IΔΡΥΜA ΜΕΙΖΟΝΟΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΜΟΥ
Συγγραφή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος
Μετάφραση :
Τσοκανή Άννα
Για παραπομπή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος , "Silversmithery and goldsmithery of the
Orthodox Christians in Constantinople", Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού,
Κωνσταντινούπολη
URL: <http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx?id=11352>
Περίληψη :
Works of silversmithery and goldsmithery made by orthodox artisans in Constantinople serve as valuable attestations for the variety of artistic and
cultural movements that prevailed in the Ottoman capital during the Late Ottoman period. Silversmiths revisited decorative themes introduced by
their Byzantine predecessors and were also inspired by respective European artefacts of the late18th century rococo and neoclassical styles.
Another source of inspiration was the artistic tendencies of the mid-19th century, characterized by a leap backwards to the antecedent gothic,
renaissance and baroque artistic styles.
Χρονολόγηση
Late Ottoman Period
Γεωγραφικός εντοπισμός
Constantinople
1. Research – Study
In order to study the ecclesiastic and lay artefacts of silversmithery made by orthodox Christians in Constantinople during the Late
Ottoman period, one should initially consult the catalogue of relics belonging to the Ecumenical Patriarchate, which was drafted in
1937 by G. Sotiriou. Moreover, a significant number of artefacts from Ottoman Constantinople can be found in ambries of
monasteries located outside Turkey, as in Mount Athos, Patmos and St. Catherine Monastery of Mount Sinai, where artefacts made
in other parts of the empire – not just the capital city – are also located. Moreover, a significant number of ecclesiastical silverware
from Asia Minor, central Anatolia and the Black Sea, reached Greece along with the refugees after the population exchange between
Greece and Turkey in 1923. All these today are scattered in private collections, the Benaki Museum, as well as the Byzantine and
Christian Museum of Athens. Important studies by A. Ballian and Y. Ikonomaki-Papadopoulos, as well as catalogues for exhibitions
and private collections –for example the publication of silverware from the K. Notaras collection by K. Korre-Zografou– offer
valuable insight into the art of silversmithery as crafted by the Greek Asia Minor communities. The recent work by B. Pitarakis and
G. Merantzas is dedicated to the art of silversmithery by Greeks of Constantinople during the Late Ottoman Period. Within the
context of this study, the silverware of the collection owned by the late Sevgi Gönül is examined. These are currently exhibited at the
Sadberk Hanım Museum of Constantinople. Moreover, the contribution of G. Kürkman’s work on the subject of Ottoman imperial
ciphers (tuğra) on silver artefacts is valuable.1
2. Social and political context of silversmithery in Constantinople
It is not possible to describe a full picture of the developments in Ottoman silversmithery before the 18th century. We do know,
however, that until that time confiscation of material occurred frequently and that the aforementioned material was subsequently sent
to the foundry. In 1789 the Sultan Abdülhamid I issued a decree forcing his non-Muslim subjects to surrender their silverware to the
state. The Greek-Orthodox community was forced at the time to provide 5,000 okas (6,414.60 kg), the Armenian community 4,000
okas (5,131.70 kg) and the Jewish one 3,000 okas (3,848.80 kg). A similar decree had been issued earlier in 1755, while a third
one was issued right after the ascension of Selim III to the throne, on April 1789.
The Late Ottoman Period coincided with a time of modernization and europeanization; at that time a new era was introduced at the
Ottoman Empire with regard to the social and political history of its non-Muslim subjects. Mahmud II embraced European habits and
adopted a reform policy known as Tanzimât, which was characterized by favourable terms to other ethnic-religious minorities
inhabiting the Empire. The old prohibition on the construction of new religious buildings was repealed and both the reconstruction and
repair of churches was encouraged. This kind of favourable social and political climate assisted the development of a GreekOrthodox “aristocracy” including merchants, medical doctors, lawyers and intellectuals. Many of them were members of the Greek
Philological Association of Constantinople, founded in 1861, which produced important intellectual and charitable work. Both the
aesthetics and demands of this particular social class, which kept close relations with Europe, notably influenced the construction and
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IΔΡΥΜA ΜΕΙΖΟΝΟΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΜΟΥ
Συγγραφή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος
Μετάφραση :
Τσοκανή Άννα
Για παραπομπή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος , "Silversmithery and goldsmithery of the
Orthodox Christians in Constantinople", Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού,
Κωνσταντινούπολη
URL: <http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx?id=11352>
decoration of churches in the Ottoman capital.
