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THE WASON
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TC 502.H8F47
Memorandum
3
relative to the iMfoy.f,™!]!,,?,,
1924 023 951 993
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Memorandum
Hwang-ho
relative
to
the
Improvement
of the
or Yellow River in North-China.
VEREENIGING TER BEVORDEMNG YAN DE UITVOEKING VAN WERKEN
IN HET BUITENLAND DOOR NEDERLANDERS.
Erkend bii Koninklijk Besluit van 30 Januari 1889 N". 21.
MEMOEANDUM
relative to the
HWANG-HO
OR
Improvement of the
YELLOW RIVER
IN
:N"OI^Ti3:-OH:I]s^.^
BY
J.
W. EIJNJE YAN SALVERDA
G.
Advising Counsellor
to
the
Dutch Government for Hydrotechnic and Railway Affairs.
Commander and Kniyht of several Orders.
'President of the ^Society for the Promotion of Dutch Engineering Works abroad".
AND
REPORT
OF
CAPTAIN
P. G.
VAN SCHERMBEEK
Royal Dutch Engineers
AND
A.
VISSER
on their inspection of the Yellow River and
its
flooded districts in 1889.
Translated from the Dutch
BY
^1".
D. DICKIIVSOIV
Lecturer on the English Language and Literature.
THE HAGUE
MARTINUS NIJHOFF
1891
W^ IJ/S'
oon^TEn^TS.
Preface.
PART
I.
1.
Introduction.
2.
Genera] Description of the Course of the Hwang-ho.
3.
Mountain Kanges
North-China
in
which
more particularly influence the Course
of the
Hwang-ho.
4.
General Review of Loess-formations.
5.
Loess found on the Rhine.
6.
7.
On
On
8.
General Review of the Region throughout which the Loess in China extends.
9.
10.
the nature of the Rhine-Loess.
the Nature of subaqueous Loess in China.
Elevations of Loess.
Action of the "Water in Land Loess-formations.
11. Traffic
12.
Eoads
in the Loess.
Importance of Loess for Agricultural purposes.
13. Inhabitation of the Loess.
14.
Loess Districts considered from a Strategic point of view.
15. Origin of Loess.
16.
Loess in the undrained
17.
Lime Deposits
in the
Districts.
Rhine near Constance
in Switzerland.
18. Geological Formations in connection with the variations from Drained to Undrained Regions.
19.
General Review of the Air-Currents in Central -Asia, and of their Influence on the Humidity
of the Climate.
20. Rainfall
and Evaporation in Central Asia.
21. Relative
Temperatures in Central Asia.
22. Vegetation in Central Asia.
23.
Chemical Decomposition and Mechanical Decay of the Rocks in Central Asia.
24. Action of the
Wind
in the settling
down
25.
Atmospheric Dust.
26.
Formation of Sand and Gravel Deserts.
27. Salt-alloy.
of
Decayed matter.
VI
CONTENTS.
28. Climatic
Change
in connection
with the infiluenco exerted by the Physical Condition of the
Sun on the Metereological Condition of the Earth.
29. General Considerations on the influence of Metereological Conditions in China, Central Asia
and Mongolia,
in connection with
30. Influence of Climatic
31.
The
Dangers
to
Change.
Hwang-ho from
a Plydraulic point of view.
which the great Alluvial Lower Plain
34. South Easterly
35.
direction,
of the
Hwang-ho
36. Division of
Labour.
37. Division of the
River into an Upper, Middle and Lower Part.
38. Residence of the
Stafi^.
39. Conclusion,
1*ART H.
Introduction.
First Expedition from Tientsin to the
Second Expedition from Tientsin
The unembanked Yellow River
The Embankments along
The high Fore
the
Yellow River.
to the
in the
Yellow River.
Loess
Lower Yellow
district.
River.
shores between the Dikes and the River.
alloy.
Fall.
Velocity.
Cross-sections and Discharge.
Depth of the River and Gradual Elevation of
Estuary of the
river. Tidal flow.
The Hwang-ho
in Chihli
The Crossing
of the
Repair of Breaches.
Conclusion.
its
and West Shantung.
Emperors Canal or Yun-ho.
Breaches and Inundations.
Riverworks.
is
exposed.
for the Construction of Reservoirs
and proposal
Proposed Improvement of the River.
Mud
etc.
Oases.
32. Scientific investigation of the
33.
Mountain Kanges, Volcanic Action,
Bed.
along the River.
Preface.
It is now two years ago
Works abroad was started.
members
Its
G.
J.
W.
Society
for
FiJNJE VAN Salvekda, Advising Counsellor
Leemans
F.
the
Affairs,
to the
Dutch Q-overnment
for
Hydrotechnic
Chairman.
Government Chief Engineer
,
Promotion of Dutch Enyineering
the
are the following gentlemen:
and Railway
W.
since
Hydrotechnics
for
Superintendent of Rivers
,
,
Vice-President of the Royal Institute of Civil Engineers, Deputy-Chairman.
N.
H. NiERSTRASz,
Late
now
Royal Engineers,
the
of
Chief Engineer and Manager of the
Holland Railway Company.
J.
Cremer
T.
Member
,
Second Chamber of the States General
of the
Managing Director
,
of
the Deli (Sumatra) Railway Company.
M. Mees LL. D.
F. S.
Banker
,
VAN NiEROP LL. D.
,
,
and Vice-president
to the
Rotterdam Chamber of Commerce.
Amsterdam Bank, Member
Director of the
of the
Amsterdam Muni-
cipal Council.
J. J.
P. G.
A
VAN TiENHOVEN VAN DEN BooGAARD
VAN ScHERMBEEK
V^OLKFR
,
1
C.
VAN HaTTUM
I
1
H.
Kooij,
J.
Members
of
/
,
'
J.
Burgomastor of Werkendam.
\
'
J.
,
Captain in the Royal Engineers.
chief
the
Contracting-firnis
.
carried out
Spain
many important works
America
,
,
,
•
,
XT
have
that
1
1
1
in the Isetherlands,
of
T.
recent
•
1
years
T-,
Belgium, France,
Transvaal and elsewhere.
/
Hensterman, Engineer, Chief of the Technical Office „Nierstrasz" Amaterdum, Secret arij
and Treasurer.
11.
DE Makez Oyens, Banker.
J.
The aim
of the Society
the employment of Dutch capital
It is
on
this
apparent from
is
,
its
name.
Its
engineering and contracting
formation had for
skill
its
chief object
on foreign works.
ground that the Society enjoys the powerful support of the Dutch Government.
China has been the
first
country in which our
inducement
employment, the
direct
autumn
of
1887.
As a matter
interest
in
the
Netherlands,
being
the
Syndicate has endeavoured to obtain
heavy floods along the Yellow River
of course the tidings of these calamities
whose inhabitants had
to
conquer
nearly
territory in a death -grapple with the watery element, and to defend
constant encroachments of their unrelenting
foe,
it
in the
awakened the utmost
every
foot
of their
continually against the
PKEFACE.
VIII
The
of the
Society sent out an expedition to China
,
W.
by Mr. B.
Blijdenstein
These gentlemen
twelvemonth
Schermbbek
consisting of Captain P. G. van
& Bos,
Royal Engineers and Mr. A. Visser of the Firm of Contractors Volker
assisted
Civil Engineer.
,
reached
destination
their
in the
beginning of 1889, and remained a
in China.
Their
were
instructions
collect as
many
connected
with
supported by our Representatives in China, they should
that,
data as possible bearing upon the condition of the Yellow River and everything
it
from an engineering point of view.
to offer the services of our Society to the Chinese
I'ixing
At the same time they were empowered
Government.
their headquarters at Tientsin, oiir deputies
made thence two expeditions
to the
Yellow River.
The
Tsi-nan-fu,
East
Greenwich.
of
Mr. Visser
of
— May
1889)
28,
comprehended that part of the river, situated
Capital of the Province of Shantung, and Sz-sui-hsien, about 113°15'
the
The
chief
observations
of the
results
of
Schermbeek and
van
Capt.
were drawn up in a preliminary report, which was forwarded
Li-Hung-Chang
account
31
(March
first
between
Vice-roy
,
their
the
of
Province
Amongst
of Chihli.
to
other matters
and appreciation of the remarkable riverworks
inspection
His Excellency
it
contained an
for the closing of
the great breach of 1887.
The second journey (September 15
the
river,
occurred
from
but
a
down
Tsi-nan-fu
few
— November
6, 1889) extended to the lower part of
mouth, between which places several breaches had
the
weeks previously. The chief observations resulting from
communicated verbally
were
to
to
this expedition
Their Excellencies the Viceroy of Chihli and the Governor of
Shantung.
A
more
detailed report
communicated
tions
sources
of information,
has
dum
,
vations
an
Appendix
appears
relative
Chinese System.
,
an account
to
the
,
results of our researches
Van Schermbeek and
Capt.
now been drawn up by our
to the approval of the Chinese
[n
embodying the
by our deputies
to us
present
and
President,
based on the observa-
Mr. Visser and on other
,
is
herewith submitted
Government.
by Captain
of
,
the
P.
above
condition
G.
van Schermbeek
mentioned
of the
,
expeditions
annexed
to
together
with
Yellow River and
its
this
Memoran-
some obser-
management under
the
Memorandum
relative
Improvement of the
the
to
Hwang-ho or Yellow
river in North China.
Introduction.
In Mr. Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen's important work on Cliina
')
it is
reckoned that:
1
Geographical mile
=
1000 M.
Further,
=
1.797 h; 1
as
be
will
3.333
li
jj
=
seen
^
556.-'
in
§
-^_.
1855
M.
;
1
foot
=
0.309 M.
2, the length of the
Hwang-ho has been
reckoned as follows:
P* From the
origin or sources in the glaciers
to the Inner Yellow sea
2nd From Lan-tshou-fu
mountains
of the Tsi-shi
kilometers 3760
where
the mountain-stream has left the higher
range, to the Inner Yellow sea
From
3"^
the
mouth
of the Fonn-ho to the sea, being that part
view of an improvement of the
To give some notion
vement
in
kilometers 2650
river,
would
first
which
,
in
kilometers 1060
of the size of the river and of its possible impro-
comparison with European streams
length of the Danube from
require attention
its
it
may
be observed that the
source at Donaueschingen to the Black sea
is
kilometers 2806
The length
of the
Rhine between Basle and the North-sea,
i.
that part
e.
which has undergone improvement in the interests of navigation, is:
a. for one Rhine arm along the Waal, the Merwede, the Noord and
New Mouse
b.
in
and
Holland
for
kilometers
the two arms,
thus including the Lower Rhine and the
kilometers
Lek
Thus the length
with
nearly
1)
China.
of the
eigener
978" "^
Yellow river below Lan-tshou-fu corresponds very
that of the Danube,
Ergebnisse
824''-'^''
Reisen
Richlliofen. Berlin. Verlag von Dietrich Rcimer.
and the length of the Chinese river below the
und
darauf gegriindeter
Studien
von Ferdinand
Freiherr
von
mouth
Fonn-ho very nearly with that part of the Rhine below
the
of
which, according to the treaty of 1815, must be kept in a navigable
The Rhine was then
corresponding
neglected state,
a
in
Basle,
state.
the present
to
condition of the Yellow River, whereas, from insufficient survey and observations, no
clear
many
formed of the required river-improvements;
idea could be
disbelieved
most opposite views were expressed on this important subject,
and many varied projects of river-improvement were proposed. The Rhine was in a
in their efficacy; the
chaotic condition
on which
,
the motion of running water
problem was
was difficult to pronounce any opinion as the theory of
was then a science comparatively unknown. This scientific
it
,
wrapped in great obscurity, whilst the great economical advantages
were unappreciated except by a very few men of superior understanding,
still
of river-trade
and were not
fully recognised until after the construction of
The present generation have,
recognition
to
of the
imagine the utter
and inundations;
the
we have
limited
navigation
and
absolute
confidence
happen,
rarely
we
are
while
;
for
commercial intercourse;
900
a
fathers would have classed
first
feel
to
of
parts
of
situated
districts
tons
among
of 1000 Kilo's,
harassed
by
floods
On
nay
lowlands
far
the
in
the
tranquillity,
now but
which
is
still
nor at
the
wide-spread
progress and
in
which our
the myths.
rational ideas of river-improvement
to 1852 the river-improvements
than
2(jU
,
were carried into
1817
effect in
in the lower rivers in 1825.
were limited
have given
rise to
upper part of
to the
kilometers below Basle,
which especial consideration was shown
in
,
districts.
frequently
the transhipping into vessels of
the amazing development of the shipping trade,
1000
quence of the important foreshortenings
lower
us even
convinced that the above calamities will
development
Rhine extending to more
negociations
so
or
more and more with the
Upper Rhine below Strasburg, and
From 1817
the
ourselves
astonished any longer at
The
with,
We
rivers.
difficult for
it is
they can never prove so disastrous as in former times. Nor
with vessels of from
in the
the knowledge and
in
the very limited commercial intercourse.
lastly
we
and
things;
districts
the inhabitants
of
grown up
say,
of
state
some
of
identified
below high- water mark
to
misery
the smallest tonnage,
contrary
so
from an improved condition of the
resulting
benefits
unacquainted with the former
are
highways, the digging
and especially the construction of railways.
of canals,
and,
many
in
conse-
difficulties
and
the interests of the
for
During that period, httle or nothing was accomphshed in the lower
the river;
one seemed to be passing through a period preparatory for the
execution of those works, which though not begun until 1852, were then vigorously
pushed forward and have, on the whole, answered excellently
which had been formed
The outlay
of
to the expectations
them.
for these river
improvements amounted
to:
Gls.
From 1817
to 1851, thus in 35 years, along
or per
annum
or per year per kilometer
')
Diilcli
Guldens.
260 kilometers
1)
£
Sterl.
26.008544
2.167379
748000
61925
2857
238
£
Gls.
and from 1852 to 1885
for
a total length of 978495 Meters and exten-
rivers along
ding over a period of 34 years
or per
141.415948
11.784662
4.159292
346608
144524
12044
4250
854
167.424492
13.952041
171104
14259
annum
or per kilometer
and per year per kilometer
the whole improvement of the
while,
Rhine from 1817 to
1885 required an expenditure of
or per kilometer
should be observed here, that the outlay for embankments
It
in
above
the
Sterl.
the so called conventional
all
disbursements
the
as
figures,
exclusively defrayed by the landowners
works
these
for
is
not included
Holland
in
known than
so that they are less accurately
,
are
the state-expenses.
The great
river
appeared later on,
The above
ment
is
improvement which must be reckoned as having begun
even during the
required
example
to
of
Gl.
in
1852
2.466.000 or, as
59 "/g of the average annual expenditure.
fully
figures are purposely given here because the cost of river-improve-
generally
river is left
year an expenditure of quite
first
made
and because
light of,
The expenditure
found to
is
it
The Rhine
a prey to neglect.
itself,
this.
too
increases in proportion as the
in
Europe affords a very good
increase
proportionately
with the
greater or less depth required for navigation purposes.
On
relieved,
the other hand, the preponderant interests of districts which have been
partly
appreciation
,
or
entirely,
by the
improvements, have not met with due
river
and the manifold advantages furthered by the development of agriculture,
navigation and commercial relations have remained unappreciated, though they have
invariably counterbalanced the pecuniary sacrifices they have entailed.
Meanwliile,
dependent on the amount
and
river;
in
this
undrained part
of
of water,
this
reason
we
is
that the
and to
Central- Asia
suffer
be laid
down
navigation are
for
Hwang-ho has
of the
to pass through the
from the vicissitudes to which the
exposed.
shah allude
exhibited by Asian territories,
may
which nature has placed at the disposal
we mention
respect
surrounding peripheric region
For
which
requirements
the
briefly
to
the
distinctive
characteristics
the varied nature of which has caused
them
to be
classed as follows:
P' Central- Asia or the coherent continental region of the formerly undrained
water-basins.
The main
development.
It
South
,
West,
caracteristics
extends in
its
of
undrained
regions
are
found here in
full
leading features from the highlands of Thibet in the
Altai-range in the
and from the watershed of Pamir
to
the
to
the Chingan range in the East, being also in the
JSTorth
,
West
in
in contact
the
with
the undrained Eranian Highlands.
In
decay
,
this
region
are
found
the
geological
products proceeding from chemical
and from the mechanical crumbling away of the mountain stone
;
while the
removal
every solid deposit takes place exclusively through the action of the air
of
currents.
2ndiy_
is
drained
what
has
rpj^^e
by
off
comprehending the
peripheric region,
either
rivers,
around
extended
gradually
the former to the sea, and
Besides these two principal regions, there
A
3'^'^'y.
transition-zone,
which of
in
parts have
places:
hitherto undrained
still,
main, retained the characteristics of
in the
second they have not yet entirely lost those of the peri-
in
pheric
would therefore be a mistake
It
many
is in
late years districts
Central-Asia, and
regions.
the removal of
water, or where an opposite process has taken place. In
for their
those
case,
first
This region
etc.
liere
brought about by the action of the water-streams.
is
have found outlets
water
an easterly direction to the sea, or westerly to
in
time was the sea, to the Caspian sea, the Ural lake
at one
geological products
the
districts of v^hich the
the
suppose that the hmits between
to
Central-Asia and the peripheric region are everywhere very clearly marked out.
The materials which
to
in
second region are swept
the
down the
rivers tend
change the basins of the lakes into valleys, to the formation of broad alluvial
plains,
to
the
the
of
raising
sea-bottom
the river-mouths,
at
and
finally
to
supply those constituents formed in the sea by the action of the rains and of animal
life.
In consequence
mouth
of the
of the
that
rivers
be cut through by clefts
Its
basins,
difference
empty themselves freely
rocks become exposed
its
down
,
The
difference therefore
between the upper and lower course
On
exclusively to
the
other
the
difference
between the source and the
into the sea, the
its
mountain
will
dechvities wilder and steeper.
in pretty nearly horizontal layers in the
the bottom of the sea.
defined.
in height
sedimentary deposits, will gradually empty themselves and these
full of
deposits will settle
at
,
great
fill
in
of rivers, will
hand the materials
up the cavities and
in
become more and more sharply
the
to level the
deepest vales and
between mountains and valleys,
undrained districts will serve
.
uneven bottom-surface, by which
height between the mountains and the valleys will decrease more
and more.
Thus the
for
vegetable
soil in
life,
from the operation
of
the
salt
the peripheric regions
whereas
of
in the
is
supplied with the components requisite
undrained regions,
the atmosphere
is
the decayed matter resulting
unsuitable to agriculture and
is
the cause
steppes with their Nomadic tribes; a region where no trees or shrubs
can be developed.
General Description of the Course of the Hwang-ho.
According to Mr. von Richthofen, the source of the Hwang-ho
Northern
Thibet
Khukhunor country,
the
^or
mountains, forming a mountain chain
of
the
the
which leap up out
eight
nine
or
springs,
glaciers
of
is
situated in
the
Tsi-shi-han
Kwen-lun system, and according
the
the Chinese Chwang-fu, in
Hsing-Su-hai
the
in
and
ground
of the
the
in
glitter
to
from
Expanse, so called
Starry
or
moonlight.
