days may seem a continual assent to him.”50
This prayer demand of the Christian more importantly should be
accompanied with practical requirements that enliven prayer.
77
End Note
1
F.C. Arinze Gospel to Society (Enugu: Option Computer Solutions
Ltd; 1990)p.15
2
G. Okeke Justice and the Practice of Democracy in Nigeria (Port
Harcourt: CIWA Publications, 2003)p.161
3
G.I.K.Tasie, “Religion and Moral Depravity in Contemporary
Nigeria” (Enugu :Snaap Press Ltd, 2005)p.88
4
E.U. Dim The Christian And The Governing Authorities Rom. 13:17 (Tansi Seminar Publications 2009)p.19
5
Ibid. p.20
6
B.I.Ugwu “Factors That Militate Against The Active Involvement
of Christian” In Politics and Societal transformation in Nigeria (Enugu:
Kingsley’s Publication 2011) pp 62-63.
7
Okeke, Loc. Cit.
8
Pontifical Council for Justice & Peace, “The Fight Against
Corruption” (Awka: Fides Publications, 2006) P.3
9
M.O.Anozie “Corruption, Church and Society-Nigeria Situation” in
J. Madueke, J. Ezeokana & B Obiefuna ed., The church & Development
(Nimo: Rex Charles and Patrick Ltd, 2008)p.138.
10
C.Achebe The Trouble with Nigeria (Enugu: fourth Dimension,
1983) p.1
11
Dim, Opo. Cit., P.23
12
J.I.Okoye “Governance and the question of virtue” in J.O.
Oguejiofor ed., Philosophy, Democracy and Responsible Governance in
Africa (studies in African philosophy: Enugu: Bigard Memorial Seminary
2004) p.14
13
J.O.Oguejiofor, “Contemporary African Philosophy: from identity to
governance”, in J.O. Oguejiofor ed; Philosophy, Democracy and
Responsible Governance in Africa(Studies in African Philosophy :Enugu:
Bigard Memorial Seminary,2004)p.25
78
14
Tasie, Op.Cit,p.89
15
V.M. Okeke You And The Common Good Pastoral letter 2007
(Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 2007) p.4
16
W.C. Ihejirika “Nigerian Media and Political Development: A
Contextual Analysis” in F. Nwaigbo ed; The Christian in Politics And The
African Experience (Port Harcourt: CIWA Publications, 2007)p.423
17
F.Nwaigbo “Democracy in Church and State: A theological
Challenge” in F. Nwaigbo ed; Church and Democracy in West Africa (Port
Harcourt CIWA Publications, 2003)p.199
18
JohnPaul II Go in Peace a gift of Enduring Love (Mumbai : St
Pauls 2009) p.79
19
Okeke, Op. Cit, p.5
Ibid. p.36
20
21
J.Hick An Interpretation of Religion: Human Responses to the
Transcendent (London: Yale University Press, 1989), p.98.
22
F.E. Egbunu Religion, Politics And Patriotism in Nigeria A
Christian Perspective (Nsukka : Afrobrbis Publishing Co Ltd, 2009)p.267
23
Ibid p.267.
24
Oraegbunam “Some Fundamental Problems in Nigeria
Public Service System: The Need For A Genuine work-Ethic” in Journal of
Bigard Memoral Seminary (Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd) p.33
I.K.E
2
C. Okolo “Squandermania Mentality: Reflections on Nigerian
culture” (Nsukka: University Trust Publishers, 1994) p.11
26
Vatican council II “The Political community” in Pastoral
constitution on the church in the Modern world in Austin Flanner y ed; the
Concilliar and Post Concilliar Document (Dublin: Dominican Publications,
1975)p.864.
27
L.I Ugorji Witness in Charity & Truth (Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd,
2002)p.97
79
28
Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria Salt of the Earth and
Light of the World Manual of the Laity (Digital Frontiers solutions Ltd,
n.d)p.57
29
A.N.O. Ekwunife, Politics And Religious Intolerance the Nigerian
Experience (Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 1992) p.9
30
Ugorji,LoC.Cit
31
Egbunu, Op Cit. p.268
32
E.M. Ezeogu, “Fully Catholic, fully Political: Exploring The
Biblical Grolunds For Active Christian Participation and Politics” in Ugwu
ed; Politics, Social change and The Church in Nigeria (Enugu: Kingsley’s
Publishers, 2011)p.37
33
E.M Ezeogu E.M Bible and Politics can Nigerian Catholics Baptise
the “Dirty Game” of Politics? (Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 2007)p.29
34
Ezeogu, Op. Cit., p.40
35
Odey, Op. Cit.p.34
36
Egbunu,Op.Cit, p.271
37
Vatican Council II “The Political Community And The church” In
Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World. Austin Flannery
ed; The Concilliar and Post Concilliar Document (Dublin, Ireland:
Dominican Publications, 1975) p.862
38
E. Ngwoke. Politics & Religion A Christian Perspective (Enugu:
Snaap Press Ltd, 2001)p.54.