In a significant number of extant silver artefacts, dedicative inscriptions are documented accompanied by the year the artefact was
dedicated or constructed, which is verified in some cases by the presence of the imperial cipher (tuğra). Silver artefacts dated after
the reformations of Sultan Abdülmecid I (1840), bear an extra seal (sah) along with the tuğra. The two seals certify the purity of the
silver. The dedicative inscriptions provide valuable information on the activities of guilds and confraternities, to which members of the
Greek-Orthodox community were enlisted. The community’s religious life was organized along a system of guilds and confraternities,
following a tradition dating back to the Byzantine era. These guilds were very active in both charitable and intellectual work.
Rich silver mines, located close to Trabzon and Argyroupoli (Gümüşhane) supplied the artisans of the Ottoman capital with raw
material, while the multicultural environment in the city provided the necessary fertile ground for innovations in design. The great and
constant demand for silver artefacts by several of the communities inhabiting Constantinople constituted the city a desirable
destination for specialized artisans originating from Anatolia and the Balkans.
3. Diffusion of artistic movements from Europe to the Ottoman Empire
Ecclesiastical utensils were made at the silversmith workshops of Ottoman Constantinople (chalices, patens, tabernacles, censers,
basins, pans, cups, candles, myrrh containers), devotional objects (icon revetments, oblations), symbols of priestly power (pastoral
staffs), as well as lay artefacts with versatile meaning and usage (phiales, patens, pans), artefacts of symbolic but also financial value.
In both cases the artefacts bore rich floral and faunal decorations originating from the contemporary European artistic movements in
Europe. These decorations in their entirety attest to the contribution of Constantinople to the greater network of intellectual, cultural
and artistic connections expanding in western and central Europe, the Balkans and Russia during the Late Ottoman Period. Indeed,
these decorative themes are part of the general process of the westernization and europeanization of the Ottoman Empire; this
phenomenon is also apparent in the development of other artistic expressions in Constantinople, such as architecture and painting.
The silversmiths of Ottoman Constantinople are responsible for fusing styles from different artistic traditions and reintroducing the
decorative patterns of their Byzantine predecessors of the 5th and 6th centuries. This process, however, was filtered through the
18th-century European neoclassical artworks, as well as the neo-gothic, renaissance and baroque trends that resurfaced from the
mid-19th century. Simultaneously, they developed an extensive relationship with the rococo style, which better expressed the
Ottoman character, as well as their love of flowers and gardens.
More specifically, the introduction and diffusion of the rococo style in the Ottoman Empire –while not, however, being able to
accurately define its earliest manifestations– was part of a lengthy modernization process and an attempt to approach Europe both
culturally and commercially; this attempt greatly benefited from contemporary diplomatic delegations. Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmed
Efendi, who visited France in 1721-1722 as a special envoy of the Sultan Ahmed III, brought back upon his return to Constantinople
architectural and decorative manuals. His impressions and experiences in Paris were often used by historians to prove the Ottoman
approach to the French civilization.
The fact that aspects of the French culture were enthusiastically adopted in the empire, a practice which was heightened during the
second half of the 18th century, came as a direct result of the diplomatic relations between the Sublime Porte and France, mainly due
to the mediation of the French ambassador Marquis de Villeneuve who convinced the Ottomans to sign the peace Treaty of Belgrade
in 1739. During the return of Mehmed Said Efendi, son of the aforementioned Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmed Efendi, two ships travelled
from Paris to the Ottoman capital carrying numerous objects, among which there were many pieces of furniture, as well as silver
artefacts.
From the second half of the 18th century European objects were imported en masse in Constantinople, as well as books with
decorative patterns, all of which advanced the dissemination of European styles and trends. The Ottomans welcomed the floral world
of the rococo style, as it was very similar to their aesthetic predilections. At the same time cultural life in Constantinople was marked
by the extended use of rococo and neoclassical themes with regard to architectural decorations. The public fountains built during the
18th century appear to be the earliest architectural constructions using the rococo style. This style was rapidly introduced,
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IΔΡΥΜA ΜΕΙΖΟΝΟΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΜΟΥ
Συγγραφή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος
Μετάφραση :
Τσοκανή Άννα
Για παραπομπή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος , "Silversmithery and goldsmithery of the
Orthodox Christians in Constantinople", Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού,
Κωνσταντινούπολη
URL: <http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx?id=11352>
subsequently, to the wall-mounted painting of mosques, palaces and houses, as well as silversmithery.
The neoclassical style in Constantinople was mainly applied in buildings constructed during the reign of Mahmud II. Indeed, its fusion
with the rococo tradition, dating to the 18th century, was equally popular at the beginning of the next century. Many of the
neoclassical buildings of Constantinople erected during the second half of the 19th century, were designed and built by European
architects, while the neoclassical style prevailed in ecclesiastical architecture. The façades of the new churches built in Constantinople,
as well as their templons, were built in the manner of ancient Greek temples with a triangular pediment and Corinthian capitals.