The strongly curving upper course
kilometers'
through
length,
the
a height as
rupted
time
in
has
it
little
Tsi-shi-shan
a
north-easterly
the
quitted
i)
,
chain,
region
,
and
pursues
whose undrained basins and
with the
evaporation,
or
In
river.
this
the
indeed that
so
its
and frequently
broad
somewhat along the
bed, like that of
divided
into
shallow
foot of the Yin-shan
ridge of the Mongolian steppes, which
luxuriant
vegetation.
themselves
stretch
situated
')
of
at
about 1000
By
this
along
the
direction.
course
its
,
uninter-
have not yet been
rain
is
carried off by
received into the salt lakes, so that the river, for a long distance,
does not receive a drop of water and no doubt decreases
more
an
in
length
salt lakes
region
quits
It
Lan-tshou-fu
of
and afterwards nearly northern
peripheric
way
its
Kwenlun.
thence
and steppeland along a
brought
connection
the
west
streams on
steppe region of Ordos,
into
of
1000
first
stream winding
watered mountain
richly
mountain-
through
forms along the
river
mighty mountain range
the
seems of about 1250 M.
it
course
kilometers
wild,
of
mountains at the
high
these
a
valleys
of this
From
these
is
all
not inconsiderably; the
loess-rivers, is at certain places
arms.
This
state
of things
very
improves
mountains forming the southern mountainintersected by wide clefts overgrown with
heigths
descend several
streams which
empty
into the river, enabling Chinese agricultural populations to settle on the
of land
just
between the
seems
opposite,
These heights, and
all
foot
also
of this
at
mountain-range
some
earlier
and the
period to have
those that follow, are invariably reckoned above sea-level,
river.
been a
Ordos,
fertile
6
and
loess-
from the north. The Hwang-ho continues
sand
the
Forkon-gol
or
supply of water.
south
straight
have been buried under the
alluvial plain, but appears at a later date to
provinces Shensi and Shansi and, having received on
the F6nn-ho, flows on
its left
is
till it
checked in
prolongation of the above
named mountain range
unable to break through,
it
the
Tung-Kwan
of
fortress
Hwang-ho streams
the L6-ho and on
right
its
between
the
of the
course at the foot of the eastern
its
Ewenlun system
of the
sharply to the east and pursues
curves
abundant
of latitude, along the border- hne
of six degrees
length
receives
it
till
with an
districts
the point of confluence with this river, the
At
the
which supplies
river
rapid
easterly course
its
these
granite
its
and being
,
course past
and
mountains Ta-Hwa-shan
Fong-tiau-shan.
Notwithstanding
important river
in
length
its
of
and the rocky character of its bed
stream
its
course, and that near the mouth.
,
The Lo-ho
more
stfll
consequence of the swiftness of
in
,
is in
same
the
pre-
Hwang-ho is greatly increased by these two
by the Weiho, which, rising in Kan-su in the Kwen-lun
so
of the
streams in a northerly direction along the foot of the Kwenlun, and easterly
range,
from the Ta-Hwa-shan mountains.
mountain range
the
most
the
although
navigable along but a small part of
the principal river of the province of Shensi
,
The water supply
affluents, but
,
Fonn-ho,
the
kils.,
the province of Shansi, is,
its
dicament.
556
of
It is joined
by several streams from the opposite
of Hsi-ngan-fu and flows into
Kan-su and from the great loess-plain
Hwang-ho just above the fortress of Tung-kwan.
The Hwang-ho rolls on its waters eastward between the mountain
range, through
the narrow passage of I-Ti-tshu, a distance of about 230 kflometers below the
Weiho. By the fortress
of the
between two
inclosed
height of 60 M.
of
loess walls
,
Tung-kwan, the
river,
mouth
here 773 meters across,
,
and on the southern bank form a terrace 245 meters high.
breadth of 773 meters
is
is
which on the northern bank rise to a perpendicular
considered very narrow, and yet
This
does not prevent the
it
from being choked up with shallows and sandbanks. In this mountain region,
river
along
its
bank
of
whole length, we meet with loess walls now on the
the
extremely
river
difficult.
while
in this
greater
river
of rapids occur
now
on the
left
making navigation
These rapids result partly from the rocky nature of the riverbed
and partly from the sandbanks
divide the
part a series
right,
into
,
which
numerous arms,
depth than 0.93, and
in
,
in
spite
so that
many
of the
swiftness of the stream
the shipping cannot reckon upon a
parts only 0.31 M.
At
the termination of
the above mentioned length of 230 kilometers, the northern range of Tai-Hang-Shan
recedes in a northerly direction
first
,
while the river
pursues
its
course eastward
along the foot of the southern range for a distance of about 90 kilometers during
which
,
it
receives the Lo-ho on the right bank, and then through the alluvial plain
where the Tsin-ho
where the
joins
it
on the
left
bank, to below Kai-fong-fu, near the spot
old channel of the river, tiU 1852,
the river winds in a north-easterly direction
with
still
many
,
curved
away
to the south-east.
north of the Shantung range
,
and fiows
bends through the great alluvial and sometimes morassy plain,
reaches the Gulf of Petchili into which
it
flows. In this alluvial plain,
Thence
till
it
embankments
have been thrown up along the whole length
of the river beginning at the termination
of the Loess wahs.
The
Shansi
thus
river
Kansu
through
and
streams through the
Mongoha;
along
the
border
of
also forming the border of the provinces Shansi
;
Khu-Khu-nor
of
districts
provinces
the
and Honan
in
Thibet,
Shensi and
thence through
;
Honan, Tschih and Shantung. Below the mouth of the Tsin-ho begins that part of
the Hwang-ho in the above-named alluvial plain which has given rise to its surname
,
of China's sorrow.
which indeed
In this plain
in the lapse of
,
flow in any direction,
the river could, so to say,
time has occurred. In the year 2000 before Christ the
river,
,
according to Mr. von Eichthofen, followed the same course as at present, to within
a distance of from 37 to 74 kilometers east of Hwai-king-fu
easterly
navigable
in
not to be counfounded with the affluent
river,
Hwang-ho
flows into the
,
when it flowed in a northThis Weiho is a fine
of the same name which
through the present valley of the Wei-ho.
direction,
at
Tung-Kwan.
First, for a distance of 55' kilometers,
flows
it
a northerly and subsequently in a north-easterly direction, and forms the conti-
nuance of the waterway,
under the name of the Great Emperor's canal,
which,
connects Peking with Nanking. The Hwang-ho followed the bed of the
55-'
first
kils.,
and then flowed on
in a northerly direction, parallel
hang mountain range, 185' kilometers
these
The numerous
all
sea.
split into
nine arms, the most northerly of which
at 39^"
itself
north latitude into
These arms traversed the present bed of the Pai-ho, where to this very
day the proofs are
ancient dikes
larly
with the Thai-
rivers that descend from
flowing through the plain into the Pai-ho near Tien-
Further down, the Hwang-ho
flowed between Peking and Tien-Tsin to empty
the
for the
mountains, flowed at that time into the Hwang-ho, and form at present a
network of watercourses,
tsin.
further.
Weiho
from
whicli
,
still
,
be
to
found,
higher and
in
numerous peculiar
and evidently very
stronger than those of the Pai-ho
,
run perpendicu-
its channel.
Until the year 602 B. C. the
Hwang-ho seems
to
have followed
taking a north-easterly direction not far from Wei-hwei-fu.
one with that of the Wei-ho as far as Ta-ming-fu,
eastward to Tung-tshang-fu
,
and
stifl
further
down
this course
Its channel
,
then
formed then
where one arm swept round
joined the course of the present
Etwang-ho. The connection between this affluent and the main stream
is
not however
particularised.
From
the
the year 602 B. C.
of the
direction
until
1194 A. D. numerous changes took place in
stream, which had however no influence on the main current.
During that period several breaches seem to have occurred through which the water
streamed
In
a south-easterly direction to the Hwai-ho.
in
the year 1194 A. D. this northern direction
bed became
displaced from
direction south
itself at
It
of the mountain range of
Shantung
,
river's
to stream in a south-easterly
so that the river then emptied
about 34" north latitude into the Outer Yellow Sea.
followed this direction
have altered
easterly
was changed, and the
somewhere about Kai-fung-fu,
its
direction.
course,
until
about 1852. After this
between the years
Nevertheless
it
was not
1851
— 1853,
it
seems gradually to
into
the present north-
until the year 1870, that this fact
was
made
known
through
forsaken
of
Royal
the
Geographical
by him
Nanking
from
to
neighbouring
Hwai-nang-fu and
the
discovered
a
higher than
little
bed was inclosed between two strong dikes and
This
at high water
determined the breadth of the old stream
moreover a low water channel
with
river-bed
old
bottom about the same height or a
flat
landscape.
March 1869, respecting the
in
that occasion he had followed the Great Emperor's
On
1852.
in
breadth of 1300 M. and a
the
Journal
has nothing to communicate, having received none but
R,ichthofen
replies to the inquiries set on foot
indefinite
Canal
„
Respecting the important occurrence which caused this alteration in the
Society".
stream Mr. von
channel
columns of the
the
a)30ut
mark, whilst
it
inclosed
200 Meters broad and 4 Meters deep. The two
extreme outer channels, the one of 2000 years before Christ and the one of 1194
A.
D,
and
a triangle of which the top
inclose
which the basis
of
Opinions
teristics of
the
an
is
of about the
is
same
situated about 600 kilometers inland
length.
as to the nature of this plain.
differ
Some
ascribe to
it
the charac-
alluvial delta, whilst others consider it as a dejection-cone built
Hwang-ho with the
swept along by
loess
it in
infinitely fine
up by
powder, such as
is
frequently the case with mountain streams. The difficulties the river had to encounter
in
getting
channel.
across
my
In
this
would account
conical plain
opinion however
with what
is
conclusion
can be arrived at,
for the periodical
removal of the
extensive plain corresponds more accurately
this
generally understood by a delta than a dejection-cone, but no definitive
the levels and other scientific observations have
till
been taken.
It is further stated
everywhere with the
mud
that the loess carried to this plain by the wind
down by
slime brought
The great number of
rivers,
having formed
is
mixed
the river.
in this plain
formerly delta-branches
Hwang-ho, have now an independent course. Amongst these are
the Pai-ho with its numerous accessory streams, that descend from the Thai-hang
range, and the Hwai-ho, no less remarkable for its extensive network of affluents.
or
arms
of the
by
Both rivers have,
formation of the great plain, one very
mountainous
is
district of the province of
supposed to have been an
The length
of the
and
inundations
their
deposits,, contributed to the
alluvial
peculiar
part of which
Shantung which
,
at
is
some
taken up by the
prehistoric period
island.
according to measurements from the
river,
taken at 3760 kilometers, as has already been mentioned
in §
1.
map may
be
The maps however
have been drawn on too small a scale
for
anything like accurate measurements,
and do not allow
the
curves of the river,
measurements
purpose
this is
will
sufficient
doubtless
length
return
however immaterial,
for
us
very different figures.
so
that
future
For the present
for in the case of really serious river-improve-
ments, the length of the river would be considerably shortened, by the cutting off
any case future measurements would eventually differ from
of the curves, so that in
any taken
at present.
For a general survey of the river the distances
are given in the following table:
for certain principal points
m
Distances
kilometers.
in
Ieg
O)
s
©
a
+=
i5
03
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLACES.
o
6
M
o
J3
S a
CD
O
J3
OBSERVATIONS.
o o
'"^
f^
03
f^
Sources in the Tsi-shi-range
....
Between Tung1110
Lantshou-fu
.
at the
mouth
i;
1110
.
1010
Ho-K5u
Kwan
Mouth
POnnho
of the
J)
2700
580
Weiho
of the
2810
690
Tung-kwan
kilo-
from
meters
)»
110
Mouth
Shan-
is
tshou at 85
580
the
moun-
tain-pass
)»
2120
of the P5rkon-gol.
and
I-Titshu
Tungkwan.
11
110
14
?;
11
;;
2824
704
124
2934
814
234
110
Mountain-pass near I-Titshu
.
38
Yen-ku-hsien
71
11
))
2972
852
272
J)
)1
3043
923
11
11
3228
1108
528
3423
1303
723
3533
1413
833
3760
1640
1060
Eastern extremity of the northern I'ange along
the Hwang-ho
185
Perry at Kai-fong-fu
J)
195
Emperor's canal.
.
343
11
110
Tsi-nan-fu
....
227
Mouth
the
of the
Hwang-ho
The
river borrows its
of
the yellow loess floating in
sufficient
to
to be
as far as
Tung-Kwan
According to
;
and
the swiftness of the current seems to be
On
the other hand the river downwards, as far as Mong-tsin-hsien
impeded by cross mountain ridges which
rise
and are partly covered with loess. Navigation here,
not only difficult, but even dangerous.
river
it.
at Shan-tshou (a
prevent any deposit of sand or slime so that the course of the river
uninterrupted.
seems
is still clear
209 kilometers down the river from the junction of the F6nn-ho)
from here upwards
is
name from
above-mentioned Chinese Chwang-fu, the stream
distance
is
in the Inner Yellow- Sea
up within the bed
in the
of the
mountain passes,
2
10
Moiinlain
in
ranges
North China which
more
paiticularly
The mountain ridges
3.
§
Hwang-ho
North-Cliina and
in
Central-Asia,
which
with
concerned, are in general features as follows:
is cliiefly
in-
Uuence the course
The
a.
of
West
nearly from
mountain ridges running
parallel
to
East
Tarym
forming the Kwen-lun system which constitutes the southern boundary of the
the Hwang-ho.
basin. It joins the elevated steppe-country or
with
extends to the
this,
range
Highlands of Khor and, in combination
partly to the South as far as the high mountain
West and
Himalaya system; the whole
the
of
and
of this elevated steppe-country
being
bounded to the South-East by the mountain ranges of the Sinian system.
The Kwen-lun system
forms
also
in
part the
south-easterly
the
of
limit
Tarym
basin. It contains, between the two chief mountain ridges the Hsi-king-shan
and the Tsi-shi-shan the Starry sea or the springs of Hsingsu-hai. Here rises the
Hwang-ho which has forced for itself a very winding passage through this range and
,
,
having reached Lan-tschou-fu, flows
direction
U,
it
first in
a northerly and afterwards in an easterly
south of the In-Shan mountain ridge. Streaming in the form of an inverted
,
incloses the districts of Ordos
,
and then flows on southward
tiU it is joined
by
the Wei-river on the borders of the provinces Shensi, Shansi, andHonan. It streams
thence
below Kai-fong-fu, from where
a nearly easterly direction to Seu-hing,
in
the river streamed
until
1852
The present
Hwai-ngan-fu.
a south-easterly direction to the Yellow-sea near
in
river
alters
its
course
Seu-hing
at
and
flows
in
a
north-easterly direction until
it
reaches the Gulf of Pe-tschi-li.
The Kwenlun system
is
intersected pretty nearly in the direction of north to
and thereby divided into an eastern and a westerly part, by the branch of
south,
the Hwang-ho, called the Tau-ho, which flows into the main river below Lan-tschou-fu.
The eastern continuation
comprehends the mighty mountain ridges, the
and the Hsiung-orr-shan
Tsing-hng-shan
its
of the range
junction with the
Hwang-ho,
extending southward of the Wei-river and
,
to the province of
Honan above
Kai-fong-fu.
These
mountain-ridges disappear abruptly under the alluvial loess plains, but reappear with
the mountain ridges of the Sinian system, in the province of Shantung and to the
north-west of Nanking.
The mountain range forming the Sinian system which, extending south,
b.
joins
the
Kwenlun range
in a direction
very nearly south-westh to north-east, and
extends likewise to the province of Honan.
The eastern Kwenlun
and South China
of
;
or Tsing-ling range
forms the division between North
the watershed between the river system of the
the Yang-tsze-kiang
;
and the separation between the
mountains to the north, and the
loess-free
mountainous
Hwang-ho and that
loess covered highlands or
districts to the south.
The Sinian system with the granite and gneiss formation
schiefer range
Ordos
of the
;
the chalky mountains
district
extei]d eastwards
to
;
and
finally the coal deposits
of the crystalline
form the boundary
on the south-east and of the Hwang-ho on the north.
the
great
alluvial
loess
plain
through
They
which the Hwang-ho
has streamed in so widely different directions.
General
Review
§
of
Loess-forrnations.
Europe
,
4.
Looss
moro
Is
a peculiar
especially
in
the
kind
of soil
valley of the
which
is
met with
Rhine and
in
many
parts of
along the Danube. This
11
loess
attains
locally
of from
a thickness
respects similar, but in
many
100 to 200
A
feet.
formation in some
very different, covers the surface in China and the neigh-
bouring countries, throughout such an immense area, and rises to such enormous heights
that
its
economical significance in Europe can scarcely be compared with that
The information respecting
a proper understanding
to
mentioned work on China, by
Loess
such
solid
River,
is
in Asia, indispensable
borrowed from the previously
von Richthofen.
JVlr.
,
masses, that
hundreds of
rise
and steppe formations
a brittle sort of earth of a brownish yellow colour which
powder between the
to
is
is
loess
of the Yellow
fingers,
and which
perpendicular
its
is
is easily
walls,
even undermined by water, often
made us acquainted with the
this peculiarity that has
The elements of which
it
reduced
found nevertheless, compressed into
feet high, breaking to pieces or falling in as the case
mighly deposits.
in Asia.
may
be.
It
inner composition of these
consists are so extremely minute, that
on separating the earthy from the sandy components, the former will force their
way
through the pores of the skin
What
quantity behind.
of loess
is
,
leaving the fine grains of sand in greater or less
considered as one of the most remarkable characteristics
is
the nature of the sand found in
of being rounded,
which are
constituents,
it,
which
sharp and angular instead
is
and which, by repeated washing, can be separated from the clayey
yellow colour from the
also
present in
presence
large
of iron;
quantities,
tinged
a light brownish
finally attention should be
drawn
to the
presence of carbonate of lime which can be shown by treatment with acids, or even
be seen, in a measure,
with- the naked eye. These easily distinguished constituents
away such immense
mightiest among them, the
get separated by the rivers, which in the loess districts sweep
quantities of the „YeUow Earth" or Hwang-tu, that the
Hwang-ho, has borrowed its name from it. The stream performs the washing process
by which the different constituents are separated, and the sand settles down in the
bed of the river, which as a rule is thus rendered shallower, or divides into arms
between ever increasing sandbanks, becoming thus more and more unsuitable to
navigation.
The clayey constituents on the other hand,
neighbouring districts
or are carried
when
the river overflows
its
either
banks, thus
downwards with the slowly moving sand
spread
fertilizing
to the sea,
over
the
the
soil,
where they form
deposits which cause shallows and a gradual extension of the coast line seaward. In
same way the lime constituents, and the ever recurring and easily dissolved
alkalis or, the more strictly speaking chlorate and sulphate are borne down to the
the
sea or partly retained in the rich alluvial
The nature
Loess in China
as
is
chiefly
soils.
varies according to its formation above or below water.
of loess
formed above water, in the
air.
to its correspondence in nature with European Loess,
always formed in the water, and gave
loess occurring along the
§ g.
The
ptiy_
Upwards,
1)
See part
rise to various
III of
Rhine
is
is
views and
met with:
in various places along the river at
my Review
This caused uncertainty
which
always or nearly
theories.
ij
a height of a 100 meters
of some rivers, including the Dutch rivers.
L^ess found on the
Rhine.
12
and more above the present average
in
form
the
parallel
of
level of the Rhine. It has here
which are found on both
terraces,
sides
of the
been deposited
mountain slopes
These loess layers have often a thickness of from
to the axis of the valley.
60 to 70 meters aud contain the bones of mammalia and innumerable land
which correspond
damp
lake
with those met with at present, in the cold and
respects
all
regions of northern countries.
The
and
in
shells,
origin
of this loess
conglomerate
schist
Constance
of
easily
is
correspond
shown,
the constituents
for
lake- loam
white
with the
and with that of the Rhine-loess below
the formation of both loams from the
named conglomerate
is
beyond
nate of lime in the loess,
other mountains than
all
crushed and worn
We
doubt.
shows that the
off
of the slate
occurring
Constance,
the
in
so
that
remains of the above
must however remark that the carboRhine formerly came into contact with
the case at present. Thus the loam in the lake of Constance
is
contains 37, the Rhine loess 20 to 25; and on the other hand the actual Rhine
below Bonn but 8 or 3.64
mud
of carbonic salts.