39
Odey, Op. Cit. p.36
40
L.Magesa and Z. Nthamburi. Democracy & Reconciliation: A
Challenge for African Christianity n.d p.149.
41
Vatican Council II Op.Cit pp.861-862
42
A. Onyema “Some Moral Factors Necessary for Human Politics” in
F. Nwaigbo ed; The Christian in Politics And The West African Experience
(Port Harcourt: CIWA Publications, 2007), P. 241.
80
43
Okeke, OP. Cit. P.16
44
Ihejirika, Loc. Cit
45
T.M Coleman Binding Obligations in Romans 13:1-7: A Semantic
field
And
Social context http://www.tyndalehouse
com/tynbul
/library/tynbull -1997 48206 coleman romans. Retrieved April 30, 2011.
46
C.U. Ugwuoke “Education without Morality: the case of Nigeria”
in Nsukka Journal of Religion And Cultural Studies vol.3 no.1 (Enugu:
Pros-Prints & Communications, 2010) p.178
47
M.J Obiora “The Bible and Christian morality” in The Nigerian
Journal of Theology (Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 2009),P. 9
48
J. Omoregbe Ethics A systematic and Historical study (Lagos: Joja
Educational Research and Publishers Ltd, 1993) p.25
49
Vatican Council II “Nature and Purpose of the Political
community”. Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the modern world in
Austin Flannery ed; the Concilliar and Post concilliar document (Dublin:
Dominican Publications, 1975) p.862
50
S.N Ezeanya. What It means To Be A Christian In our Time
(Onitsha: Tabansi Press Ltd, 1990),p.31
81
Chapter Five
Summary and Conclusion
The researcher has been able to identify through this work that the
development of every society is solely dependent on the collaborative efforts
of the government and the citizens. Meanwhile, the idea of the government
(governance) and the authority they dispense is the ingenuity of God. This
does not imply that tyranny and bad polices of some rulers is approved by
God. The point remains just as John XXIII stated that:
Human society can neither be well ordered nor
prosperous without the presence of legally
constituted authorities, to preserve its institutions
and to do all that is necessary to sponsor actively the
interests of all its members. They derive their
authority from God, for, as St Paul teaches, ‘there is
no power but from God1
God entrusted to man the duty to lead the world and everything in it to the
overall good of man and to the glory of God. Hence, the injunction given to
man to replenish the earth, subdue it and have dominion over every thing in
it (Gen 1:28, 1:26:2:19). The above injunctions brought to fore the authority
of leaders. This authority could be understood from Ryan’s viewpoint to be
distinctive thus:
But authority is not to be thought of as a force
lacking the power to command according to right
reason, authority must derive its obligatory force
from the moral order, which in turn has God for its
first source and final end. 2
The implication is that authority of the state is not absolute hence
must be guided, taking into consideration the dignity of the human person as
God’s creature. The fundamental goal of the government is the pursuit of the
common good. The common good presupposes three essential elements:
respect for the human person, recognition of the social well-being and
development and peace which ensures stability and security of a just order.
82
Obviously, the civil authority cannot achieve the common good in
isolation. The citizens’ active commitment is required in as much as they
exercise their rights, their obligations in this regard is inevitable. The
emphasis of this research has been to highlight the implications of our being
Christians as well as full citizens of our dear country Nigeria. Okeke poised,
“Christianity has of course a higher message and reason namely that we are
all one family under God”.3 On that note, the Nigerian Christian should be
the Vanguard of the societal welfare as the “salt of the earth and light of the
world”.
However, active commitment to public life via civic duty is of
paramount importance. It is not only a patriotic act to reckon with but a
Christian virtue. It has been observed that the debacles and dwindling saga
that is associated with the Nigerian society is as a result of the citizens’ poor
commitment to their civic duties. Ryan corroborates that
The present condition of social decay and
corruption is largely due to the absence of
Christians “as Christians” in the public life of the
society. Unfortunately many do not see any
contradiction between the Christian faith they
profess and their corrupt practices, violence and
partaking in harmful and unjust activities4
Some Nigerian Christians separate between faith and political
involvement as two exclusive fields of human life. Politics in this
context is the seat of public life which includes governance, public
administration, party politics, economics and provision of public
services. Christians therefore, cannot standard aloof in issues that
make or mar human society. There is a need to work on unbalanced
mindset and replace it with a strong determination to foster social and
83
political involvement of Christians. The scripture remains a guide in
this regard.