The Sultans’ interest in European aesthetics during the 19th century and their appetite for European artistic products is proved by the
visit of the Sultan Abdülaziz I in 1867 Paris as a guest-of-honor of Napoleon III for the Industrial Exhibition that took place at
Champs-Élysées. This singular fact marks the first and only time in the history of the Ottoman Empire that a Sultan visited a nonMuslim country. During his visit Abdülaziz was informed for the general decorative trends in silversmithery in different European
countries.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Constantinople was at the centre of a cultural, artistic and commercial network with connections
in Europe and the Balkans, which also affected ecclesiastical silversmithery. The transport of artists and merchants within this network
contributed to the exchange of religious objects, such as copper engravings, the decorative patterns of which also influenced
silversmiths. The circulation of the same engravings in Central Europe, the Balkans, Anatolia, Russia, Constantinople and Jerusalem
allowed the development of a homogeneous artistic expression and composition. Moreover, printed books reproducing rococo and
neoclassical decorative subjects, as well as religious themes taken from the western painting were easily acquired by the orthodox
silversmiths of the Ottoman capitals from printing houses in Venice, Paris, Amsterdam and Vienna.
Engravers, painters and silversmiths working in Constantinople were in close connection to their counterparts in Mount Athos, a
significant production centre of artistic art during the Post-Byzantine period. Equally important, as far as relations with the Ottoman
Empire capital were concerned, was the place of Russia. In churches of Constantinople –especially in the Ecumenical Patriarchate– a
great number of Russian ecclesiastical objects are kept, gifts by Czars and ecclesiastical officials. Sources refer to the presence of
Greek goldsmiths in Moscow, specializing in enamel at the Kremlin workshops, as early as the 17th century.
Along with Mount Athos and Russia, another greater area including Moldavia, Transylvania and Wallachia, constituted the third most
significant place for silversmithery during the Late Ottoman period. Documents and dedicative inscriptions on silver artefacts, kept in
important monastery centres such as Patmos, attest to the generosity of the Moldavian and Transylvanian princes. Also documented
in the sources is the financial support offered to the churches of Constantinople by the princes of Wallachia and Transylvania.
Moldavia, Transylvania and Wallachia inherited a great tradition in silversmithery, a legacy which appears to have contributed greatly
to the introduction of western elements in the Orthodox religious art. Goldsmiths and silversmiths working for Wallachian princes
created a fusion style combining the Byzantine iconographical standards with western manierisms, thus playing a key part in the
dissemination of the rococo and baroque styles to the Balkans and the silversmithery workshops in the capital.
Another area in the Balkans that became a significant centre for silversmithery during the 18th century was Epirus. Catalogues of a
census conducted by the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople indicate that the ecclesiastical silversmithery of Epirus was
transferred, due to the relocation of silversmiths, to Constantinople.
4. Ideological context of silversmithery in Constantinople
Most of the extant silver artefacts from the Later Ottoman period of Constantinople are religious objects appropriated for liturgical
use. There is, however, a small group of silver artefacts bearing lay decorations. Important information on the ideological context of
Late Ottoman Constantinople is obtained by these lay silver objects. Gods (eg. Athena) and heroes, kings and emperors (Alexander
the Great, Constantine the Great, Constantine Palaiologos) from the furthest and nearest Greek past, mythical personages and
subjects (eg. Laocoön, Dionysus, the abduction of Persephone), as well as lay symbols (zodiac signs) –themes, which at the same
time appear in western lithography and copper engravings as well as ceramic objects made from majolica that were manufactured in
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IΔΡΥΜA ΜΕΙΖΟΝΟΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΜΟΥ
Συγγραφή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος
Μετάφραση :
Τσοκανή Άννα
Για παραπομπή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος , "Silversmithery and goldsmithery of the
Orthodox Christians in Constantinople", Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού,
Κωνσταντινούπολη
URL: <http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx?id=11352>
England and France– comprised the popular subject matter of the Orthodox silversmiths of Constantinople. These subjects were a
part of a greater intellectual and cultural movement aiming to idealize Greek antiquity. Besides this archaeognostic iconographical
material, one must not forget that among the Greeks lay a belief in cultural superiority, as the recipients of these cultural objects
considered themselves the descendants of a common and continuous ancient Greek and Byzantine legacy. Greek demand for
historical unity resulted in the ascension of some highly symbolic phenomena, such as the revival of ancient mythological subjects, in
an attempt to stress the ancient roots and origin of Hellenism. Within this context, furthermore, the image of Alexander the Great was
revived; Alexander was a personage that remained alive within the collective popular memory, incarnating the amplification of the
national ideology and personifying the symbolic national unity of all Greeks.