"/(,
was formerly supposed that loess could settle down in a lake only later
on, that it was more readily formed under water, but my own judgment leads me
to agree with the acute observations of Mr. Collomb, who has endeavoured to prove,
that Rhine loess is nothing else but mud which, being swept down the rivers and
It
;
streams together with huge masses of
of the
valleys
Vosges and
of
ice
the glacial period, has
in
filled
up the
the Schwarzwald. In the opinion of Mr. Collomb this
crushed stone, carried down within the ice-bergs, must, in every case where this
occurred, have formed moraines, thus making natural basins for the reception of the
and
waters,
offering
the
to
the opportunity of sinking
walls
ice-crushed
down
in the
mountain passes and valleys
of the
form of
fine
mud. This keen observer has
show that there are abundant proofs which bear evidence to
the former presence of numerous huge masses of ice, so that the theory of their
having been the means by which all the Rhine loess may have been formed is not
by any means venturesome.
2ndiy_
Downwards where it has been demonstrated that a layer of loess extends
further endeavoured to
,
beneath very nearly the whole valley of the Rhine: for traces of loess have been
found up the river as far as Cologne,
district
of Geldern, and on the right
of
loess
this
at
on the
bank
great depths justifies
left
bank as
far as Straelen in
far into the Lippe-district.
the theory
of its
the
The presence
settlement or
formation
in water.
§ 6.
Nature of the Rhineloess.
The nature
of this loess
Rhine railway bridge at Wesel, at
of the
was
carefully
examined
Hamm near Dusseldorf,
,
and
at the construction of the
also during the
deepening
Rheinpreussen mine-shaft near Homberg, the special object in view being to
determine
its resisting
The borings
to a depth
of 21.98
for
power and what
this
purpose in
effect
the
streaming water might have upon
alluvial soil
it.
below Wesel were carried
M. beneath the surface. Those on the right bank of the Rhine,
down to a depth of 7 M., the usual alluvial matter of the
close to the bank, yielded,
Rhine plain, consisting of a mixture of sand and gravel, and under that a layer of loess
13
presenting
bank
same
the exact
Rhine
of the
characteristics
down
was encountered
this layer
depth of 21.98 M. On the
to a
left
at a depth of 10.13 M. and, at the first
river-pier near the right bank, at a depth of 7.57 Meters.
The masses
dissolved
state,
which were
brought up in the boring-pipes were in a completely
of loess
which caused some anxiety as
down
to reach
the stability of the bridge-piers
to
into the loess-layer.
was found
After being carefully cleansed, the loess obtained in this boring,
to contain 80.9
"/(,
The sand consisted
clay
,
oxyde
and
of sand,
of iron
extremely
chiefly of
and the
,
muddy
19.1 •/„ of a
matter.
quartz grains, of a small part of
fine
shells of Crustacea.
The mud contained the same constituents as the clayey deposit which
down
in
when
the Rhine
in
settles
swollen or troubled state, and corresponded in
a
its
chemical composition, with clay rich in ferruginous and organic constitaents.
The
3.64
trifling alloy of
to the shells of Crustacea
,
"/q
of carbonate of lime
and partly
was
partly to be attributed
to the precipitation of the originally free carbons
Rhine, from the dissolved bicarbonate of hme.
in the
Thus,
in point of fact, the
distinguished from
matter brought up
common Rhine
mud among the
the
account of the clayey
,
in
the borings,
was not
to be
deposits, and should be reckoned, chiefly on
loess-layers
containing but
,
lime which
little
,
occur in the Rhine-valley.
The
„
loess matter obtained at Dusseldorf
Rheinpreussen " has not
seem
to
belong to
the
so far as
,
same
layer.
is
known
differs
It
and
admixture of the quartz-sand and the
from
darker colour.
The nature
as the
at
same;
it
of the loess-layer at
Wesel, encountered no
sand-
and
attracted
therefore
gravel-layer,
Hamm
,
deepening the mine-shaft the
,
but would
from the Wesel deposits only by a
different
its
in
been carefully analysed
,
mud which
distinguished
is easily
Homberg and Wesel, may
be considered
attention, that the tubes used for the borings
less resistance after reaching the loess-layer,
than
in the
though the muddy mass brought to the surface had led to
other conclusions.
Still
through the
thick,
more remarkable was the
loess.
moving
difficulty
experienced in forcing the screw-tap
This bore was attached to an iron rod 18.84 M. long, and 0.013 M.
freely
and almost without
three inch (0.078 M.) tube.
The
friction
difficulty
along
a length of 17.27 M. in a
recurred at three different borings
showed the firmness of the loess-layer, and ceased to be observable
layer,
;
it
original
having been disturbed and mixed with water, had become softened.
The firmness
of the
when the
two
of the loess-layer
piers for the Rhine-bridge "at
was
further demonstrated at the foundation
Hamm.
This
was accomplished
by pneumatic machinery, the edges of the receivers being sunk several
in
both cases
feet into the
loess-layer.
This presented an opportunity for examining the original nature of the deposit
which turned out
to be so hard that the
lumps could only be broken with axes.
Later on one of the piers gave way, which was at first supposed to have
been caused by the upheaval of the deeper-lying layers in consequence of water-
u
pressure from below; but
certainty, ascribed to other causes, the
possessing the properties of quicksand and being
not
loess-layer
now, with
is
it
to offer resistance to water-pressure. This opinion, far
collapse
„
the
of
much
better able
from being weakened by the
has been strikingly upheld by the results obtained in the
pier,
Rheinpreussen " mine.
The mine shaft
had been sunk
„
Rheinpreussen
"
near Homberg, on the
left
1871 to a depth of 136.90 M. below the Rhine
in
was accomplished with pneumatic machinery and the bottom
thick had been reached
when
,
below, and the shaft,
bank of the Rhine
The sinking
level.
of a loess-layer
58 M.
the air-shaft burst through the upheaval of the earth
was
for the greater part,
filled
up.
Before the accident the
had indicated a pressure of no more the 2| atmospheres,
although the bottom of the shaft, when the ground-water was low, was 71.59 M.
manometer
in the air-shaft
under the surface of the water.
As however under
tenance
to prove
to
the pressure of a water-column 71.59 M. high, the main-
requires an overpressure of 7 atmospheres, the preceding goes
of equipoise
power
of the
by the water forcing
It
its
way
into it,
>);
was converted
still
sufficient
Here however the
4| atmospheres.
had been reached
loess
and the mass below, upheaved
into
mud.
remarkable however that the accident should not have happened until
is
such a depth had been reached, and goes
far to
prove the toughness of the loess;
diameter of the walled interior of the shaft was 4.79 M., the upward pressure
the water therefore, over this surface,
of
^
a hydrostatic pressure of 7 h- 2|
resisting
for the
was
that the thickness of the loess layer at the last minute
,
resist
must have been
considerable.
was
concluded from this that the resisting power of the loess-layer
It
may
be
sufficient to
support the piers of the Wesel Rhine-bridge, the more so that the under- surface of
these piers
At
resistance
was
the
three times as large as that of the Rhine-bridge at
Wesel
inquiry,
exposed loess could
factor in the
was
the question
carefully
Hamm.
gone into, as to what
a powerful stream, this being an important
offer to
system and construction of the foundations.
The strong cohesion that should
between a ferruginous clay and quartz
exist
sand to explain the above mentioned firmness of the loess,
a horizontal stream (not a
would not be
somewhat
vertical one,
justified the opinion that
streaming from below upwards)
sufficient to disturb the coherence of the loess constituents
them away, any more than
is
the
case
was confirmed by
the
phenomena observed
this
in
and wash
the ordinary gravel bottom of
the Rhine.
This opinion
Rhine-bed
stream,
in
between Cologne and Wesel has
pools
that part
more than 22 M.
of
deep. In like
in
fact,
manner
at
in the Rhine.
certain
The
windings of the
at the heads of a few cribs,
the river which streams by Wesel, holes have been formed in the
few -years, more than 12.56 M. deep, at places where the subsoil consisted of
sand and gravel. Meanwhile it is scarcely possible to indicate a single point in the
river, where the stream conditions are so unfavourable, and the current so given to
last
•)
The thickness
of the layer at the bursting,
which might have been
of high
importance,
is
not given.
15
forming of pools, as in the Budericher Canal near Wesel, and nevertheless, no
the
much
depths
Wesel
the
of
loess-layer
named
the two last
in
places
it
is
discovered.
Romer Wardt
the pools between the cribs at the
Wesel watermarli, and
7.85 M. below the
is
Wesel watermark have been
greater than 10 M. below the
The greatest depth
at
moreover remarkable that
exposed, and not covered by any
is
gravel layer. If then, in such unfavourable parts of the river, the action of the current
does not cause the great clefts in the loess-layer, elsewhere observable,
safely
much
concluded, that loess offers as
it
may
be
resistance to the assaults of the stream
as the Rhine gravel does.
Loess in China
§ 7.
by
terized
the
is
formed above water or
chiefly
hollow artery system
its
canals interspersed with
a few
,
observable even in
is
appearace of a tissue of extremely fine tubes
smallest piece and presents the
or
in the air; it is charac-
which occurs everywhere
,
larger
ones.
These
branch out just as
arteries
the fibrous roots of certain plants, and are usually lined with a thin whitish coating
of
carbonate of hme. Moreover the chief arteries rise perpendicularly in the loess,
the ramifications shooting out from
so that
any piece of
loess
broken
them
at sharp angles in a
downward
direction;
lengthwise will exhibit the delicate intersection
off
of the tubes or arteries.
In
hollow artery-system, the loose porous earth has not the consistency
this
which characterizes clay and loam
water
is
and these properties are of very great economical
,
consequence of the
In
significance.
soaked up as in a sponge
,
capillarity
of the
vertical
fibrous arteries, the
and the heaviest rains do not leave the shghtest
trace
on the surface. This of course prevents the formation of pools or lakes in the
loess
bottom.
down on a rocky bottom. On
settled
across
laid
Springs do not occur in great numbers, except where the loess has
such
bottoms
water cannot make
This
frequently
suffer
way
its
entirely
the other hand, the roads which have been
very much
from
the rains,
through the dense sticky
arrests
all
vehicular
destroy the fibrous nature of the loess,
because
mud which
intercourse:
which although not
the
puddle
covers the ground.
for
the
easily
cartwheels
kneaded, gets
reduced to a chalky loam, and this once dry, does not readily absorb moisture or
allow of
its
investigations
loam,
fibrous
passing through quickly. The results therefore of Mr. von Richthofen's
show the
diff'ering
its large calcareous
to
the
purposes
land-loess,
in
its
or
formed above ground, to be a sort of
from ordinary loam, and which, through
loess
nature
admixture and sharp pointed quartz grains,
of
agriculture.
branches of agriculture
,
Both
soils
satisfy
the
is
excellently suited
requirements
depending upon an apparently very
trifling
of different
circumstance
viz.
the absence or presence of capillary composition.
The Chinese
loess
moreover seems
to be distinguished
from the Rhine-loess at
Wesel by the large quantity of lime contained in it.
The properties of Chinese loess with reference to colour, solidity, consistency and composition are readily seen in any little piece taken at haphazard
while the other properties can only be examined
locally.
Amongst the
latter
be reckoned the presence or absence of foreign substances, to which belong:
must
On
the
Nature
of
sub-aqueous Loess in
16
P'. the firm
known
but seldom larger. They are well
and
mannikins,
many
marlaceous agglomerations or petrifactions of tuberous and
shaped forms, varying from the size of a pea to a foot in length
other curiously
China
in
they
are
along the
under the name of Loess-
Pv,hine
because they remarkably
stone-ginger,
called
resemble the ginger roots in form. Sometimes these petrifactions are found in great
heaps together; sometimes one will only find slight traces of them; they are seldom
altogether absent
2ndiy_
water,
angular stony fragments evidently not rounded by the action of the
|;];jg
found in heaps together and forming stone-agglomerates, whose
generally
dispersal is always
3"''''^.
more
or less limited;
met with
the bleached shells of land-snails, which are
in
very different
quantities, but observable everywhere;
4thiy_
ii^Q
i3ones of
land-mammalia spread disconnectedly through the loess and
usually thrown, together with manure, upon the
The nature
of land-loess
intimately connected
fields.
moreover characterized by two properties very
is
viz.
P*'y.
the absence of layer shaped divisions; and
2°'i'y.
its
Division
aptness to
in
up
split
horizontal
vertically.
layers
so
is
formations, that the loess formations
common
in
all
the great clay and loam
China, 1500 and very likely 2000 feet high,
in
without any trace of a layer-separation, have caused much astonishment. The
formation in the province of
Honan
of the Yellow River, is broken
,
up into great
clefts
and does not show a single layer-
Only an occasional separation between the banks
division.
loess-
south of Hwai-king-fu along the Southern bank
is
discernable, consequent
on the presence of loess-mannikins which occur in nearly horizontal layers, and
interrupt the continuity of the whole.
The respective distances
of these layers from
each other are very different; sometimes but a few feet; generally however 50 feet,
and sometimes several hundred
met with
are
irregularly divided,
usually
found
in
Respecting the vertical
heaps
feet.
and
Although these marlaceous petrifactions are
in great quantities
immediately above
splits in loess Mr.
throughout the loess,
or
below
the
still
separating
they
plains.
von Richthofen refers to the above men-
tioned loess formation, to the south of Hwai-king-fu, of which the lower bank, 200
feet
thick
height,
,
forms
the boundary of the alluvial plain
through which the Yellow River winds.
,
with vertical walls of equal
Here the
vertical sphts are plainly
and some of them are bounded by perpendicular sherds or fragments of great
length and height but of little thickness. These perpendicular sherds or fragments hang
visible
and threaten to fall in which in fact in some places often happens
consequence of the curves and windings of the river, the water streams
against the lower side of the tall sherd and undermines it. The front in this way
to the loess- wall
where
,
in
loses its support
and a piece spht
in a vertical direction
works itself loose from the
has frequently a thickness of 10 to 15 feet at the base, a length of 150
feet, and to the top, which is wedge-shaped, a height of perhaps 100 to 120 feet.
In course of time this fragment falls in is destroyed by the stream and, gradually
loess;
it
,
,
decreasing or wearing away, carried 'lown to the sea. Instead of the former perpen-
17
dicular wall
there
,
now on
is
the upper side an overhanging part , which
sustained and, in the course of years
in
it
,
mass
loosens itself from the
of a succession of vertical splits.
Thus sherd
no longer
is
after the formation
after sherd topples over into the
The wall does not however become perpendicular again until the river, by
some change in its course no longer undermines it for pieces are continually getting
stream.
,
;
,
loose
and
falling
before
in,
the overhanging brow follows them.
met with wherever it
much
loess-wall is thus
perpendicular wall, which recedes
is
absent.
jecting
The
splitting
It
is
the
lying
as
Yet
loess.
slower, wherever the undermining influence
by the
to be chiefly caused
rainfall
by which the
,
washed away and the perpendicular
it
is
is
pro-
outline preserved.
origin of these
to be ascribed to the peculiar vertical capillary composition
worthy of attention,
that
at
one time
the
loess-layers
between the banks on which the loess-mannikins are buried, were considered
separate
deduction
The
strata.
are
of
great
deposits were formed.
have
undermined by streaming water; and the
is
thus proved beyond the possibility of doubt that the
remarkable phenomena
of
seems
parts are successively
The impending
been
In
successively
inquiries
on foot respecting the
set
importance,
they
for
correctness
show how the mighty
of
this
land-loess
water-formations the layers of sand and of schist which
deposited
are
always
by
separated
flat
layers,
very
nearly parallel to each other. These are as a rule the result of a periodical change in
the deposed matter,
layers.
mixture
and
promoted the
their formation has
splits
between the rock-
Where however clay and sand have been deposed together, an homogeneous
may now and then occur, but nearly always there will be a preponderance
of either clay or sand.
The mica leaves, almost invariably present,
accumulation a layer, from which the loess
lie
and form by
horizontally,
easily separated. Great boulders
is
either
,
elongated in form, he with their greater axes horizontally and occur at regular
flat or
intervals
in
the loess without forming separate layers; snail-shells occur frequently
but irregularly and not layer- wise.
The loess-mannikins alone, ranged
horizontally,
seem
which the petrifactions stand with
their greater
to
form a separate layer,
in
axes bolt upright, so that they must must have been formed on the very spot where
they are found.
Their nature
is
more
especially apparent in places,
covers the slope of a rocky mountain-range
,
and
is
intersected
admits of an examination of the loess at different depths.
many
observed that at relatively small distances
gravel extend to a greater or less distance
It is in
,
where the
has in such places been
It
parallel layers of angular
sloping slightly
loess
by a ravine which
away from
mountain
the mountain.
such layers that the perpendicular loess-mannikins are found and the gravel
gradually decreases in dimension.
Some
of these stone-layers soon
others extend pretty far towards the middle of the loess bed
clearly visible, that this rocky gravel has been
;
but
come
it is
to
and end;
in every case
washed away from the mountain and
carried over the loess with the stream as far as the force of the current could take
it.
Sometimes the separating- planes extend still further, but only in consequence of the
presence of marl-stone. Where however the loess fills up some great basin amid the
mountains, these layers are scarcest
homogeneous
in the
middle of the basin, where the banks of
loess attain their greatest thickness.
3
18
Tliere can therefore be here no question of a strata-Jike loess formation, such
takes
as
place
up
building
of the loess
a change in
way,
later
water-formations.
in
,
Still
probable
is
it
that
periodic conditions were entered upon
,
during the gradual
which brought about
existing upper surface of these accumulated masses.
the then
on, the water which had forced
way through
its
In this
encountered resistance;
caused a deposit of the chemically dissolved matter and assisted the formation
this
of agglomerations or petrifactions.
According to Mr. von Richthofen therefore, the loess in China has as a rule
not been built up in strata, so that the layers which divide the banks, and which
matter foreign to the loess, must be considered as a phenomenon totally
contain
from
distinct
which
strata-formation
though composed of the same
,
totally distinct
General review of
which the
in
loess
China
in
the
review
general
a
plain
we
This occurs only in water-loess,
,
nevertheless
is
80 meters
high
,
westward,
the coast
At
broad.
which the loess
throughout
region
from
300 kilometers
about
mountain-wah
a
that
called.
the
of
move
shall
a terrace from 30 to
rises
so
constituents as the land-loess
it.
extends,
alluvial
China extends.
from
For
§ 8.
llie
region througliout
properly
the
this
of
consisting entirely of loess
750 kilometers long, forming a sharp
crossing
first
extremity
;
and after
of demarcation
line
between the plain and the adjoining mountain-region of Tai-hang-shan with
deposits,
coal
in the provinces of
Honan and
mountain range extends a plateau ranging from 600
portion
of
which
is
Above the rocky
Shansi.
plain
its rich
slope of this
1000 M. high, a very large
to
covered with loess, and from which arises on the other side a
second mountain-wall, forming the boundary of a second plateau from 1500 to 1800
meters high. This plateau too,
immense
loess-deposit,
and, at
for the greater
with loess from edge to edge
filled
,
here,
its -breadth,
its affluents
meters
in
thickness.
The western edge
other extremity
at
which
streams here in
its
covered by an
have cut their
and by their denudations have shown the loess to be
which
is
the surface of which gradually slopes
edge to the centre. The F6nn-ho and
the
part of
western extremity, adjoins a cup-shaped valley,
its
some
places 600
basin adjoins the mountain-range,
of this
the deep incision cut by the Yellow River,
bounds
a southerly
in
down from
way through
direction.