Considering the urgency of the Christians to be involved in public life,
the fathers of the Second Vatican Council in “Gaudium et Spes stated: “the
church praises and esteems those who devote themselves to the public good
for the service of all human beings and taken upon themselves the burden of
public office”.5 The acceptance of the gospel and the actual living should go
hand in glove for its separation induces the false impression that the public
realm of the lives of Christians is diametrically divorced from their own
Christian calling and identity. John Paul II in his Apostolic Exhortation
‘Christi Fideles Laici as cited by Ryan warns against two prominent
temptations for Christians in the society:
Temptation of being so strongly interested in church
services and tasks that some fail to become actively
engaged in their responsibilities in the professional,
social, cultural and political world; and the temptation
of legitimizing the unwarranted separation of faith
from life, that is, a separation of the Gospels
acceptance from the actual living of the Gospel in
various situations in the world.6
These temptations should be avoided by merging faith with actions (James
2:14). The Christians’ involvement in public life should be considered on
grounds of conscience as a moral obligation that stems from Christian love.
5.1 General Assessment
This research work established that civic duty is an inherent duty of
the citizens of the state. Suffice it to say that the state and the authority they
dispense is God’s ingenuity. That there is no authority except from God
(Rom 13:1) as Paul asserts is a pointer to the authority’s moral ground due to
84
which civic duties are considered as moral responsibilities which cannot but
be obliged.
However, the granite truth remains that some Nigerian Christians
attitude to civic duties is worth commendable. These Christians live out their
faith by their active involvement in public life. This is evident in their
attitude and participation in political field. The 2011 general elections
remains a case in point. Some Nigerian Christians obey the law, pay their
taxes, and engage in volunteer work for instance the Special Marshals of the
Road Safety etc. These and more aimed at actualizing the common good.
On the other side of the coin, this work has also noted that the heaps
of rubbish that has befogged the Nigerian society in terms of bribery and
corruption, poverty, economic doom and their likes has a link with the
citizens poor commitment to civic duties, perhaps due to the government
poor attitude to development. Also is a point to underline that many Nigerian
Christians are ignorant of what civic duty means. Some limit civic duty to
payment of tax therefore it is government cum business affair.
Consequently, they shy away from exercising these duties. Many
Nigerian Christians are equally convinced that faith and political
involvement are two different, mutually exclusive fields that cannot meet
together hence the popular saying that ‘politics is a dirty game’. The
Christians’ response to civic duty should not be dependent on the attitude of
the government otherwise the Christian virtue will be questioned. Civic duty
is the Christians’ moral responsibility.
To substantiate the above point, Paul’s exhortation in Romans 13:1-7
remains a point of departure. ‘Let every person be subject to civil authorities
for these authorities come from God’. The injunction of Paul synchronizes
with some other scriptural passages thus 1Pet. 2:13-14, Titus 3:1. The
85
references text Rom 13:1-7 was exegetically analyzed and theologically
evaluated thereby laying bare the practical requirements of the Christians as
the citizen of the state and the moral ground that justifies the citizens’
commitment to the state. The bottom line is that civic duty is the Christians
moral obligation. It has enduring moral values given the fact that civic duty
presupposes the place and dividends of the common good. It therefore
becomes pertinent to note that civic duty is not an optional choice but a
matter of conscience which stems from the very core of the Christian faith
that spurs one to be God’s partner in the building of God’s kingdom in the
human society.
5.2 Limitation of the Study
The counsel on the Christians’ relationship with the civil authorities
runs across the New Testament. For proper exegesis, this work was limited
to the Nigerian Christian attitude to civic duties in the light of Paul’s
injunction in Romans 13:1-7. However, the reference text has been a subject
of controversy among scholars. Consequently, the researcher encountered
problems with respect to assessing a very few available materials in line
with the researcher’s line of thought. Time due to some other engagements
and financial constraints also limited this work.
5.3 Suggestions for Further Research
Nobody is the citadel of knowledge. Consequently, the researcher
cannot claim exhaustive coverage of the subject matter using any parameter.