1. For more details, see bibliography.
Βιβλιογραφία :
Μπαλλιάν Ά., Θησαυροί από τις ελληνικές κοινότητες της Μικράς Ασίας και της Ανατολικής Θράκης Συλλογές Μουσείου Μπενάκη, Αθήνα 1992
Ballian A., "Dedications and donors of the 17th to the 19th century church silver", Περιοδική Έκδοση «Μουσείο Μπενάκη», 1, 2001, 87-110
Ballian A., "Christian Silverwork from Ottoman Trebizond", Cultural and Commercial exchanges between
the Orient and the Greek World, Athens 1991, Center for Neohellenic Research – NHRF, 123-137
Μπαλλιάν Ά., "Εκκλησιαστικά ασημικά από την Κωνσταντινούπολη και ο Πατριαρχικός Θρόνος του Ιερεμία Β΄", Δελτίο Κέντρου Μικρασιατικών Σπουδών, 7, 1991, 54-60
Μπαλλιάν Ά., "Η Καππαδοκία μετά την κατάκτηση των Σελτζούκων και οι χριστιανικές κοινότητες από το 16ο έως το 18ο αιώνα", Μπαλλιάν, Α. – Πετροπούλου, Ι. – Παντελεάκη, Ν., Καππαδοκία: Περιήγηση στη Χριστιανική Ανατολή, Αθήνα 1993, 30-39
Ballian A., "Argyroupolis - Gümüşhane: Mining Capital of Pontos", Koromila, M. (ed.), The Greeks in the
Black Sea from the Bronze Age to the Early Twentieth Century, Αθήνα 1991, 229-241
Κορρέ-Ζωγράφου Κ., Χρυσικών Έργα, 1600-1900. Συλλογή Κ. Νοταρά, Αθήνα 2002
Οικονομάκη-Παπαδοπούλου Γ., Εκκλησιαστικά αργυρά, Αθήνα 1980
Οικονομάκη-Παπαδοπούλου Γ., "Τα εκκλησιαστικά αργυρά της Νέας Καρβάλης", Πρακτικά Β΄ τοπικού συμποσίου «Η Καβάλα και η περιοχή της, 26-29 Σεπτεμβρίου 1986, τόμ. Β΄, Καβάλα 1988, 3-47
Οικονομάκη-Παπαδοπούλου Γ., "Ασημικά, ξυλόγλυπτα, κοσμήματα", Συλλογές Ευάγγελου Αβέρωφ.
Ταξιδεύοντας στο χρόνο, Μέτσοβο 2000, 157-195
Σωτηρίου Γ.Α., Κειμήλια του Πατριαρχείου. Πατριαρχικός ναός και σκευοφυλάκιον, 1937 Αθήνα
Ikonomaki-Papadopoulos Y., "Church Metalwork", Manafis, K.A. (ed.), Sinai. Treasures of the Monastery
of Saint Catherine, Athens 1990, 263-307
Ikonomaki-Papadopoulos Y., "Church Silver", Simonopetra, Mount Athos, Athens 1991, 163-186
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IΔΡΥΜA ΜΕΙΖΟΝΟΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΜΟΥ
Συγγραφή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος
Μετάφραση :
Τσοκανή Άννα
Για παραπομπή :
Μεράντζας Χρήστος , "Silversmithery and goldsmithery of the
Orthodox Christians in Constantinople", Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού,
Κωνσταντινούπολη
URL: <http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx?id=11352>
Kürkman G., Ottoman Silver Marks, Istanbul 1996
Merantzas Ch., Pitarakis B., A Treasured Memory. Ecclesiastical Silver from Late Ottoman Istanbul in
the Sevgi Gönül Collection, Istanbul 2006
Δικτυογραφία :
Βυζαντινό και Χριστιανικό Μουσείο
http://www.byzantinemuseum.gr/
Μουσείο Μπενάκη
http://www.benaki.gr/index.asp?lang=gr
Γλωσσάριo :
corinthian order
The most elaborate of the ancient greek architectural orders. It was developed in the 4th century BC in Greece and it was extensively used in Roman
architecture. It is similar to the Ionic order. Its capitals being four-sided and composed of a basket-shaped body decorated with volumes and rows of
acanthus leaves.
pediment, the
The triangular structure, over a building façade, between the horizontal entablature and the sloping roof, often decorated with sculptures, reliefs or
painted figures.
templon or iconostasis
A structure separating the sanctuary from the main church. At first, it simply divided the nave from the presbytery, but later it
became higher, with small columns and an epistyle. From the 11 th century onwards, icons were placed between the templon columns
and, somewhat later, icons were also placed above the epistyle, thus forming the iconostasis. The templon were originally from
marble. Wooden iconostases appeared from the 13th century.
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