This mountain-range extends
varying elevations through the provinces of Shensi and Kansu, and
is
with
everywhere
covered with loess of unequal thickness, here and there ending against a mountain
slope.
Further on the mountain-range extends in a westerly direction, the loess-
banks only coming to an end where, at a straight distance of about 1560 kilometers
from the coast, the region of the undrained basins begins at the
last affluent of
the Hwang-ho.
To the north the
last
incisions
which lay the loess bare occur
also at the
watershed, at the hmit of the steppes of Mongolia.
To the south the boundary
of the loess is in part very sharply defined.
The
valley of the "Wei river, along the northern foot of the mountain-range Tsin-ling-shan,
is
inclosed
within loess- walls nearly 200 M.
formation below the valley
is
high,
and the thickness of the loess
probably very considerable.
At
the mountain declivities
19
and the
the loess rises
of
exposed parts are
less
filled
up with
it.
On
the other side
watershed there are only a few basins in the higher mountains
the
with loess, but here
Sz-Tshwan there
where the
extends
last
is
up
no more loess to be discerned. In the province of Honan however,
Kwen-lun mountains merge
of the
hills
further south, filling
still
filled
suddenly ceases. In the province of
for the rest the formation
up a great part
into
the loess
the plain,
which flows
of the basin through
the Hanriver.
the provinces
In
and the vales
loess,
Honan and Shantung the mountains
of
project above the
the greater part of their surface are covered with alluvial
for
matter, over which the loess-layer has extended as far as the Yang-tsze-kiang, and
a
few places near Nanking and near the lakes of Po-yang and Tung-ting. No traces
met with
of loess are to be
The
§ 9.
and
it
in
the northern
attains an
wild range,
settles
')
on the second plateau in Shansi, reaches a height of 1800 M.
loess,
even
further south.
part of this province
altitude
2400 M.
of
Elevations of Loess.
on the mountain chain of Wu-tai-Shan
,
covers
It
mountain passes
the
of
this
on the top of the broad prominent rocks or inclines towards the
parts of the valley slopes, where the rest of the extensive loess-formation
sheltered
has been washed away by the water. To the north, outside the great Chinese wall,
immense
stretches,
2000 M. high, are covered with
Kansu and Khukhu-nor,
the west, in
it
astonishing that loess, independent of
and
loess,
it is
probable that to
rises to still higher altitudes. It is therefore
elevation above the sea, should
its
grow
ver-
and, except on a few mountain- ridges forming watersheds, should always be
tically
met with, where the
and where
and other circumstances are favorable to
not washed
is
it
subsoil
away
or covered by other alluvial deposits.
demonstrated that, from the period of
undergone but relatively
formation in North China,
its
the land has remained nearly unaltered. Loess
beginning, and that
heights
down on
unaccustomed
It
is
to
admit
also
inequalities of the
rocky
cliffs
forms.
The
,
It
can be
its level
has
thus distinct from other formations
it
took place simultaneously. This
is still
found, from the
Hwang-ho and on the
now is what we are
in other formations of equal extent.
that
evident
the
by
loess,
mountainous regions.
and thereby uniform
flat
is
the heights where
formation in the deep valleys of the
its
Wu-tai-shan
the
of
formation,
changes, and that broadly speaking the surface of
trifling
in this respect, that it settled
its
It
its
vast
districts instead of the
character of these districts
is
extension,
diminished the
formed gentle bowl-shaped valleys over
former abundant diversity of
however only apparent. The seemingly
smooth surface conceals great obstacles to traffic, such as usually occur in rocky
hill-districts, and in order to understand the nature of loess districts properly, it will
be necessary to examine the pecuhar action of the water in the loess regions.
With
end in view Mr. von Richthofen
cafls attention to
the before-
Action ofthe Water in
mentioned second plateau of Shansi, the western ridge of which rises to a height of
Laud-Loess formation.
§ 10.
1)
Germany;
The
its
surface,
total
this
whicli
the
area however
is
loess
in
China
covers,
nearly
at least half as large again,
as
uninterruptedly
it
corresponds
in
size
with
extends far beyond the Chinese frontiers.
20
of
1800 M. and whose surface gradually slopes down, on an incline of 50
1500 to
town
to 1, to the
One hardly
of Ping-yang-fu
one has descended 1000 Meters
realizes that
and the
ground gradually rises,
the
while on the other side too,
,
with their round forms, which in the
hills
form the boundary of the bowl-shaped basins
distant horizon
same way
the
on the river F6nn-ho, about 50 kilometers distant.
,
a height of more
to
droughts, this surface
1500 M.
than
In
sometimes bare and of a uniform yehow
is
valley otherwise so fertile presents the aspect of a wilderness
atmosphere induces the
of the
seems so even
at
that
,
.
plain
belief that
And
gallop.
full
flat
in
circular-formed basin
loess or lake deposits
,
the unevennesses of
few near-lying crevices,
could
race
if
the
across
,
they do not keep to the beaten roads, are
is
so
lost.
even greater than those to be surmounted amid the
are
which the water has formed
within a
one
if
all
and the
colour,
high mountain range, and are caused by the deep channels
of the
cliffs
as
of a
rise in
of prolonged
which the clearness
in
,
west,
yet every loess country hke that of Ping-yang-fu
that occur
difficulties
rocks and
impression
the
leaves
it
inaccessible, that even pedestrians,
The
one can perceive
The surface indeed, with the exception
the ground.
in the
consequence
Leaving Ping-yang-fu which
the loess.
whose broad bottom,
in the middle, is
inclosed
is
made up
of water-
one remarks that the walls by which the land-loess slopes
down
to
the water-loess are not high. Along the tributary streams of the F6nn-ho upwards however,
the inclosing walls rise higher and higher, the
at
In the ravines thus formed
loess-walls soon rise to several hundred feet above the bottom of the river-bed,
the
height
this
from
the
second
is
ground being much smaller
of the
fall
the bottom of the watercourse than at the surface.
by
reached
being
water-course.
It
is
the
terraces
a
joined
little
formed by a tributary of the
cleft
and
joined right
left
by greater and
walls
receding
further on,
first,
and
and
further
at a
sharp angle, by a
upwards,
this is followed
if
lesser tributaries
,
further
it
each separate one of them
being again joined by other streams. Thus, one gets into a
at
their
origin
from
are
30
to
50
feet
deep
maze of ravines, which
and often not more than 4 to 6
feet across.
If
one tries to descend from these terraces
,
one
is
checked by the perpendicular
walls which descend to the bottom of the cleft, and so every where the difficulties go on
increasing endlessly. This system of clefts or ravines may be compared with the
trunk of a tree
,
which
is
made up
of the union of a
number
of roots
;
these main
roots divide into larger or smaller ones with innumerable fibres, each fibre represen-
ting
a deep cleft or
split.
Along the sides of the loess-basins there are sometimes
some of which originate at the extreme
several of the ravine systems close together
edge,
about
,
middle of the surrounding mountain ranges. If the
loess had the same consistency throughout, from top to bottom, such places would
others
starting
be impassable
1000 feet
comes
into
in
,
the clefts would then be formed into ravines of often more than
for
depth.
play,
the
Here however the beneficent influence
of the marl-petrifactions
changing the otherwise perpendicular walls into a succession of
bank terminates in a perpendicular and often
terrace-like slopes. True, each separate
overhanging wall, but through the protecting surface-vegetation, the upper surface
of the terrace-plains is made even, so that the the next sherd does not fall in for
21
some time, and then
up at the
who
peasantry
dividing
foot
some distance from the
at
first.
The sherds thus get heaped
and are then divided over the terrace by the rains and
by the
of their agricultural pursuits try to assist nature
furtherance
in
also
their lands into terrace-like fields on a smaller scale. In this
way
by
the marl-
stones are covered over with a layer of soft arable land.
In the good season such a terrace
but
green
devoid of
from
while
fields,
all
seen from above
,
one
below
,
only
sees
offers to the
eye nothing
yellow
loess-walls
the
vegetation, rising straight up one above the other, the edge alone being
fringed with a border of grass-blades.
Loess-landscape
is
remarkable for
made
geologists doubt
frequently to have
its
extremely varied forms, so varied as
whether they were not viewing a
different
formation. The eye never tires of gazing on this wealth of forms.
§ 11.
The
roads are sometimes cut deep in the loess and so near the
traffic
perpendicular edge, that the latter merely forms a natural independent wall of. earth
in
which the holes
,
made
all
of
them forming the boundary
These hollow roads are frequently very steep, making
empty
transport even an
windows
like
a chaos of wildernesses with perpendicular projections
of loess of a uniform yellow colour,
ravines.
accumulated rain-water, look
to carry off the
may view
through which one
cart.
it
of inaccessible
very
difficult to
All of a sudden these walls on either side
come
to
end, and the road continues through a narrow cutting, confined between gaping
an
Where
yellow precipices in endless ramifications.
surface of a terrace
again,
sometimes made use
is
of.
the cutting rises again, the level
The hollow road however soon begins
and one enters upon another ravine system, most
Here the road has
with the previous one.
bottom, only to
rise
again
to find its
likely wholly disconnected
way downwards
through ravines on the other
side.
to reach the
The Chinese, with
marvellous judgment, have succeeded in choosing, amidst this maze of precipices,
the most desirable direction for their traffic roads. In loess-districts intercommunication
roads are laid
easiest along the fiat
Ping-Yang-fu. Even
when one has
bottom of a former lake-basin
to climb
opening sideways, up to the edge of the basin, the
ascent
the
when
being as a rule easy.
has
road
the
to
The
,
such as that of
from here, between two ravine systems
difficulties are easily
overcome,
obstacles, on the other hand, are very great
pass clefts or ravines, as
is
the case with the chief traffic
road of Shansi over the famous Han-sin-ling pass and with
many
others.
Such roads
are exposed to continual change of direction. Mr. von Richthofen observes that these
dificulties
would be very greatly enhanced,
if it
ever should be a question of laying
a railway across a loess-district. To construct a passage across the ravines, and to
master the
difficulties
attending the changes caused by the falling sherds, consequent
on the newly-formed cuttings and the formation of fresh
as
A
it
clefts
,
would be as
difficult
would be easy to cut a passage through the yellow earth. This cannot be denied.
railway
direction,
that,
may
like
an ordinary road, would be exposed to continual change of
be considered a failure.
Its construction
would have
to be preceded
by a thorough study of the ravine system which would presumably have to be transformed, so as to get on either side of the projected way a separate drainage and system
,
Tiaffic
Roads
^°'^^^-
in the
22
of roads. Undoubtedly this would require the removal of great quantities of loess
the
;
road would have to be constructed through the lowest parts of the valleys and along
the slopes of the mountains, where the loess-layer
thinnest; and presumably too,
is
there would be no question of following the shortest route.
Importance
Loess
of
glim
ma
§ 12.
If
the loess
is
an Obstacle to
traffic, it is,
many
on the other hand, in
rospects of the greatest value to the population. This observation applies
more par-
purposes.
ticularly
are
to
bottom
two
that
North
rain-distribution
is
China
southern
found even amid the mountains
On
extends beyond a height of 100 Meters.
China
in
or even three crops are raised on the generally fertile
and a luxuriant vegetation
,
there seldom
in
The climate and the
agriculture.
favourable,
so
agriculture
;
the other hand, the land
under cultivation to a much greater height, agriculture in the
is
north of the province of Shansi attaining an elevation of 2000 Meters and sporadically
2400
Meters,
agriculture
is
which,
comparison with Europe,
in
In Switzerland
considerable.
is
on up to an average height of 1200 Meters only, through in
carried
few very remarkable exceptions.
this respect there exist a
On Mount Rosa
for instance, rye is still cultivated at a height of
2000 Meters
on the southern slopes of the Grisons, which are protected from northern winds, the
land
on
the
of
vegetables.
winds
in
On
Meters
southern
no
high,
dechvities
grows
vine
1800 Meters; while
mountain
proud
2042
the
the
height of
extends
it
this
Avers,
blow,
to a
hand
other
hamlet
highest
valley
up
cultivated
is
a
at
higher
than
1100
is
situated
country
the
of
Northern Switzerland
in
At
Meters.
the
Juf,
upper-
the wild
in
diligent population manage to grow
Mount Rosa, where the warm humid
height
900 Meters, but
of
in
the Canton
it is not found any higher than 520 Meters. It should moreover be borne
mind that the forests cover one sixth of the whole area of Switzerland, and the
meadows more than one third: the forests as a rule the lower slopes, the meadows
the mountain tops. At one time these foi-ests extended upwards till they reached
of St. Galles
in
a height of 2200 Meters,
lands under cultivation.
denudation
work
of
of a
man, which
is much
own and
forests can hold their
The elevation
at
to
be deplored, for
which agriculture
rainfall
of agriculture
find
man and
certain that
where great
map
on in North China
carried
of Shansi.
is
very
Yet the climate there
is
Most probably a comparison between
of these districts
would show that the extension
we
with him the cultivation of the
not
is
with an alluvium of
that
is
this
keeps pace with that of the loess: wherever the latter extends,
present, agriculture
consider
is
West
very unfavourable.
an agrarian and a geological
it
and probably
a great measure the
thrive, single trees cannot stand.
remarkable; probably even more so to the
very cold, and the
to 1800 M.,
Meters in height has been in
of 400
zone
1000 Meters above the average height of the
being
this
They have now descended
in
whereas the crops
any manuring at
but wherever the loess
absent too, except in the valleys
loess.
Southern
The
full
China
in Northern
all;
soil;
in
a great measure covered
significance of loess appears
no
produce
is
obtained
is
however when we
without rich manuring,
China are harvested with hardly any, and often without
this is the
more remarkable because here the husbandman has
tilled
the
from time immemorial. This was the case
soil
so early as 4000 years ago. It
and throughout
was
at that time the
succeeding ages
all
has
Shensi
the valley ofthe
in
been known as
China. During the visit of Mr. von Richthofen in 1872
the land
,
important decrease in population consequent on the ravaging
was very nearly
ratio
for
all
Wei river
most productive part
,
the
granary of
notwithstanding the
Mahommedan
,
and was only used
for
a few costly fruits and in particular
Hardly any part of the country was manured," which indeed was
the opium.
unnecessary as the harvest chiefly depends upon the quantity of rain that
exhausted,
cause
in
lies
a
of
soil,
many thousands
for
of years
its
falls.
The
under cultivation, not being
explained by the nature of the bottom.
is
rebellion,
under cultivation. Manure however had decreased in the same
as the population
phenomenon
of China
Undoubtedly the principal
great porosity which allows the air to penetrate and the gases to
be dissolved and more readily absorbed by the plants; then the supply of mineral
constituents,
which are necessary
withdrawn from the
soil,
to the
development of
field-fruits
and every year
constantly assured by the perpendicular capillary nature
is
of the bottom. In proof of this, attention is called to the salt-springs and salt-crusts
on the surface of the loess. These occur chiefly in the valleys and on the declivities
nearest to the groundwater, saturated with mineral salts, at the bottom of the
loess-layer.
Besides this,
loess
is
used
for
manuring the
a clear proof that
soil;
it
contains the constituents necessary for the nourishment of plants. The outer surface
of the perpendicular walls, between which the fields are usually sunk,
and spread
is
scraped off
in thin layers over the surface of the soil.
The economical influence
of loess
on the population must be considered as
very important.
§ 13.
The manner
which the
in
loess is inhabited is very peculiar. In the northern
provinces of China, millions of people live in hollows which have been scooped out at the foot
of the loess walls or along the terraces. For this purpose, the inhabitants choose the
firmest walls, which experience has taught
them
to distinguish.
these caves takes place very easily as the material
is
The digging out
comparatively
soft.
of
Most of
these dwellings have different rooms in front, one with a door, and the others merely
with windows
apartments are
loess
walls.
in
the thin loess walls, for communicating with the outer
vaulted
all
,
air.
and connected with each other by means of doors
The inner walls are washed with a coating
of
The
in the
cement obtained from
crushed marl stone. This cement secures firmness and dryness to the dwellings, and
increases their comfort and cleanliness.
Many
of
them have
dwellings of successive generations of the same family.
tiles,
dried
garden.
in
the sun,
A
for centuries
little
fence
formed the
made
of loess
and adjoining the loess walls on both sides, incloses the
The dweUings vary from the simplest caves to real loess palaces. Inns, connumber of horses and carts, have sometimes
structed for the accommodation of a large
a depth of 100 to 200 feet with a corresponding breadth and height. These dwellings
require but
durable,
loess
little
when
outlay,
the
wall which,
site
half
are
warm
in
winter and cool in summer.
has been well chosen.
way
They are
also
Frequently one sees a perpendicular
up, or at about sixty feet from the bottom, has been
inhabitation of ihe
loess,
24
These are the remains of a loess-village
bored through for a number of apartments.
inhabited very likely centuries ago.
On
the boundaries of Mongolia
and Shensi,
fertile
,
whence
pom
the
in
in the extensive regions of Tshi-li
are
loess- walls
the
cultivate
may
they
all live
soil,
Sometimes
universal.
is to
be found
,
§ 14.
^jj.^
j^-g
The
Strategic importance of loess in
characteristics, that
North China
^^
j^^g^
of
the
cannot be passed over without notice.
it
bodies
great
can only
troops
of
and
valleys,
take place by exception
and even
then only along the roads;
attended with very great
difficulties.
across
A
like
so
movement
enemy succeed
in
would become a very
intrenching
himself securely,
matter to dislodge him
difficult
weaken
sudden unexpected attacks,
bottoms
the
in
;
is
there-
Should however
holes,
lurking
various
in
case
that
Thedefenceof a few mountain-passes
fore all that is necessary to arrest the course of great invading armies.
an
a
so closely connected
is
Mew.
it is
in
and the
in their dwellings in the sides of the ravines
emerging from inside the yellow earth-walls,
be seen
Shansi
,
diligent ants.
Loess-districts conside-
red from a strategic
colonies
like
and
richly cultivated valley not one single ordinary house
men who
many
such
,
it
and he might ravage the country by
his opponents in various places,
and gradually
penetrate further. The policy of the Chinese emperors has ever been directed to fortifying the principal approaches to the great loess-district. It is from this principle that the
great
of
fortress
Tungkwan borrows
number of roads having little
The independence of
the
of the
history
construction
of Shansi;
can
all
until 1864,
It
is
when
of Mongolia,
edge
earth,
settled
was the
great
difficulties.
of the
and which were the
of Ordosland,
great
Chinese wall;
of
the
the
Lo-yang or Ping-yan-fu, and
different
imperial
many
original
phases in the
residence
in
the
other historical facts,
be explained by the character of the loess-districts.
§ 15.
Origin of Loess.
of
to this
from Kansu; the attacks to which the rich lands of
the temporary establishment
loess-bounded valleys
Added
dynasty of Tshow, and afterwards of Tsin in the
were exposed from the north
cause
significance.
or no intercommunication, which enhanced the
loess-districts separating Shensi
Shensi
its
remarkable that attention was not called to the loess formations
Mr. Raphael Pumpelly discovered a great basin near the Southern
which was
filled
which afterwards turned out
down
in
a terrace-hke
with a pecuHar perpendicular-spUtting
to
be
loess.
He assumed
form in a great fresh- water
yellow
this
earth to have
lake,
being brought
there by the Yellow River, which at a former period probably streamed in a nearly
straight line from Ning-hia-fu to Peking. This theory was generally accepted, and
borrowed by the deserving missionary Alexander Williamson to explain the equally
large loess-filled basin he had discovered in the province of Shansi. European loess
too
at
,
and that
all
feet
in the
Rhine
valley,
was assumed
to be a
mere
fresh
water deposit or
events, one originating within the sphere influenced by some great river.