But then, the work has attempted examining the attitude of Nigerian
Christians towards their civic responsibilities. In as much as some Nigerian
Christians deserve Kudos in this regard some do not see civic duty as a
86
worthwhile venture hence their passive involvement in societal issues that
matter.
From the findings, some Nigerian Christians dichotomize between
faith and involvement in public life as mutually exclusive. They hinge their
claim using biblical passages viz; 1Sam 8:11-18-God’s objection to Israelites
demand of a King, Matt 22:21=Mk 12:17= Lk 20:25-the dominical saying of
giving to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are
God’s. These passages could create problems for a balanced Christian
orientation to politics. On that note, the researcher suggests that these
passages should be studied analytically so as to bring to fore their
theological import in other to strike a balance. Payment of taxes often times
is being denigrated and basically considered as a mere business demand
whereas it is more of Christian moral obligation (Rom 13:6). However,
individual components of civic duties should be further researched.
5.4 Recommendations
a. Civic education should be enlivened and find-tuned and be
incorporated at all levels of formal education. This will go a long way
to entrench and internalize one’s inherent duty as a citizen of the state
irrespective of one’s religious inclinations and background. It will also
help in solving the problem of ignorance of what civic duties are and
what they are not.
b. Government should step up to their God-given roles and consider the
dignity of the human person, hence the adoption and appropriation
87
cum promotion of policies that will engender human living and the
common good.
c. Individualism syndrome is ingrained in every Nigerian citizen
Christians and non-Christians alike. Apparently, such mindset seems
to be a threat to the actualization of the common good. Therefore,
attitudinal change should be imbibed.
d. Civic duty is not an option or a matter of choice rather it is a moral
obligation that stems from the conscience. Christians’ should consider
civic duties as a religious venture worth responding to. Christians’
should also take the lead in animating the society for the Christian
message cannot thrive in a dwindling and decay society.
e. The church should exercise her prophetic role by intervening in the
socio-political realm through her daily witnessing. There is a need to
call to order the erring politicians and the political dispensations to
redress their steps. In the same vein, spur the Christians through their
sermon to embrace their moral obligation as responsible citizens.
f. Christians’ response to politics oftentimes is characterized by apathy.
This however, stimulates the need for religious leaders to illustrate
using the scripture and the church social teachings to establish the
inevitable line between profession of faith and the Christians demands
as a citizen of the country. Therefore, there is a need for re-orientation
of the Christians on the unavoidable link between Christian faith as a
religious member and the Christian obligations as a citizen of the
state.
88
Conclusion
Civic duty is a ‘sine qua non’ for societal development and the
realization of the good of all. In the light of Paul’s injunction in Romans
13:1-7, it is considered as a moral obligation that stems from the conscience.
It is not an optional choice but a must do assignment for the Christians.
Some Nigerian Christians are trying in this regard while some are lagging
behind. Neglect of one’s civic responsibilities is a form of opposition to the
civic authority which is turn is tantamount to opposing God. Considering the
dignity of the human person the Christian has an intrinsic duty of extending
the divine providence in the human society. Prayer and faith cannot achieve
this task alone. There is a need for active involvement and commitment of
the Nigerian Christians in this regard. Both the government and the citizens
have the duty of renewing the earth. In fact, the enduring moral values of
commitment to public life of one’s state cannot be over-emphasized.
89
End Note
1
John XXIII Peace on Earth (London: Catholic Truth Society,
1963)p.20
2
Ryan P., The Role of Christians in Politics in Africa Today
(Kenya:Pauline Publications Africa, 2002)p.81
3
Okeke V.M, You And The Common Good (Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd;
2007) p.31
4
Ryan, Op. Cit, p.76
5
Vatican Council II “Guadium et spes” in Austin Flannery ed; The
Concilliar and Post Concilliar document (Dublin:Dominican Publications,
1975) no 75, P. 864.
6
Ryan, Op. Cit; p.71
90
Bibliography
Journals & Magazines
Ezumezu, F.N. “The Catholic Church and the Social Concern” in A Journal
of Bigard Memorial Seminary. Enugu:Snaap Press Ltd,2008
Gotan, C.T. “A Catholic Perspective On Religions And State In Search Of
The Common Good In Nigeria” in The Nigerian Journal of Theology.
Enugu: Snaap Press
Ltd ,2008
[
[
Obiora, M.J. “The Bible and Christian Morality” in The Nigerian Journal of
Theology. Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 2009.
Okafor, Dominic. “The Social Mission of the Church and Nigeria’s Social
Problems”.in A Journal of Bigard Memorial Seminary.Enugu:Snaap
Press Ltd,2008
Oraegbunam, I.K.E. “Some Fundamental Problems in Nigeria Public Service
system: the Need for A Genuine work-Ethic” in Journal of Bigard
memorial Seminary. Enugu: Snaap press ltd, 2005
Ugwuoke, C.U. “Education without Morality: the case of Nigeria” in Nsukka
Journal of Religion And Cultural Studies Vol. 3 no1. Enugu: ProsPrints & Communications, 2010
Uzukwu, E.E. “Church-State Relations in the Early Church and the Crisis
facing the Christian Church in Nigeria” in Bulletin of Ecumenical
Theology. Enugu:Snaap Press Ltd,1989
91
Textbooks
Achebe, C. The Trouble with Nigeria. Enugu: fourth Dimension, 1983.
Anozie, M.O. “Corruption, Church and Society-Nigeria Situation” in J.
Madueke, J. Ezeokana & B. Obiefuna ed; The Church &
Development. Nimo: Rex Charles and Patrick Ltd, 2008.
Arinze, F.C. Gospel to Society. Enugu: Option Computer Solutions Ltd,
1990.
Barclay, W. The Daily Study Bible the Letter to the Romans. India:
theological Publications, 1955
Best, E. The letter of Paul to the Romans. London: University Press, 1967
Byrene, B.and Harrington, D. Sacra Pagina series Vol. 6 Romans.
Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1996.
Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria Salt of the Earth and Light of the
World Manual of the laity. Digital Frontiers solutions Ltd, n.d.
Catholic Secretariat of Nigeria, Civic Education Manual for Communities
and schools. Lagos: Gazub Prints Ltd, 2006
Dim, Emmanuel. The Christian And The Governing Authorities Romans
13:1-7. Onitsha: Tansi Publications 2009.
Ehusani, G.O. A Prophetic Church. Ibadan: Intec Printers Ltd,1996
Egbuogu, M.O. Christianity and the De-Sacralization of State Power An
Insight into the Theological Basis of Democracy. Enugu: Snaap Press
Ltd ,2006
Ekwunife, A.N.O. Politics And Religious Intolerance the Nigerians
Experience. Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 1992
92
Ezeogu, E.M. “Fully Catholic, fully Political: Exploring The Biblical
grounds for Active Christian participation in politics”. Enugu:
Kingsley’s Publishers, 2011
/
Ezeogu, E.M. Bible and Politics can Nigerian Catholics baptize the “Dirty
Game” of Politics? Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 2007.
Ezeanya, S.N. What It Means To Be a Christian In Our Time. Onitsha:
Tabansi Press Ltd, 1990.
Hick, J. An Interpretation of Religion: Human Responses to the
Transcendent. London: Yale University Press, 1989.
Ihejirika, W.C. “Nigerian Media and Political Development: A contextual
Analysis”. Port Harcourt: CIWA Publications, 2007.
Kaylor, D. Paul’s Covenant Community: Jew and Gentle in Romans.
Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1988.
Kukah, M.H. Democracy And Civil Society in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum
Books Ltd, 1999
Magesa, L. and Nthamburi Z. Democracy & Reconciliation: A Challenge for
Africa Christianity n.d.
Morris, L. The Epistle to the Romans. Michigan: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1988
Moo, D. The Epistle to the Romans: Michigan: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company 1996
Nwaigbo, F. “Democracy in Church and State: A Theological Challenge”.
Port Harcourt: CIWA Publications, 2003.
Ngwoke, E. Politics & Religion A Christian Perspective. Enugu: Snaap
Press Ltd, 2001
Obiefuna, B.A.C. You are the Light. Enugu : Pearl Functions Ltd,2000
Odey, J.O. Christians, Politics and the Nigerian Dilemma. Enugu: Snaap
Press Ltd, 1999
93
Okeke, G. “Justice and the Practice of Democracy in Nigeria”. Port
Harcourt: CIWA Publications, 2003
Okeke, V.M. You And the Common Good Pastoral letter 2007. Enugu: Snaap
pres Ltd, 2007
Okolo, C. “Squandermania Mentality: Reflections on Nigerian culture”.
Nsukka: University, Trust Publishers 1994
Okoye, J.I. “Governance and the question of virtue” in J.O. Oguejiofor ed;
Philosophy, Democracy and Responsible governance in Africa.