The invariable character of loess at any height, rising to several thousand
above the level of the sea, proved that this formation could not have existed,
before
the mountainous regions situated
below had assumed their present surface.
25
This precludes the theory of
would be impossible
for it
and that the
high, and inclosed even
down
the formation of loess,
and sea-shells,
along
lakes
found;
If
it
sea,
that
in
case
the
sea,
at
a
recent
however not the
is
sank
first
least indication
moreover the sea had played such an important part
in
would be impossible to explain the absence of sea-animals
such
glacier-covering,
no
that
so
the
mountain-ranges of Northern China, and
and the exclusive presence of land-mammalia and
a former
of
be
to
for
the
all
modern times. There
feet in
anything of the kind.
traces
of such
have moreover to suppose that the eastern part of China
should
and then rose 2400
of
untenable;
equally
is
extension
higher mountain-crests.
must have extended over
period,
we
the sea
in
the
same time should have covered plateaux 6000 feet
The theory of its having settled
the
at
loess
having been deposited in fresh water lakes
its
to explain
crushed
as
land-snails.
No
discernible along the Rhine, are
are
can have settled on these high
glacier-material
plains.
There remains therefore
from the
air,
observed anywhere
of
we
it
of
this
The way
down
have not been
size
other formation seems possible, and in further evidence
which the
in
shells or houses of land-snails, exclusive of fresh
Mr. Pumpelly alone mentions having found the latter in lake
occur.
snails,
but observes emphatically, that
Te-hai,
and such
nature
have:
P*.
water
No
else.
the hypothesis that the loess has settled
only
although aeolic deposits
We
will
loess
which
met with
they were
a layer of loam.
in
not however refer to this sedimental loam at present; the layer of lakewill be explained in
memorandum
an other part of this
being of a totally
different formation.
The bleached
snail-shells are
of the deposit, sometimes in
We
where
their
might
undisturbed houses are
peculiar habit of certain kinds
selves underground
death,
and
these
views
of
life;
of
do
shells
not
remain
sufficiently
increased
loess
in
contained
it
height
the
,
almost without exception
animals died
ascribe
or
close together in heaps.
their
of leaving their shells
,
a depth of several hundred
formation
its
table
number
still
the
that
found,
of slugs,
winter-months
for the
alone
the
that
is,
a
at
snailshells
assume
either
right through the thickness
and sometimes
delicacy and fragility, they have been
In spite of their
well-preserved.
met with everywhere,
trifling quantities,
during which time
over
the
account
spot
for
the
and burying them-
many meet with
where
they
presence
feet.
The only deduction
very
gradually;
humidity
necessary
on the spot
presence to the
that
for
died;
their
but
so
many
to be
drawn
of
during
the
animal and
time
vege-
and that the dryness of the cUmate favoured the preservation of the
snail-shells.
The bones of land-mammalia, if their situation and distribution could be carefully observed, would necessarily lead to the same conclusions. These animals too died
probably near the spot where their remains have been found and point therefore to dry land.
2ndiy_
3rdiy_
The
traces
of vegetation observable
all
through the loess from top to
bottom, not consisting of the remains of plants, but, as has already been shown, of
millions
of tubes of
all
sizes,
which have retained the form and ramification of
4
2G
and correspond exactly with those
the roots of plants
and on their decay
section
the
deposit
at
Each
behind.
left
loess-bank,
of the
some former
points,
tu1)es
which,
and
period,
these
of
in
living plants
the
what was then the
occupied by
the place
to
made by
still
during
vertical
surface of
was
gradual growth,
its
continuously covered with vegetation.
may have
This gradual raising of the bottom
by rainwater which, flowing from the upper
P'.
wash down with
all
ways
lower districts, would
to the
the neigtibouring mountains
from
it
in three
taken place
those constituents which
time or weather had freed from the rock
2ndiy_
]^j
whoso extraordinary power may be judged constantly from the
-v^rinij^
dense dust clouds in these regions
by the mineral constituents which the plant-roots, from the capillary form
3'''^'y.
of their tubular systems,
Ijut
which on
These
were enabled
draw up from a great depth and absorb,
to
their decaying remained.
and
various
solid constituents
divided
finely
cemented together by the surface vegetation
is
Loess
in
and
after this
but a very
quantity
trifling
removed by the wind.
the iindrained
Districts.
,
measure
are in a great
§ iQ_
where one
The formation of
finds the
loess
same form
may
still
be observed in Central Asia and Mongolia
at the surface as
is
presented by the loess in North China,
without the more recently formed ravine-system which issocharacteristicofthelatter.Here
aU the conditions
of the
to
for the continual formation of loess are still present.
mountain crests, which form the margins of the
by damp, heat,
decay
of frost
in
winter.
During
washed down, without
heavy
rains,
the
exposed
summer, and by that
the action of vegetable growth in
the
The huge rock-masses
basins, are uncovered,
great blocks slowly slide or get
losing their sharp edges, to the borders of the filled basins;
and on the recurrence of the periodical heavy rains, the fragments of these rocks
are
swept sometimes very
the basin,
into
far
the sraafler going
during the dry season they get covered up by earthy formations
the
loess-banks in the
the
finer
middle
of
get
constituents
the
intersecting
basin.
washed further away,
This process
can
be
added the salt-springs which the rain causes
finally the fearful
undrained
a great part
The surfaces of these
extend to the
this
must be
from the depths below
;
and
flat
growth of the steppes.
have a natural slope which assures the flow of the
the central salt-lake, and although the nature of the
bed to
steppes in the undrained regions
is
North of the great Chinese wall
of
,
stifl
their likeness to the loess
especiafly in those places
Pei-ho to the sea. Such places are often
i)oriod
unknown
almost
shown
undrained region has found a channel for
doubt caused by a
by the vegetable
fixed
districts
region in North-China has been
the
To
rainfall
no unimportant factor in the raising of the bottom, being in the
forms
basins for
to
rise
With every
finaUy
observed.
easily
to
they
duststorms, which leave a deposit that, in the course of years or
centuries,
water along a
till
there,
which occur between
,
mentioned.
already
layers
farthest;
itself either
met with
in
where the formerly
by the Yellow river or by the
along the edge of the steppe-lands
Shansi and
Tshili.
A drainage like this is no
heavy rains, when the water, rising above
its
usual
27
reaches a crevice in one of the surrounding mountains and escapes through
level,
This opening forms
itself;
thus the water-supply
climate
,
through which the
a channel
into
itself
it.
salt lake discharges
assured even with a later increasing dryness of
is
the channel in course of time getting deeper, as the water in the soft steppe-
bottom and
hitherto
and tributary streams gets lower. The stream flowing
the principal
in
exclusively
into
the
has
lake
now
found another outlet, by which other
channels are formed which in their further progress split into endless sub-divisions,
all
which serve more or
of
less to lay the loess bare. This is constantly to be observed
near the springs that rise up at the edge of the steppes
;
and even when the cutting
not reach more than a foot in depth, the unmistakeable loess-character of this
does
bottom becomes evident.
This
makes
it
a matter
with the exception
of Mongolia ,
consists of land-loess
of that in
Han-hai
containing at the sides
,
hand the steppe-basin
of certainty that on the one
where the sea-formation
,
many
occurs,
deposits of sharp, angular blocks
of stone, but of pure nature in the middle; and on the other that every loess-basin
was
one time an undrained saltsteppe-basin. If
at
in the centre of
lakes
previous
existence
situated
in
down
the
loess-districts.
left
is
removed from the
sides,
this theory is correct, the salt-
behind them the evidence of their
The lakes,
some
of
it
must have been
undrained,
when
the lowest parts of the district, and
matter
loess
bottom
in
each basin must have
therefore
would
we admit
settle
down on
that the
the dry
but another part would be carried along with the stream and eventually sink
,
bottom
in horizontal layers in the lake. Should the
in the
whole basin gradually
rise, these horizontal layers will invariably be limited to the lowest or
middle part;
while the surrounding part outside the water will be vertical. Thus a layer-shaped
and according
kernel will occur in the unstratifled masses,
abundance of water occurring at
The basin being afterwards
extensive.
or less
different periods
,
the greater or less
to
the horizontal layers wiU be more
laid
dry, this loess-formation becomes
exposed, and as the flow of water along the lake-layers must be the most powerful, the
kern-layer will be
more ploughed up than the surrounding loess. Nevertheless we should
be able to perceive this kernel pretty easily in every loess-basin. In contradistinction
to the land-loess , it consists of lake- or water-loess
which does not exhibit the porosity
and capillary-vertical structure possessed by the former in consequence of the vegetation
in
be
will
by
Where however
it.
its
loess;
makes
difficult
to
layer- shaped
by
it
the land-loess has penetrated to the lake-loess, the two sorts
formation
pale yellow
its
although
distinguish,
tint;
rather impermeable
as
the lake-loess
opposed to
the
may always
bank-shaped form of the land-
and by the want of capillary
to the water.
fibre- system
reach of these lakes being strongly impregnated with salt,
wherever
it
rises
above
^
which
Consequently the water flowing into the
basin collects into lakes which remain above the loess. Moreover
loess,
be recognised
the bottom
of the valley,
is
is
all
the water within
undrinkable, and the
encrusted with salt,
though a considerable lixiviation must have taken place in the course of time. As a
general rule however, the upper surface of the earth in these regions has been
washed away
the salt-lake
,
and we
find the deepest parts of the loess-basins there
extended. The
alluvial loess
however does not occur
,
where formerly
at the surface only,
28
but
found
also
is
down
lower
the valley-bottom rendering the soil useless for
in
purposes and frequently forming a great salt waste.
agricultural
and they are numerous, coarse kitchen
such places,
In
and natron or soda are obtained from
salt
the ground.
consequence of a temporary diminution of the water surface,
In
days,
the
sometimes
land-loess
discernable in the
valley
was
formerly here
extending
,
to
and
the water loess,
former
is
still
The lake
and below Si-ngan-fu.
Wei-river above
area
of great
down upon
settled
the
of
in
the steep granite mountain range
From this, and from the Fung-tiau-shan range on the
other side of the Hwang-ho the masses of gravel which have collected in the ravines
get washed away as round pebbles, on the occurence of heavy rains, down to the
of
the
Hwa-shan.
holy
,
Thus the layers
lake.
of coarse
with the extremely hard and
boulder-stones,
and sand occur alternately
gravel
loess-mud, which occurs almost exclusively in
fine
other more distant lakes. The water-loess
is
here, probably, very calcareous
;
if
carbonate
of lime is frequently present in land-loess in quantities of no less than 20 or 30 per
cent,
must occur
it
being the
in
This not only
afi'ords
,
and sink
deposits
in the
Rhine near Constance
in
Switzerland.
those
bottom as soon as the water evaporates.
an easy explanation of the pale yellow colour of the
bodies or petrifactions varying in
Limo
to the
fine
earthy
but also of the agglomerates of sand, gravel and shale, and hardened
water-loess,
are heaped
whose constituents
greater quantities in the salt-lakes,
far
that are freed
first
up here
from that of a pea to that of a nut, which
size
in great quantities,
and
easily converted into tufaceous limestone.
§ 17.
These peculiar petrifactions appear to correspond pretty closely with
found
near
Constance
the so-called
in
boundary of the irregular rather narrow
Altrhein,
inlet along the
which forms the eastern
south shore near Constance,
and extends to between the hghthouse and the Rhine-bridge.
The banks
in this
Altrhein are formed of lake-loam and covered over by a thin surface-layer consisting
of small and
large
wood
of
etc.,
all
four times the
gravelstones
them more
size
,
and when dry,
is
of shells,
and showing
of the kernel,
resembling the annual circles of trees.
touch,
bits
shells,
little
reed-pipes, pieces of
or less covered with a lime deposit not seldom three or
very
fragile.
in its intersection different layers
This lime-deposit drops off at the shghtest
.Some stones measure 0.20 M. in thickness,
and contain a round pebble being altogether about the
size
of a
man's
fist.
On
the banks by Constance the size of these pieces including the crust varies from that
of a
bean to that of a man's
millimeters
to
fist
and the thickness of the envelopes, from a few
about 0.03 M. The more recent crusts are porous, of a dirty brown
and those under water are covered with a mossgrowth or with algae; the
elder ones are more compact, of a white colour in their intersection and frequently
colour,
difficult
the
to
separate from the
kernel.
formation.
lime or tufaceous
and the Untersee and
still
The presence
the resolution.
is
at
algae
is
attributed to
They are equally met with between Constance
down, and borrow for their growth a portion
further
of carbonate from the bi-carbonate of lime
bonate of lime
of the
which
is
dissolved in the water; the car-
once precipitated and envelops the algae which have caused
This petrifaction breaks
off
and while the lime continues
to
form on
29
the surface, the kernel inside rots and disappears without leaving any trace behind
it
in the Umestone.
The lime or tufaceous formation goes on, imperceptibly, but continuously.
Whenever it comes into contact with the air and frost however, it cannot withstand
them long. The shoals which frequently get flooded in the summer, and thereby
increase
while
their
the
remains
cold
and animal
is
severe.
above low- water mark, which in winter, lasts
The product
of
the
combined action of vegetable
becomes disturbed; the tufa breaks up
life
then into a light
away by
rise at length
height,
powder, which, when the spring
brittle
small pieces, and
first into
come,
floods
washed
is
the stream giving to the water a troubled milk-white colour. Thus a limit
imposed on the surface growth of the tufa-banks which
amount
a certain
of
from
bi-carbonate
for their formation require
water with a certain velocity in the
the
bottom-stream.
The chemical process
banks
of the
building
up and crumbling away
of these tufa-
repeatedly disturbed, for though the banks are flooded every year, they do
is
not emerge above the water every winter, and thus acquire greater resisting power
to the air
at places
and the
consists
Another tufa-formation takes places below low-water mark
where the water
ground
the
frost.
formation,
ice
shallow, and where another destroying force, probably
must come
into
action
temporarily,
as
this tufa-layer
surface of single bits and of a layer of soft lime conglomerate from
the
at
is
0.20 M. to 0.30 M. thick.
The banks
before
Constance have of late years undergone no
we may mention
the so-called
of
harbour
and the other posts , placed along the eastern extremity of the
this
the lighthouse and the Rhine-bridge
to
,
which
in
women-posts to the north of the
evidence
,
change;
for centuries
inlet
between
have pointed out the limits
which the deep channel extends.
§ 18.
fortified
The lime-stone formations mentioned
in
paragraph 16 extend from the
mountain-pass of Tung-Kwan to the walls which bound the valley
far
above
On the broad terraces of these loess-deposits many great towns have been
among others the ancient capital Si-ngan-fu; whilst on both sides the land-loess
has settled down on the water-loess. Therefore the period when the great lakeSi-ngan-fu.
built,
extension occurred,
must have been followed by a
the withdrawal of the water and
The
land-loess
so
The
also
which caused
got the better of the loess-deposit in the water; and just at the
separation-plains between these
occur ia abundance
period of drought,
the gradual extension of the dry steppe region.
,
two
which shows
salt-lake lye
different sorts of loess-formations
,
the water-springs
clearly that the former allows a freer passage to water.
residuum which occurs at the bottom of a loess-basin
,
leads
with certainty to the conclusion that North China, at a former period, when
the Yellow River either did not exist or
was
too insignificant to be of
any conse-
quence, must have been a steppe-country resembling the present Central Asia in
every respect, and must, in a great measure, have consisted of several undrained
basins of very different dimensions, in which the streams collected into salt-lakes;
the evaporation exceeding the rainfall, and the climate being a continental one.
Geological Formations
in
connection with the
variations froraDrained
to
Undrained Regions.
30
From
the
of the dm-ation of this period; but
accuracy,
cannot possibly be gauged with any degree of
it
as there exist only conjectures as to the causes of the great variation of
the former climate, and no safe data. It
of Asia lay
that
some idea can be formed
thickness of the slowly increasing loess,
the
after
generally supposed that the eastern side
is
higher and extended further into the sea than
subsidence
of the
is
at present the case;
and the advance of the
land
winds were caught up by the mountains, and that
to this
damp
sea, the
may
sea-
be ascribed, for a
part at aU events, the gradual change from an undrained to a drained or peripheric
region;
this
change
supposed to have begun in the east and gradually extended
is
westward.
Without any important relapse
supposed
with
to
Hwang-ho
the
into
have remained unchanged, as
or
its
previous condition, the climate
also the drainage
is
and the river system,
Yellow River as chief stream, until the latter attained
present important compass, and will, very probably, extend in the future
still
its
further
into the steppes.
On
be
the other hand
considered a lasting
rain
and
rain
it is
supposed that thismighty change need not of necessity
No
one.
should occur in North China,
still
receive a fair
should
amount
oven
doubt,
extraordinary
Yellow River would
the
work together with other circumstances,
means improbable that a
into loess-land
was a
if
continue to flow
the diminution of
has ?jeen thought by no
well-drained stream-region might be transformed by climatic
Be
this as
may, the former change
it
review
the
of the steppes
resemblance between the steppes and
natural
has been deduced chiefly from
the loess-lands
it
still
but
;
diminution of
blessing to the country-and the foundation of its later greatness.
In the preceding
two regions immediately bordering on each
rounded by steppe-basins
which mighty
in
pieces of crushed rock, occur and which
its
an
of water from its affluents
variations into a salt steppeland.
with
if
,
drawn between the
Central Asia however is sur-
a comparison
other.
loess
formations,
mixed
with
great
with the exception of the district of Han-hai
sea-sedimentary deposits, are supposed to cover a mountainous country of
great variety of elevation and of form.
General Review of the
Air-cui'ients in Central
Asia, and of
lluencc
of
oil
tlie
tlieir
In-
theHumidity
Climate.
§ 19.
In
considering the above-mentioned formation one
must not
forget the
uninterrupted poor, nay barren region extending through the northern hemisphere from the
Barabinzian steppelands across the Sahara desert to the Atlantic Ocean, and across
which blows the North-east trade-wind. This powerful
in
the Polar circle,
northern
streams
bends
latitude,
first
more
in
and
cold
wind current, which
rises
a southerly direction, but on reaching a less
more
swiftness and without absorbing any moisture
to
,
the
west
and,
with
increasing
changes into an easterly wind
,
makes
the Sahara torrid and reaches the Atlantic Ocean.
The
in
ruling
Central Asia
directions of the
the
local
winds
air-currents
in
MongoUa
are insufficiently
known, but
caused in the interior by the differences of
temperature in summer and in winter maintain the upper-hand. In consequence of
the barometric
maximum
in the north, the
almost uninterrupted icy-cold wind from
the north-west blows across the steppelands during the winter half-year. In the
summer,
31
on the other hand, the heated
over the heated bottom of the same region rises,
air
minimum
that a barometric
so
is
attained, and air currents from
in that direction with prevailing vyinds from the south
In Thibet and
down
Yarkand
,
Fohn
like the
all
sides stream
and south-east.
in Switzerland
,
the wind seems to blow
the
valleys in the daytime and in the opposite direction at night. In cloudy
weather however, the wind, during the months of August and September, blows
continually to the north east and the violent dust periods occur, with a northwesterly
wind,
chiefly in the months of April and May. In this respect however the observations
which have been taken are by no means sufficient, and we should direct our attention
the counter-streams in East Turkestan,
to
subject to laws of periodical change.
in
drawing general theoretic deductions.