Enugu: Bigard Memorial Seminary, 2004
Oguejiofor,J.O “Contemporary African Philosophy: from identity to
governance”, in J.O. Oguejiofor ed; Philosophy, Democracy and
Responsible Governance in Africa. Enugu: Bigard Memorial
Seminary,2004
Onyema, A. “Some Moral factors necessary for Human Politics” in F.
Nwaigbo ed; The Christian in politics And the West African
Experience. Port Harcourt: CIWA publications, 2007
Omoregbe, J. Ethics A systematic and Historical Study. Lagos: Joja
Educational Research and Publishers Ltd, 1993.
Pilch, J. New Testament-6 Galatians and Romans Mubai: St. Pauls
Publishers, 2001
Pontifical Council for Justice & Peace, “The Fight Against Corruption”.
Awka: Fides Publications, 2006.
Ryan,P. The Role of Christians in Politics in Africa Today. Kenya Pauline
Publications Africa, 2002
Tasie, G.I.K. “Religion and Moral Depravity in Contemporary Nigeria”
Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 2005.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church. Ibadan: Intec Printers Ltd, 1994
Ugorji, L.I. Witness in Charity & Truth. Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 2002
94
Ugwu, B.I. “Factors that Militate Against the active involvement of
Christians” in Politics and Societal Transformation in Nigeria.
Enugu: Kingsley’s publications, 2011
Vatican Council II The Conciliar And Post Conciliar Documents. Austin
Flannery ed. Mumbai: St. Paul’s publications, 1975
Zerwick, M and Grosvenor, M. A Grammatical Analysis of the Greek New
Testament. Rome: Editrice Pontificio istituto Biblico, 1966.
95
Commentaries & Dictionaries
Aletti, J.N. Romans. The International Bible Commentary An Ecumenical
Commentary
for
the
twenty-first
century.Bangalore:Theological
Publications, 1998.
Allen, L.C. Romans New International Bible commentary. Michigan:
Pickeringand inglis Ltd, 1979.
Baird, W.,Blackman C.E. et-al Interpreters Concise commentary Acts &
Paul’s letters. Nashville: Abingdom Press, n.d
Dodd, C.H. The Moffat New Testament Commentary The Epistle of Paul to
the Romans. London: Hodder and Stoughton Ltd
Fitzmyer ,J. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall inc, 1990.
Gingerich,W. Shorter Lexicon of the Greek New Testament. Chicago:
University Press, 1979
Hunter, A.M. The Epistle to the Romans Introduction and Commentary.
London: SCM Press Ltd, n.d
Kaylor, D. Paul’s Covenant Community: Jew and Gentle in Romans.
Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1988.
Kasemann, E. Commentary on Romans. Michigan: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1980
Leenhardt, F. The Epistle to the Romans A Commentary. United States: The
World Publishing Company, 1957
Nygren, A. Commentary on Romans. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1972.
[
Stuhlmacher, P. Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Commentary. United States:
Westminister/John Knox Press, 1994.
Strong, J. The New Strong’s Expanded Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible.
Nashville Tennessee: Thomas nelson Inc, 2011.
96
Internet Materials
Byrne, D. “The Responsibilities of a citizen” www.ehow-com. Retrieved 1
April, 2011
Coleman, T.M. “Binding Obligations in Romans 13:1-7. A Semantic field
and social context”. http://www.tyndalehouse.com.retrieved 30 April,
2011
Grisez, G. “Living a Christian Life: patriotism, Politics and
Citizenship”.www.twotlj.org/G-2-11-B-html.Retrieved 15 June, 2011.
Herrick,
G. “Paul and
Civil Obedience Romans 13:1-7”
http://www.bible.org/article/paul/.Retrieved 18 March 2011.
MacArthur, J. “The Christian and Government the Christian’s Responsibility
to Government” http://www.bible.com.Retrieved 18 March, 2011.
Malick, D. “An Introduction to the book of Romans” http://www.bible.org.
Retrieved 25 June, 2011.
Morrison, M. “Romans 13 and Christians submission to Civil Government”.
http://www.dev.gov.org
Neufeld,M. G. “Submission to Governing Authorities: A study of Romans
13:1-7”. http://www.direction journal.org. Retrieved 30 April, 2011.
Pendola, R. “What are civic Duties”. www.ehow.com.Retrieved 1 April,
2011.
Rockefeller, J.D “Civic Responsibility”.
dictionary.com Retrieved 7 July, 2011.
http://www.
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/citizenship, Retrieved 1 April 2011
The
free