Japan
Sea and Siberia,
attraction-zone,
of the
it
arise so frequently
Still
this
head
and are also
will not
warrant us
from observations in North China in the
,
has been concluded that:
summer,
the beginning of the
in
which
Our information on
when
the hot air rises, the
in consequence of the rarefaction
advances to a point further and further north, while the southern
air,
currents extend in
the
same
direction;
meanwhile
air-
on the polar side of this heated
zone or air-space, northerly, and especially north-westerly winds prevail, and on the
withdrawal of the heated outline to the south, the region of the northern winds
when
follows the sun and thus causes periods
day,
as has been
air-currents
rately
every
its direction
The operation
of these
two
with respect to the distribution of rain has been observed most accu-
Mongoha.
in
the wind changes
observed in the valleys of Thibet.
the eastern mountain chain of China robs the southwinds
True
of a portion of their moisture, but in consequence of their slow condensation north-
wards
,
they disburden
considerable part of their water upon the steppes
a
,
although
there are no mountain chains to reduce the aqueous vapours to rain.
Radiation however favours the dispersal of the clouds,
so that the
humid
vapours do not get compressed into rain-clouds until they reach the northern extremity.
snow
as the air current in colder zones loses by
In
winter too, very
its
motion the power of condensing moisture
little
falls,
in the
warmer
ones. Moisture is
moreover
present in small quantities only, as the mountain chains of Sirke, Khangai and Saijan
protect this region from the northwesterly wind
and not the protected
district are covered
,
so that only their northern declivities
with a deep layer of snow.
After overcoming this obstacle the air-currents proceed to warmer districts,
but
first
on the high mountain-range of the eastern Kwen-lun do they disburden
themselves again of great masses of snow, on the Mongolian
In the western Shamo-region
ought to bring rain,
if
,
side.
considering the Tarim basin, a southern
wind
the steppes lay free and exposed instead of being separated
from the south by a colossal mountain wall. On the other hand there would be hardly
any rain in this region if the Himalaya only existed, to the exclusion of the
Karakorum, Kwen-lun and Tien-shan ranges. The part of Central Asia west of
Eastern Mongolia would then be a wilderness. The Himalaya attracts the moisture
of
the
southern
declivities,
also
the
winds,
and snow and
thus
receiving
an abundance
firn for its glaciers.
From
of
rain
for
its
southern
these not only the southern but
northern mountain-streams get their water supply. Besides this the high
mountain range of the Karakorum with
Pamir and the Tien-shan
the
moisture
during the summer,
also receive
winds, and
of the south
prolongations in East Tibet, the Kwen-lun,
its
still
,
form of snow, a part of the
in the
way immense quantities of water, chiefly
distributed among the rivers. On the other hand
in this
are gradually
the great mountain plateau between the two mountain ranges
gets
portion of the rainfall, and, in consequence of the snowfalls, less in
This fact
winter.
explained by
is
reaching just over each other, the southern stream passing across
former envelops the iceberg- tops, which take from the
remain in
and
absolute
it,
moisture
both
that
so
other,
each
above
regularity
contact, the
into
may
whatever moisture
air
in
so that no abundant water supply can be expected upon the plain;
would not even receive any,
it
summer than
two windcurrents
the northern. The
course taken by
the opposite
but a small
of
clouds
if
the two opposite streams were placed with
Where however
other.
these
two streams come
one becomes condensed by the coldness of the
the
and a
snowfall
trifling
occur,
near
particularly
the
mountain-range.
summer
If in
the
air-currents,
the air rises above the surface of the steppes
from
radiation
the
,
causing southern
bottom prevents the formation of
heated
clouds.
to
The high mountain ranges must therefore be considered as having contributed
the drought in the western part of Central Asia. They are however absent in
eastern Mongolia, which tends to prove that the dry air together with other agencies
enough even when the south winds have a pretty
of like nature are powerful
,
free passage,
to maintain the undrained state of the region of the salt-lakes. Various circumstances
however so cooperate
borrowed from the
of the vapours
sea.
The Ocean on the other hand receives but a
the floating dust with which Central Asia overloads the neighbouring
trifling portion of
peripheric
Central Asia, that this region obtains but a small portion
in
very
a
lands,
small
being
part only
carried
down
the sea by the
to
rivers.
§ 20.
Rainfall and Evaporation in Central Asia,
It
impossible to determine the annual rainfall. In East Mongolia,
is
if
number of ralngaugos were used these might give us a fairly average result in the
west on the other hand, this would give rise to many difficulties as in consequence
of the diversified conditions,. many places, sometimes beyond reach, would have to
a
;
,
,
,
be taken into consideration as influencing the results of the observations. For the
present then,
we must
confine ourselves to a general review of the rain distribution
according
different
zones, which would supply us with sufficient results,
relation
basins.
very
between
the
case,
to
This
lakes
Tengri-nor;
in
the
lakes
would be
were everywhere the same;
in
however by no means the
is
considerably
smaller
and evaporation
rainfall
of
sizes
of
in
the
trifling
the
extensive
importance;
district
deduced with certainty
of
is thai
a
fixed
case.
relation
The
for in that
for instance
httle Lop-nor
and some
the high mountain-land of Khor with the
Khu-khu-nor
etc.;
so
that
the
only
the average rainfall in the Tarim basin
in the other basins of Central Asia.
the
the areas of the
relation differs
Tarim basin with the
in
to
if
thing
is
to
be
less than
33
necessary to bear in mind the relative temperatures in so
It is further
§ 21.
they affect the distribution of rain
as
far
,
the chemical decomposition of the rocks
and vegetation, and especially the direction and force of the winds and
consequence of the great distance from the seas, the differences
are not reduced as
is
both in
ture,
MongoHa and
may
above will be
temperature
in
and
felt
everywhere in the same
There are great changes in tempera-
effect.
low Tarim plain,
the
In
;
add to each other's
thereby
'" Central Asia,
the case on the coast and therefore over the whole immense extent
of the territories, the influences described
way and
air- currents.
Relative Temperatures
on the
high plains of Tibet;
in
eastern
the great plain and basin of Dsungarei. Milder climatic conditions
in
occur locally, as for instance in the northern part of the Tarim basin, which
is
protected from the cold northern winds by the Tien-shan mountain-range.
The character
§ 22.
of the
vegetation
prevents the growth of trees and shrubs;
degree
of
moisture.
rivers;
in
places
in
In
dependent on the salt-alloy which
has been washed out and where there
salt
moisture;
is
,
trifling
and
northern
the
winds bring moisture or the bottom borrows
where even pine- wood
springs, and
occurs.
Without the
salt-alloy, the
have extended along the rivers and lakes, and contributed
milder
a
of
climate.
The Maralbashi
subsoil have been enabled to take root
where the
forest,
,
it
is
from the
woods would
to the gradual
development
trees favoured
by a moist
consists only of wretched poplars and willows.
has been clearly demonstrated in Mongolia, what an influence the greater or less
salt-alloy
has on the growth of vegetable
very favourable to their -growth
§ 23. In entering into
,
life
in the steppes.
Though the climate
is
woods are altogether wanting.
an explanation ofthe decrease of the mountain-ranges and
the aeolic loess-masses formed in the undrained regions
,
we
shall first devote our attention
and mechanical decay of the rocks. The decomposition
occurs in the warm season. The mechanical decay, where,
to the chemical decomposition
is
in central
Asia.
the oases where these two conditions are artificially superinduced; and finally in
a few crevices near the northern inclines of the mountain-range where the salt-alloy
It
vegetation
Asia trees are only found sporadically along some
Central
where the
is
on the rain and on the greater or less
where
fastest,
rain
during the wet season,
the
of accumulations of snow,
or in places
quantity;
above or
rises
falls
the
snows
to melt;
clouds
falls
and where the
so low as to admit of the formation
firn for
the glaciers can collect in sufficient
where no ice-coverings occur and the temperature suddenly
below freezing-point.
In the west, during
when
temperature
disperse,
the rainy
the
months, the weather
sunrays,
at
whereas in spring occur the
least
cold;
is
in
winter,
on the lower ranges, cause the
sudden
changes
of temperature
we
mentioned above. These extend further and further along the heights, till they probably reach a spot where in summer the thermometer no longer falls to freezing
point
in
the lowest valleys, but where there
mountains
,
decaying effect
the
rocks,
is
snow
in
abundance on the highest
and the temperature undergoes a very great change twice every day. The
of the
dripping water
penetrating into the seams and crevices of
and that caused by the night-frosts must not be overlooked,
least of all
5
Chemical
tion
Decompos
and Mechanical
Decay of the Rocks
in Central Asia.
34
warm
the high mountain-range, where during the
in
and
vails
accompanied by
is
temperature
the destructive action of gravel-laden glaciers.
summer may,
in the
cause apparently but
little
season the humidity
pre-
still
The high
consequence of the dryness of the atmosphere,
in
chemical decomposition at each point, but in consequence
of the
previous rock-decay its sphere of action
trifling
effects
is
much extended, and thus
the
each point will accumulate so as to form a considerable amount
on
of detritus.
East Mongolia,
In
where the spring
is
dry, the night and day changes of
temperature during that season do not find a sufficient supply of moisture to cause
any decay
the mountain-rock.
of
On
the
This decay penetrates deep into the rock, causing
Thus as a
divided
where there
rule
away by wind
carried
is
decomposition
chemical
other hand,
by the conjunction of the greatest heat with the heaviest
greatly favoured
is
assume a rounded shape.
to
rock, decayed matter becomes exposed and
The wind
water.
or
it
most
will only carry off the
whereas the water not only washes away these,
particles,
is
rainfall.
finely
but also the
coarser ones and the dissolved matter.
Action of the
the settling
Wind in
down of
Everywhere and at
§ 24.
the
all
times the wind has had an important share in
and deposing of the produces
settling-down
of atmospheric decay; especially in
Decayed Matter.
those
mountains,
the
off
where the
regions,
removal.
been
Clefts,
or
chasms and
Babylon,
their
a
layer
while
sufficiently
which
portion
the
and
exert
on
falls
which
soils,
meanwhile be borne
to
which
detention
in
washed
among
along the
owe
fulfil
upon
to
them
protect
is
washed
a weighty
part
till
to
regards
as
Mediterranean sea.
they have forined
hold
further
ground by
the
in nature's woi'k,
of
humus, which
their existence to this cause. It should
mind, that the natural or
fertilizing
floating
matter
the
by the influence
of the
artificial
watering of the sand enables
present in sand. With the faintest signs of vegetable
not
back
removal,
and the accumulations
The inorganic earthy constituents
measure
have
cities
showers could accom-
froin
it
of necessity gradually rise;
in a great
even
doubt
Afterwards the plants help to
them and
settles
all
the fertile clayey matter requisite for the nourishment of plants
retain
is
now beyond
to elapse before these dust
deep for vegetation.
vegetation.
cover the sandy
it
is
architectural remains
several
dry atmospheric dust
they
carry off the matter
dales, the ruins of vast buildings,
Such places must
next shower.
of
to
work. The clays and sands gradaaUy accumulate
matter
the
insufficient
where the matter once deposed was protected from further
Thousands of years however had
plish
was
beneath the dust showers. This
buried
Niniveh,
rainfall
life
,
and
the further
from the atmosphere increases, until some
climatic change causes these elements to disappear.
In
the
steppe-lands the mountain-ranges are bare.
On these extensive
gravel-
no forests have grown, and what Uttle vegetation there is, is poor
The
wind has full play therefore on this surface and sets the decayed
scanty.
and
covered rocks,
matter in motion. The heavier substances soon subside into the vales, while the
conveyed to great distances, settles down.
finer matter, after being
Here,
if
the vegetation happens to be pretty dense, they are thereby in a great
85
measure retained; but Jn the absence of
want
for
where the plants have withered
this, or
sweep them farther away
the storm winds
of rain,
in part or entirely,
according to the nature of the ground.
The
dispersion
matter
of this
favoured wherever the
is
ground has been
loosened by out-flowing salt, by frost, or even by the footsteps of caravans and of
wild animals. This can be distinctly seen in loess-lands, where the roads have been
loosened by cartwheels and by the hoofs of beasts of burden. In this way, the dust
being
blown away,
continually
roads are formed, which
hollow
in course of
time
reach a depth of 50 to 100 feet, and are then abandoned.
Often the road slopes steep
it
down on a hard bottom
to such a hollow
way, where
continues for some thousands of steps, to rise again just as suddenly. Ploughing,"
when
operation
the
is
not
ground
which they were
in
All
§ 25.
when
view
the wind
hazy
is
blue disc. This
is
laid
causes
these
particularly in loess-regions
at times
the
followed by rain, often gives occasion to dust
speedily
and the foundations of many a Chinese
clouds,
is
more
Central Asia, and
in
being the characteristic dusty atmosphere. Even
nearly at rest, the air
every
in
and others of similar nature
call into
,
fortress are laid bare, because the
has been blown away in dust.
direction
often for days yellow
is
while the sun
,
and opaque
only just visible as a dull
is
particularly observable in the sand storms that harass Tien-
Peking, and chiefly the interior of the north western provinces of China. The
tsin,
wind then blows from Central Asia, and
as soon as the storm abates, everything is
covered with a layer of yellow dust. In Shensi, where the air
transparent, the whole landscape
holy colour
it is
:
coloured yellow.
the symbolic of the earth
Power over
Imperial
is
all
that
is
,
and
it is
north
is,
in
is
the
mark denoting
moreover the colour of loess
its first
development. The
consequence of increased denudations, more characteristic of
than of Central Asia, where however
China,
but seldom clear and
the distinguishing
is
upon the earth;
and of the loess-lands, where the nation entered upon
loess-atmosphere
is
To the Chinese, yellow
it is
common
a
occurrence, the
powerful steppe-winds causing the same conditions in places less denuded. In Khotan,
according to the description of Johnson, the bottom
and yet
fertile,
that
desert,
atmosphere
the
settle
is
afternoon.
colour
it
;
which
is
owing
down on
the plains.
here so thick with dust
,
Even when there
is
the winds of the
no wind blowing, the
that one has to use a light to read large print in
The dust settUng down
is
of extremely fine nature
corresponds most nearly with powdered clay
sable to vegetation.
very sandy, free from stones
is
to the fine dusts conveyed by
,
and
is
and of a bright
regarded as indispen-
The reports regarding East-Turkestan and East-Mongolia
entirely
agree here.
This atmospheric steppe-dust being borrowed from the bottom, would cause
to sink,
if
it
the hollows were not continually re-filled by the material from the rocks
which have served and serve to build up the whole formation.
On
the
steppe- lands
it
is
,
settling
and thus
of the loess-dust, part will be retained by the plants of the
raise
the
surface;
subsequently washed away by the
part
will settle
down on
spots
whence
rain, either to be spread over the steppes,
Aimospberic Dust,
36
or
by the brooks
to be carried
Formation of Sand
and Gravel Deserts,
on
bottom,
the
separated according to their size and brought into greater
determined directions, a fearsome stream; and as
in
spinning round
that,
A
in
midst,
the
gravel-steppe
it
are
exposed by the moving sands, and get
parts being swept
is
away
thus formed which
form the grass-plains characteristic of
into
is
in dust, there
remains nothing
not again displaced.
Successive
the interstices of the gravel and
this kind of steppes.
which the formation
in
left
the settling loess-dust
force
The way
continually
loses the last remaining traces of the
hard, sharp quartz grains, violently driven against
the
the softer
however
is
being thus unfitted for any kind of vegetation,
sand,
This
away by
or rubbed
so
by the wind,
sifted
it.
it
loess-bottom and forms the foundation of a sand desert. The bigger
fertile
but quartz.
rains
in
which occur
pieces
worn
them;
and
was
that
covers the
is
the
The pale clayey constituents spread like clouds, and maintain
hovering condition even when the wind is still. The sand on the contrary rolls
steadily
clay
each
of separating the different
attacks
it
rapid motion.
less
their
from
loess
constituents are
different
or
of
Wherever
other.
in the
wind that blows.
The wind, as well as the water, has the power
§ 26.
constituents
down
to the saltlakes; finally part will settle
desert or on the rocks, to be carried off again by the first
of loess-steppes, sand-deserts or gravel-steppes
brought about by the wind, depends on the compositionof the bottom, the rainfall,
the steppe - flora
importance,
frequently,
and many other circumstances. There
,
not
that
no steppe-basin of any
rule they occur
whereas the gravel-steppes are not found beyond the Shamo-basin.
The water
is.
formed into channels
in the
a very important part. The rain carries
away
upon
little
the
is
some small sand-deserts, and as a
contains
rocks;
it
thereby
up the
fills
undrained basins and performs there
the materials which the wind has
left
unevennesses of the ground and forms
everywhere sloping planes, along which the rocky material glides further down. As
a rule however the rain is not sufficient for the saturation of the bottom, and the
streams
lend
but
ineffectual
assistance,
so
that
their
action
is
but
local.
Still,
however slow may be the downward motion of the rock material, the results in
course of time are considerable. The composition of the loess too points to a periodically
recurring rajufall
,
which sometimes
lasts a long time. This is the only
way
to explain
the action of the crushed rock which slowly collects along the edge of the loess, at
the foot of the mountain slopes, spreads itself several thousand paces over the steppeplains
rise,
and modifies the nature of the loess-surface towards the centre so as to give
a later period, to the formation and growth of marl-petrifactions, such as
,
,
at
occur in the loess-basins. Each of these periods of accelerated motion of the rock
debris, is followed
cement
by a renewed growth of the
The streams that
ordinate part;
of the steppes,
for the
which points
to the
commen-
rise
in
the mountain slopes perform a comparatively sub-
water, on leaving the mountain side, flows over the surface
without receiving any additional supply, except from other streams
which have been formed
in
loess,
of a dryer climate.
in
the
same way along the
ridges of the mountains.
the streams thus decreases, by evaporation and filtration,
till
there
is
The water
none
left.
37
The constructive role performed by the water when streaming down from high
is of more consequence. It then carries down with it broken rocks glacier-
mountains
,
sand and glacier-slime, in great quantities; and these substances subside either in
way
the central lake or on the
The accumulation
§ 27.
in
down
passage
its
to it, and before the stream is completely dried up.
of salt is also occasioned
by the flowing water. Though
mountain the
the declivities of the
Salt-alloy.
salt leaves traces of its
presence throughout the whole basin, yet the water will carry the principal part to
the
On
centre.
this subject
however, further investigation would be desirable, since
the nature of the salt depends on the decayed produce from which
and must be very
lixiviation,
mixed with a
sandstone
crystalline
schist.
for lime, calcareous
different
trifling
amount
moreover the basin
If
it
is
obtained by
sandstone, carbonated
of
hme, hard quartz,
is
very large, and surrounded by different
basalt tuffstone or
we may assume that the salt collected in it will be made up of pretty
same components as are found in that which the great rivers of Europe,
the Rhine and the Danube, carry with them to the sea. All the salts washed down
to the sea seem to be present in the steppes; particularly the carbonate of lime
referred to in § 16
which also occurs in all large rivers. Just as in the sea this
sorts of rocks,
well the
,
salt
remains
little
basins,
in
by mollusca,
precipitated,
is
a soluble
in
carbonate of
this
On
vast quantities.
Ume
and other animals, so much so that but
corals
state:
the
in
the
is
the steppes
it
same way,
in the lakes of the
first to settle to
the bottom, and
undrained
it
does so
forms a crust round the roots of the plants,
similar to that formed round objects in the bay of Constance (see § 17). This carbonate
of
hme
importance in the land-loess.
of great
is
It
guarantees the maintenance of
the fibrous system and the consistency of the bottom, which admits of the formation
of perpendicular walls of several hundred feet in height.
From
§ 28.
of
land-loess
the preceding paragraphs
points to
periodically
it
recurring
has become evident that the nature
periods,
rain
lasting
sometimes
for a
Climatic
Change
in
connection with the
Influence exerted by
time,
considerable
and
to
subsequent periods of drought and regular growth of
of
dry and wet periods corresponds with what has been
the loess.
of the
This
alternation
observed in Europe, and has been
ascribed to the important influence exerted by
the sun on the meteorological conditions of the earth.
The sun
of the
the
not only the cause of the
is
phenomena
winds,
of
etc.,
,
but
exercises
world than was formerly supposed.
and of
force
the
,
in
whatever form that
physical
conditions
periodical
of the
„De
movement
of the earth and the planets
day and night; of the seasons and cUmates
sea- currents
in our
in
the Physical Condition
condition
earth
of the
(see
is
it
not only occasions
It is, in short, the only source of
we know
sun
;
greater influence over everything
far
of
of. It
motion
has been shown that every change
immense
influence on the meteorological
the interesting communication addressed to the Dutch
Tijdspiegel" of 1888, by Mr. A.
J.
C.
Snijders).
There exist at present only hypotheses as to the source of the sun's heat,
but they have already acquired a high degree of probability. The sun was formerly
Sun on the
Meteorological
Condi-
tion of the Earth.
38
supposed to be a burning globe; this theory
the prodigious amount of heat which
of
evidently unsound, for were
is
has been throwing
it
off for centuries,
nution of temperature. Observations from the most ancient times
forms and
may
to the present
is
lost,
but that
sun
constantly
it
reappears
under
itself.
based on the maintenance of energy, one of the most important
is
modern physical science; and although objections may be started, and
of
theory
space
in
finally returns to the
This theory
the
down
of the sun's heat is best explained by the hypothesis of Sir William
Siemens: that no heat
principles
would
this.
The cause
different
so,
caused a great consumption of fuel and thereby a gradual dimi-
necessity have
do not confirm
it
not supply us with a complete solution of this difficult problem,
be considered as a
and important step towards
first
Mr. Siemens further supposes space to be
filled
still
it
it.
with a
rarified
atmosphere of
hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, which are continually reproduced by the action of
the
sun's rays,
From
causing in this gaseous mass a continual stream to the sun.
the spectral investigations of the
German
natural philosophers Kirchhoff
and Bunsen, and from a comparison of the spectrum of the sun's hght with that of
the glowing vapours and gases of the elementary substances of this globe, it has been
demonstrated that the same elements are present
the condition of these gases
spectrum, together
in the
in the
sun as on the. earth. Even
sun has been gathered from the nature of the
with other phenomena, especially the rotation of the sun and
its eclipses.
According to these investigations, the sun, at
consists of glowing
great depth,
gaseous,
to
arise
haze
of
to
be
metalline
and therefore not very luminous; so that the
from
fluid
photosphere
as
gases and
is
its cooling
and
surface and probably to a
its
vapours which are
light of the
parts,
and
,
to a
and the luminous outer envelope of the sun or
human mind
the
stationary
apprehend, proceed from the photosphere.
to
the transitory,
is
,
viz.
turned towards the earth; and
which are spread over
after appearing for a
two kinds
which alwa\'s reappear, whenever that part of the
spots,
sun in which they are situated
b.
fluid or
supposed
formed. The rays of the sun which perform such immensurable labour,
difficult for
the
is
down, by which the vapours on the surface condense
solid
In this photosphere appear the sun-spots which are of
a.
sun
few days only
,
parts of the sun's surface
difl'erent
vanish.
These sun-spots form irregular figures, and are generafiy considered as funnelshaped openings in the gaseous mass of the sun
and reckoned
sometimes at from 2000
to
,
the depth of which
is
considerable
6000 kilometers. They are distinguished
by their darker hue, which arises from their contrast to the brightly Imninous surface.
Sometimes they burst asunder and form a great number
of spots;
and sometimes they
are partly covered by loosened portions of the photosphere.
It
has
further been
shown that immense streams
of hydrogen and glowing
metalline vapours, caused by the great rise of temperature, ascend, in consequence
of their lightness,
with great velocity to above the photosphere, and there, in an
atmosphere of glowing hydrogen
,
called the chromosj)here
,
appear as protuberances of
39
masses. These protuberances, which appear as eruptions of
magnificent red-coloured
hydrogen gas, are caused by violent disturbances
in the glowing gaseous
mass
of the
sun and are closely connected with the spots.
The spots and protuberances
differ
every year in number, and maxima- and
minima-periods recur at intervals, influencing the action of the sun on the earth.
We
On
1.
it
would further
direct attention to the influence
the electricity
causes electric discharges
By
of the air.
its action
which the sun exercises
on our atom-laden atmosphere
characterized by thunderstorms and by magnificent light-
,
phenomena such as the Aurora Borealis, whose connection with the sun-spots has
been proved. The atoms must be considered as the principal bearers of electricity
and as indispensable to the phenomena which it presents to our view. Further
the sunspots, which are caused by violent disturbances and eruptions in the gaseous
mass
of the sun
by which the
the
On
3.
magnetism
of the earth, evident from the connection between the
the temperature, which in the periods of the smaller
higher than in the
is
4.
On
a.
The
maxima
number
of sun-
periods.
the meteorological conditions of the earth in connection with
quantities of rain and snow.
maxima than
of the
be supposed to give rise to different tensions in the sun-gases,
disturbances of the magnet-needle and the sun-spots and protuberances.
deviations and
spots
may
electricity of the earth is variously influenced.
On
2.
,
in that of the
These are about Va more in the period
is explained by the fact that an
minima; which
must cause a greater evaporation of water, whereby
must augment. So the height of the water in the
increase in the radiation of the sun
the
quantity of rain, snow
etc.
must depend on the maxima- and minima-periods. This connection has been
rivers
Proffessor Reis -of Mainz in his inquiry into the causes of the inundations
shown by
in the Rhine-basin.
b.
The hurricanes and cyclones
,
which are more important during the maxima-
periods of the sun-spots than during the minima-periods.
Meanwhile the protracted and indefatigable researches of Mr. Schwabe of Dessau
have proved that the increase and decrease of the number of sun- spots succeeded each
other alternately, and that the maxima- periods were successively reached after 9, 11,
10 years, thus on an average after
12 and
after 10, 13
and 11 years, thus on an average
Likewise
10 Vi years, and the minima-periods
after 11
Vs
years.
a periodicity has been observed in the protuberances, so closely
connected with the sun-spots, being for the successive maxima-periods about 11 years,
not however concurrent with those of the sun-spots.
The
periodicity of the sun-spots does not
seem
to be explained yet;
but
it
increased
in importance, when, through the researches of Mr. Fritz of ZurichandofMr. Loomis
in North- America, it was shown that the Northern-Lights vary in number and brilliancy
,
maximum
reaching a
every
11
years,
corresponding with that of the sun-spots.
The Northern-Lights have drawn attention in China from the earliest times;
and
have
it
is
led
not
to
improbable
some
that,
had regular observations been taken, they might
connection between the
formations, and the sun-spots.
wet and dry periods during the
loess-
40
The maximum number
of sun-spots
is
reached
not always equally great; there are greater and lesser
once
in
11 years,
maxima, which
but
is
after a certain
duration return regularly.
In
proof
of
this
Mr.
Snijders
recorded during the last two centuries.
Years
gives
the following review
of the
maxima
41
inundations of the Rhine-basin always, as Mr. Reis has proved historically, follow or
precede the 110 year periods of the sun-spots.
These floods have taken place during the time of minima following on the
years of maxima, thus always about 6 years or less after such a
seem
too,
which
their height,
is
which the following table
Dates in which
the
maxima occurred.
maximum. They
maxima as to
remarkable, to stand in connection with these
will
show.
42
by the extraordinary conditions
difficult
occur here, which have not
tiiat
all
of
them
been properly investigated. Thus the influence of the high mountain-range along the
southern boundary of Central Asia
of
Kwenlun
The
exactness.
The presence
Karakorum
and
are reckoned
while the Himalaya has reached
times;
prehistoric
its character.
the age of this mountain-range with any degree
determine
to
difficult
is
very important, and one of the principal causes
which the undrained region has borrowed
of the dry climate, from
It
is
its
have existed from
to
present elevation gradually.
an elevation of more than 3500 Meters, proves
that the mountain cannot have reached that height before the tertiary period and
of Eocene formations
at
,
;
if
cannot be
this
that
acquired
it
down with
laid
its
up on the southern
Asia
At
it.
materials
down
or
range,
of
district
brought
an
all
events assume
Han-hai,
,
is
to
by
it
form;
later
inland
sea,
the
more
rivers,
however,
which,
which at one time extended
quite
dried
fix
still
and
up;
the age of the deposits found
extended
especially sand
evaporation,
Middle
in
would be of
it
in
Han-hai, and the
and boulders, settled
some undetermined period,
at
by
paucity of rain on the
causing a
exact boundaries, and to
its
Now,
would, from this period, be caught
tiiereb\-
gradually
it
withdrew
diminished in
area,
up into a number of water- basin s whose area also gradually diminished,
them completely drying up, while others still remain as small salt-lakes.
The retrogation of the Middle Sea however, was probably not caused only by
split
some
it
the end of the Chalk period, this lake
in layer
leaving
the
know
importance to
in
of the
side
In consequence the Middle Sea
side.
throughout
at
present form and height at about the end of this period.
rain being always brought by southern winds,
northern
we may
absolute certainty,
,
of
the meteorological conditions of the earth acted upon by the physical condition of the
but also by the periods of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which in the
sun,
Tien-shan and East Mongolia have
about the period
left
when they began
unmistakeable traces, though nothing
is
known
nor of their subsequent development.
This volcanic action has not altogether ceased and has modified the height of
the land at a later period. In the southern Tien-shan, for instance, the motion of the
crust
earth's
has
caused
most recent sea deposits
shan,
several
been
displacements
raised,
so
as
of the surface.
Not only have the
stand upright against the Tien-
to
but the layers bend even under the Trias-rock, which forms the front of the
whereas the Trias-formation occurs under the Paleozoic. The facts
however are too isolated for drawing general deductions. Nevertheless StoUczka has
first
come
mountain-range
to the conclusion, that at all
subsided very
valley-basins
filled
;
,
much
at
situated
events the northern part of the Tarym-basin has
a later period.
between the
He
parallel
thereby explains the conjunction of the
mountain-ranges
fif
Tien-shan, which are
up with mountain-debris and have a steppe-covering. This conjunction has been
produced
by the river Toyan, which has bored
its
way
almost straight through the
mountain-ranges.
It
would seem too, that the presence not only of loess-steppes, but
also of
intersections in the loess, are to be ascribed to subsidences or upheavals of the bottom
in connection
with climatic changes.
Meanwhile the
earlier conditions are still a
matter of uncertainty the more
;
so,
43
as
it
loess
well
is
nigh impossible to examine the mineral remains of organic
and steppe formations
when
mountain-range. Only
life
a thorough inquiry into the nature of the water-loess of
when the
these districts becomes possible, will one be enabled to consider the period
was
land
last
animals were
and when the conditions of
covered with water,
life
present. Likewise an examination of the remains of
still
in the
because one cannot penetrate to the bottom or underlying
,
for aquatic
mammalia
in
the land-loess of China would probably furnish important additions to our knowledge
of loess-formations.
would
It
us too far
lead
within reach of rivers
when
this
happens
further
to dilate
formations. It is however evident that,
damp
a
if in
on the domain of the
climate a lake-basin
they will in a greater or less degree
,
a dry climate, whether hot or cold^
in
fill it
may
whether resulting from volcanic action or
Landslips,
may work
assist
various
in
extensive
and
settle
down
in
North China, an
mountainous country with valleys and ravines, and the chief features
present
the
not, displacements,
a like influence on the form of the surface.
Moreover at the time when the loess began to
valley
even then, found
place since
range.
;
in bringing this about.
the other dynamic processes,
of
is
up with sediment and
leads to the formation of an
it
undrained region. Upheavals or subsidences of the bottom
ways
steppe
brought
its
of
way
Hwang-ho,
the
to the sea,
and the sources of the
As however,
though
may
§ 30.
to
have
existed.
The
river,
many changes of elevation have taken
now much further into the mountain-
river extend
at a later period,
many
domain, there must have been causes
dry climate
seems
undrained basins entered upon
for this,
its
former
and among them, the change to a
well have been one of the principal.
For a due appreciation of the influences of chmatic variations,
we
will
suppose, for the sake of simplicity, the present climate to change into a period of
drought. The
Hwang-ho
advancing from
its
now,
is
in
source upwards.
which bring the supply
consequence of the increased
of water to the main-river, receiving less
would gradually dry up; the vegetation be modified, and
pear,
rain-fall, constantly
Should a period of drought occur, the streams
and the wind have
full
in
from the sources,
some places
disap-
play to ravage and desolate the dry land. It would
two principal constituents of the bottom carrying the earthy parts to
more favourably situated, there to assist in building up the bottom; while
the sands could only produce deserts, which the winds would carry further and
further, thereby increasing the dryness of the climate. The materials brought by
separate the
,
districts
the
down everywhere, thus also in the bed of the river, already
dried up. Where this bed is inclosed between mountains, the sand and
would be carried down with it and perhaps form a dam. Numberless
wind would
partly
gravel
settle
impediments would gradually cut off the streams from the basins, which, as soon as
their water-supply became less than the evaporation, would become undrained. The
would enter upon a period of growth and, whenever the former course of a
by mixture with the gravel
rise quicker than at
stream became narrower
loess
,
other
places;
the
bottom would get soaked through with
,
salt,
and the surface be
influence
of ciiiijaUc
Change.
44
changed into a steppe. This process would be repeated
tributaries;
and thus sooner or
same phenomenon
weakened force of
slower
rate,
drought
;
The
lead
all
the
cutting off of their basins, the
the
to
time, in
downwards along the
In consequence of the
river.
the river-current, the sand would be borne down at a constantly
form banks
of great
depth to be blown up into downs in times of
which would at length impede the course
larger vegetation
heat
later
also extending
same
at the
,
which gives shade
even in rainy periods.
of the river
bottom would disappear the radiating
to the
;
from the bottom increase; and the process described above
extend through the
simultaneously with the changes
on the surface, the
greater evaporation.
Finally,
might increase the depth and
geological underground action
isolation of
some basins,
while preventing the formation of others.
The influence
change of cUmate which, causing a period of drought,
a
of
favours the conversion of wliole districts into salt-steppes,
On
hand,
other
the
salt-steppes
into
period into
a
fill
wet
As has
one.
undrained into
of
to
chiefly
be
drained
to the
ascribed
most to be dreaded.
basins
loess
of
already been shown, a shght increase of rain might
an outlet through some
for itself
and
conversion of a dry
a few of the basins, and cause the lakes to overflow; supposing that
had not found
of
conversion
the
loess-lands is
is
crevice.
the water
Researches into the formation
have shown what great changes the character of the landscape, the con-
men, and the development
ditions for the existence of
of their agriculture
have hereby
undergone. Considering the phenomena in loess-districts, with this end in view, one
must
first
of
in the loess, but
to the
attention
call
all
from the mouth
As
upwards.
growth of the loess-ravines,
characteristic
has been shown in § 10, no inchnes will be formed
wherever a stream has cut
its
way
in, the distances
topmost edges of the terrace-like walls will increase
The rainwater sinking
ravine-systems with
away
the
into
bottom
ramifications,
from
between the
in proportion to their height.
cannot form ditches or gullets, but great
whence
after
heavy rains the water flows
These ravines have been formed from the mouth upwards, which can be
in
the
outshoots, where the clefts have as yet only a depth of 30 or 40
seen best
feet and a width of 4 to 6 feet, and where these dimensions remain the same for
in brooks.
several hundred paces,
till
they widen by uniting with other
clefts.
The bottoms
of
these clefts are formed by the planes of marl-petrifactions which separate the banks,
and the termination of each
bottom
is
is
generally dry and
if
cleft is
any
hollowed out in a semicircular form. Here the
rain
falls,
the tendency to vertical splits in the
which tendency occurs
at once developed,
Through
in the
waUs
same way throughout the whole
water pierces deeper and deeper till
it reaches the dividing plane, forming the bottom of the ravine. Here the water
which has penetrated into the loess-bottom begins its destructive work, by changing
length of the
into streams
cleft.
invisible splits the
and undermining the
ravine does not however increase
vertical splitting,
At
ten
or
it
does in height,
twenty
feet
about the same depth.
the devastation then
It
loess- mass.
Parts of this break
off
and
fafl in.
The
so
much
till
the surface of the loess-plain has been reached.
in
breadth as,
in
consequence of the
from the end of the ravine a cylindrical weU is formed of
seems, from repeated observation of this phenomenon that
sets
,
in
from the separation-wall between the
well
and the
45
termination
the
of
also crumbles
ravine
and
;
away from below
advancing
,
some
laid across
cart-ruts
,
of such wells
At
gradually.
undermining process goes on
the
not room enough to lay the road along the
the vertical splittings
Often a
new
time forces
its
and becomes useless.
,
a
which
vault
last the separating wall falls in, while
in course of
so that the road is cut through
along side-terraces, and often a
forms
,
in the opposite direction.
which
,
below
from
new end
road
traffic
way
right into the
Sometimes there
of the ravine
it
;
is
is
has to climb up
road has to be constructed. The action caused by
further developed along the sides of the cleft or ravine.
is also
Sometimes at the foot of one of the two perpendicular walls, a vaulted cave gets
formed, and at the back of it appears a loess- spring. This generally causes
formation
the
a
of
which
side-ramification,
may
develop
into
importance.
Thus may be formed a labyrinth of ravines, and where tlie undermining process
advances most rapidly, the ravine system thereby brought into existence comes
nearer and
nearer
the roots of another system that progresses more slowly. Both
continue to grow in size
will
become
from
separated
entirely
formed the
isolate
till
they meet.
the
rest
Then great portions
and inaccessible on
columns, which have often served as a place
of the loess
all
may
Thus are
sides.
of refuge
to
which
the inhabitants have retreated in timesof commotion, as into a fortress. In the interior
was made a spiral-formed staircase, which was the only entrance, and on the top
a temple was built, which in the course of centuries, through the progress of the
devastating action of the water, must fall in. These natural strongholds are often
hundred
several
feet
high.
In
other places however the
operation has
been less
complete and there remain, between a few widened ravines, quite a number of these
strongholds or castles.
The complication
the
of
slightly
inclined
of the ravines goes on increasing infinitely, in consequence
or horizontal separation planes,
the
edge of the basin, and whose presence
and
the
sometimes
only
marl-petrifactions.
the
contain
is
in
in
numbers at
by the angular stones
Towards the centre these separation-planes diminish;
mountain-gravel
then
disappears,
the petrifactions; while each of these
a ravine-system,
which occur
indicated
so
that
the
separation-planes
forms
planes
which the ravaging process has eaten
its
the
bottom of
way upwards from
below.
If
such a loess-basin
open up into
it
from the
is
side.
intersected
by a
river,
Thus the stream-bed
the various ravine-systems
in the
lowest bank
is
bounded
by perpendicular walls along the river or along its alluvial domains. The ravines
which have been formed by union with other branches, open into this sideways, so
that the topmost oufer edge of the lowest bank incloses them all. Above this bank
is
a plain from which rises perpendicularly the second loess-bank, in the form of a
terrace, or
somewhat drawn
back. In
many
places this plain is large
,
in others small,
and where the lower bank runs to a point between two ravines, the upper one
follows exactly the same pointed form, and the separation at the projection can only
be recognised by the heaps of petrifactions.
In this upper bank appear a number of branch ravines, which do not occur in
the lower bank. The third bank retires in the same terrace-like form as does the second.
46
It contains the continuation of tiie ravines of the first
many new
and second banks, besides
ones whose number in the higher banks continually increases thus forming the labyrinth
,
which
in the
topmost bank, especially near
edge of the loess-basin occurs with dimi-
tlie
,
met
number of ramifications. One has here to reckon too with the
the water which, when it rains, streams down the ravines. This water
At
nishing heights.
the edge^ contrary to the centre wliere the greatest dimensions are
with, occur the greatest
action
of
deepens the bottom and rushes partly along the side-walls, which are
and spht
These rendings are however much more powerful when
off perpendicularly.
the stream rises
in
towards the river
in the centre of the basin.
mountain-range that surrounds the basin, running farther
the
a passage along the
moderate
Then the streams hollows out
for itself
edge of the mountain-range to such a depth in the loess that
the water finds only a
with
undermined
tlius
difference
in
just sufficient to reach the main-stream
aU along
while
swiftness,
level
systems
side-cleft
open
out
into
the
deep cutting.
has
It
now been
shown that the ravine-system develops from the mouth
clearly
upwards, and that the watersheds occurring in
by the form of the surface, which
drainage
the loess.
be
drained off in
a loess-basin,
is
which the
in
can but very seldom be determined
single
the loess are therefore entirely
in
systems have formed their
may
falling into a gently inclined loess-plain,
an exactly opposite direction.
is
a steppe-lake,
This explains
direction.
by apparently harmless
pierced
outlet
in
where there
deposits,
an opposite
in
way
The water
in
liigher
The watersheds
mountain-regions.
of
dependent on the
it
contrary to what usually takes place in the
is
little
and which might have
other directions.
This
is
how
A
stream rising
may
in
streams,
last fissures
in a basin in the
flow not towards the lake, but
North-China dams are frequently
which
rise
been supposed to
just
them
behind
in
have found a much easier
much more remarkable when
a great loess-basin
The water
inclosed within different mountain-ranges, with only one side left open.
always stream from the sides to a central channel
does not then
instance
for
leaving
the
basin at the open side, but often finds for itself several, frequently quite unexpected
through the loess-basin's being independent of
exits. It finds these exits,
tlie
original
form of the mountain-range, and being divided into a number of ravine-systems,
of which
itself
have their own separate drainage;
This characteristic drainage of loess-districts
it
all
forces for
kou gate,
north,
in
tlie
and
may
frequently
be seen on a
Northern Shansi, which from the Tshing-tshwan-
small scale. In the loess territory in
great Chinese wall, extends with numerous ramifications towards
is
bounded on the east by a mighty gneiss range, the loess rises
against the mountain slopes to a great height.
water
consequence of which
a channel through different clefts in the mountain-range, and flows into different
rivers.
the
in
in this basin
would stream down
drainage takes place in
stream, which has
cleft
all
the
Here on the contrary the
the highest part of the loess, on the other side, in a small
for
itself
Just such another phenomenon
phenomena may be
In ordinary mountain-regions
to the valley- river.
chiefly
a narrow passage through the gneiss mountain.
may
be seen in southern Shansi, and though these
of local importance,
still
only on a small but also on a very large scale, they
as they repeatedly occur, not
must be considered as
of great
47
importance
It
•).
impermeable
soil
as does actually
evident
also
is
never exhibit 5 stream-systems
could
occur in the loess.
mountains,
we must
will
up as high as the lowest edge
it
fill
same
in the
limited basin,
the porous character of the loess does not
Still
a satisfactory explanation of this; for
offer
channels in an
the drainage collected into
tiiat
if
a basin
by a wall of
encircled
is
assume, in the absence of exceptional causes, that the rain
of
the mountain brim, and by further
increase of water, overflow and gradually hollow out that part of the mountain-ridge,
has made for
it
till
does
in
it
filled
efficient
up,
a
time
considerable
would not occur at
astmospheric loess-formation,
active
in
progi-ess,
loess-basins. Before such
could gather together, or in other words, before the basin could
rocky
which the water could
would
down
a water-loess deposit would settle
land-loess
This however does not occur, nor
channel.
any sense correspond with the nature of the
quantities of water
be
an
itself
have
its actual height.
when
clefts
find its
During
elapse.
to
that
period
and thus, the
the water-filled basin,
in
During the protracted period of the
the decay and crumbling of the rock was also
must have been formed in the mountains, through
way. Very probably these clefts are in some degree
connected with the mighty upheaval of the Himalaya mountain-range. Except in a
few favourable cases they would be
of no
service
the mountains into a rich aUuvial clay- valley; but
immense
the
a
land-loess
loess is
cleft in
formations,
which
saturated with water
let
down
to the rivers
when
which flow down
the mountain-range protects
the water completely through them, and
where there
to its lowest depths, then,
the mountain and the water has reached up to
it,
it
will
is
immediately be
drained off through the opening. Thus the water in the depths of a steppe-basin,
far
beneath the present surface,
may
be drained
off,
without perceptibly affecting
the salt-lake, which extends on the surface and above the water-loess.
When
such
divisions, each part
once established,
in
a
basin
may
,
consequence of different depths
in
be drained off through a separate
will, especially
by increased
consists of several
,
and such drainage
be lasting, and be characterized
the loess-region by the formation of perpendicular splits and ravines.
same time the mountain-sphts or
retaining
however the character
When
In the
clefts will
the
of a rocky cleft.
first,
clefts,
two cases are
possible.
the steppe-basin belongs to a former river-system, as
the case in the region of the loess-steppes of the Hwang-ho,
been
At
be widened by the action of the water
the conditions for the formation of such drainage systems are absent
from want of mountain
undrained. If thus
if
rainfall,
cleft,
many
separation-ridges, even
formerly the drainage gradually
when
now, are formed by the
must have
was still
it
loess,
and
extended over these ridges from a deeper to 'a
higher part, the latter will thereby also be included in the river domain, without the
level of the salt-lake within it being raised to
The second case presents
I)
tlirough
itself,
when
any appreciable extent.
a basin
is
surrounded by mountains in
The Indus and the Bramaputra, whose upper reaches are in the loess-districts, have forced their way
Himalaya mountains. The Poprad and the Arra which stream straight through the Karpathian-
the
range helong likewise
to a
developed loess-region.
48
which no
clefts or
spUts occur. The drainage then can only take place when, by an
increase in the rainfall, the water in the salt-lake has risen so high as to overflow at
the lowest point of the mountain edge. That this occurs but seldom,
the fact that the layer-like
however
land-loess, as
is
evident from
of water-loess are scarcely ever found on the
deposits
to be the case at present in the basin of the
is said
Khukhu-
nor and of Is-syk-kul.
The necessary consequence
salt
above
slowest
in
the
water-level
the
water-loess,
Below the water-level
before,
what
except
The
draining-channel.
the water
as
is
the lixiviation of the
cannot easily force
its
progress
will
lixiviation
way through
restored drainage, the salts in the bottom remain
the
of
is
the
of
restored drainage
a
of
by the plants
absorbed
it.
as
nourishment. Thus the peculiar
for
forms and bottom of the peripheric region of Central Asia are developed the vegetation
;
undergoes a similar modification and consequently also the animal kingdom.
Man now
finds
sheltered spots, and this leads him, in his fear of local isolation and of the difficulties
resulting therefrom to travellers, and in his appreciation of the fertility of the bottom,
the
to
irresistibly
Now
establishment of settlements.
and states, and thus the Chinese have penetrated so
very sources
the
of
Hwang-ho and other
Mongols with their flocks
husbandmen, and
rivers.
arise in these regions
with the plough to the
On the
other hand the restless
had to retreat before the slow advance of swarms of
this process goes
on
the villages and commercial centres they
till
have established have reached the outmost limit whence a drop of water
to
the
Only the steppes are
ocean.
towns
to say
left to
Nomads, who
the
is
conveyed
live in the strictest
isolation.
In
other loess countries, observation has
though not so
sharply
delineated
as
shown the same relations to exist,
where the inhabitants will never
China,
in
neglect advancing as far as possible towards the places, which allow of the agricultural industry necessary to their existence.
§ 31.
The Oases.
the
Finally
of the steppes undergoes important modifications
condition
resulting from the labour of the population. The fresh mountain-streams which
in
the
snow-plains and
Kwenlun, the
glaciers
steppes.
The bottom
supply of water,
universal
Tien-shan, the Pamir, the
Kilien-shan, and other mountain-ranges, are diverted
and spread
as they leave the mountains,
the
of the
is
is
thus
changed into
admiration,
both
on
in
and being furnished with a regular
fertile agricultural land.
of
from their course
numerous channels over the surface of
hxiviated,
account
the
system
These
of
artificial
irrigation,
oases
trees, vegetables, grains, pulse,
The culture
and
awaken
and the
produce which the diligent inhabitants have managed to obtain from the
of the former scanty vegetation.
rise
Karakorum and
soil,
of fruit-trees, of the vine, of
rich
instead
mulberry-
olive-trees is abundantly sufficient for the sustenance
a numerous population, and leaves enough over for exportation, to supply
them with the means of purchasing such requirements, particularly tea and sugar,
as their own soil does not produce. Now follows however the dark side of the picture.
of
The water which nature had appointed for its own purpose could not be diverted
from the steppelands with impunity. The more fertile the oases become, the more
49
barren
the
lower course of the
Formerly they could bear their waters to
rivers.
a great distance, ceding a portion of them to supply the central lake.
one
of the
for
oases canals, and to take into account the great quantity of water, required
irrigation
to
fail
the
itself
steppes
same
by
which gives
purposes,
avail
as
used to
it
the
turned
into
formation
The
barrenness
great
on
natural fertility of
slight
the
always
not
southern edge
does not
it
hand and great
one
is
much
the
This division characterizes too the changes brought about
be.
oases
the
of
Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, and
the
the porous soil an opportunity
absorbing the moisture.
of
of,
thus
is
to
on the other. The joint produce of these two factors however
fertility
is
Now however
has to reckon with a greater evaporation, in consequence of the extended area
Many
lasting.
Hami,
many
Pidjan, Turfan, Earashar, Ku-tshe,
more. The great
fertility of
Aksu,
the oases however
flourishing oases of former days, especially along the
of the Tarym-basin, have not been able to maintain themselves; and
banks of the streams,
in
former times the
home
of the
nomads, are now
covered with sand. The withdrawal of the water from the steppes necessarily causes
the
decline
bottom;
cessation
or
of
wind begins
the
vegetation there. Gradually the sands cover the loess-
its
ruining sifting process;
an enemy to
all
agriculture,
it has now full sway, and advancing further and further, at last reaches the oases,
which have helped to bring it into being, and, unhindered in its destructive course,
utterly destroys them. After the destruction of the oases however, the rivers do not
power but disappear
their former
regain
or are transformed into sandy-deserts, as
soon as their banks are forsaken by the inhabitants. This probably coincides with an
increased evaporation, for according to Chinese history; the Lop-nor, 4000 years ago,
was
still
an extensive lake, from which the Si-hai or Western-Sea borrowed
name. This name was afterwards transferred
Chinese
not become acquainted until
did
to
still
its
Caspian Sea with which the
the second century of the Christian era.
But even at that time the Lop-nor had shrunk
loam-plains, where the wild camel
the
to the size of a pool
between
saltish
roamed, but which was no longer a resting-
place for the caravans.
In the preceding review the geological conditions of China have been
§ 32.
considered
in
their
chief features,
only in so far as they immediately concern the
general condition of the Hwang-ho, and serve to
•
.
Meanwhile
made
to
Asia;
has
examine
it
very
noteworthy,
carefully
and although
been
is
far
into
that
the
since
geological
from complete,
von Richthofen, Prejevalsky,
with these important subjects,
On the
also
of the
China in
conditions
this inquiry, particularly in the wild
still
the
latest
of China
may
consult
may wish
to
and of Central-
and inhospitable steppes,
travels
and
Potanin and Szechenyi have reduced
subjects to clearness and simplicity. Such as
especially Mr.
make it intelhgible.
many years attempts have been
observations
many
of
diverse
become better acquainted
the writings of these explorers
and
von Richthofen's work with advantage.
other hand
Hwang-ho,
is
our hydrographic knowledge of the rivers in China, thus
still
in a
very unadvanced state. During their sojourn in
1889, our fellow-members Messrs. P. G. van Schermbeek, Captain in the
7
Scientific investigation
of the
Hwang-ho from
^ Hjdrauiic point
of view.
50
Royal-Dutch Engineers, and A. Visser were enabled to convince themselves of this,
and to give us some valuable hints as
From
their observations
and even desirable
and as
delay,
to take the river
may
this
provided the work
we
to the information
stand most in need
has become at once evident that, as
it
improvements
of the
Hwang-ho
it
is
of.
possible
hand without
in
be done without incurring the risk of ineffective labour,
out with proper caution, the
is carried
first
matter
for consider-
should be a hydrographic investigation into the general state of the river. It
ation
might keep pace with part of the most indispensable riverworks, provided due care
be taken that the connection between them should not be lost sight
more recommendable as being the best guarantee
of
of.
This
is
the
economy; and the inquiry,
extending through several years, would allow too of the most favourable periods
being selected for the observations, and place their accuracy beyond
The
we
inquiry
scientific
doubt.
all
have here in view, as being indispensable both for
a proper understanding of the river and as a basis for definitive projects, should
include
The placing
1.
temporary level-gauges on which the water-levels from the
of
highest to the lowest
may
be read at different places along the river and on the
the coast. These level-gauges must be sufficiently protected from injury.
The readings from these level-gauges, where there
flow, should be taken at least once a day and at the
may
sudden changes
causes,
other
the
is
same
no appreciable ebb and
hour.
Where however
be expected, from the presence of tributary streams, rapids or
must be taken
observations
several
times a day according to
circumstances.
Where
there
an
is
ebb and flow, both the highest and lowest
appreciable
must be taken, and the times when they
levels
AU
these
must
observations
be
occur.
carefully
entered
in
monthly and annual
registers of fixed models.
The
definitive
level-gauges
the levellings; and then
all
must not be placed
until after the conclusion of
the observations taken on the temporary gauges
must
be reduced in accordance with the definitive datum-hne. Self-registering level-gauges
are needed wherever the tides are appreciable
,
and
also at the chief points along the
These chief points however can only be determined definitively later on,
and will depend on local conditions. In reference to the system on which these levelupper
river.
we
gauges should be arranged,
caU attention to those at Ostend, because they are
very convenient and their diagrams
The placing
of
may
be multiplied to any extent.
some level-gauges along the
chief tributaries
must not be
neglected either.
The observations
should
of the
never cease. They
water-levels cannot begin too soon, and once begun
be exclusively entrusted to Chinese
officials.
Tire
and the diagrams should be made up quadruply: one
use, and the others for the managers in China or Europe and for
statistics
of the
copy
local
for
may
water-levels
publication.
2.
both
The general levelUngs and length measurements. These must be taken along
banks,
because the
level-gauges
will
be
placed along both banks, and
it is
51
necessary to determine as accurately as possible the heights
ments and the hydrographic
At
least one of these leveUings
afterwards.
connection
may
These
banks should then be brought into
both
masonry, constructed according to a fixed system.
pillars in
1000 or 2000 Meters,
pillars, placed at regular distances of
same time be made
purpose;
this
along
levellings
care and
never have to be measured
stream and connected also with the levels of beacons, which
the
across
might consist of
The
two embank-
the
must be taken with more than common
attention, so that the heights being once determined
again
etc. of
details of the district on either side of the river.
serviceable for the length measurements, and be
might
they
which the soundings have
serve
further
also
the
fixing
for
may
at the
numbered
main
for
along
lines
to be taken.
For datum-line the average low-water level at the mouth seems the most
recommendable, the difference in .height between average
ding to the China Sea Directory,
3.19
neap
could
Probably
tide.
average
this
M. during
not be fixed
however can be adopted and the observations from
the accurate level has been got
by
levellings right
and
left,
accor-
,
once; a provisional level
at
this
may
be reduced as soon as
at.
The general soundings
3.
and ebb being
flood
spring tide and 2.43 M. during
of
the
river
between the
in the prolongation of the
fixed beacons, extended
sounding
lines.
These soundings must wait, until the level-gauges are placed and the observations of the water-levels take place regularly.
4.
The observations
relating to the discharge of the river both at high
and at
low water-mark. The discharge of the tributaries must be determined at the same
to enable one to
time,
ments as a
rule require
examine
These measure-
their infiuence on the main-stream.
much time and,
when
especially
the river
is
in flood, give
measuring and mapping out of the river on a
sufficient scale,
rise to great difficulties.
5.
The surveying
,
which, according to the nature of the regions to be surveyed, might be
to
2500, the scale of
1 to
The stone columns
1000 being as a rule the
or
,
500 up
to
fittest.
beacons constructed for the levellings
serviceable to the secondary triangulations
1
may
made
be
while some other system will have to
be arranged for the sines of the primary triangles, for which temples or pagoda's
may
be of use or else the construction of larger columns must be taken into consi-
deration.
The observations respecting the mud-alloy and the displacement
6.
sand over the bottom
The observations on the
7.
their
influence
thermometric
of the
at different water-levels.
rainfaU and the evaporation, in connection with
on the loess-basins, and the ravine-systems occuring in them; the
and
barometric
observations,
the
direction
and
force
of
the
winds.
Observations concerning the loess-districts in direct connection with the
8.
river,
as to
their
how
9.
ravine-systems, terrace-heights,
watersheds; including also indications
the different parts of the loess-basin are drained.
The chemical analysis
of the
dissolved
matter, with special reference to
52
the
to
which may cause the dissolution of carbonate of
salts
extend to the water at
Thus the
various levels.
rivers in the steppe-land
which the chief would seem
of
salts
its
perature,
this
salt,
a state
in
ought
lime. This inquiry
must carry down with them many dissolved
kitchen
be
to
comes
of solution,
salt.
into
a moderate tem-
in
If,
contact with carbonate of
lime, decomposition sets in; and the latter forms itself with the salt into carbonate
and calcium of
of soda
to
carbonate
the
loess,
where the
of
lime
veinous system of the loess
entire
river
water comes into contact with the land-
which causes the petrifactions within the fibrous or
is
dissolved
and disappears.
If this
is
the case, the
system and therefore the whole character of the land-loess
fibrous
and the
altered,
There seems therefore
chlorine, both easily dissolved in water.
be a possibility that,
and clayey parts
be
sandy
or, if the separation of the
change either into loam;
latter
may
favoured, one will have to deal with a loamy substance or with
is
a kind of quicksands.
The accurate survey of the
10.
of
mouth
the
on both sides
and also along the southern coast of the Gulf of
Hwang-ho,
of the
Petschili, together
coast-line to a sufficient length
with the requisite levellings of the coast and soundings in the sea
to a sufficient distance
Whereas the
from the shore.
scientific
inquiry should extend over the whole region in direct
with the river, either through drainage or by material brought down
connection
in
the water, there are some subjects claiming special attention, viz.
The observations necessary
1.
which the currents
cise
in the
great influence; so
level-gauges
the
choice of a general datumplane, on
the
Yellow Sea, occasioned by the ebb and
that
at T6ng-tshou-fu
and
Pei-ho,
for
,
it
at Lai-tshou-fu
Lwan-ho, and
flood,
may
exer-
would be desirable to begin by placing provisional
also
at
the
,
at the
mouths
of the
Hwang-ho, the
south-western extremity of Liautung
opposite Tong-tshou-fu. It will then most likely prove advisable to extend the obser-
vations
further outwards to various points along the
Hwang-hai
or Outer
Yellow
Sea; but this must remain a matter for after consideration.
At
possible
all
by
events the temporary level-gauges will have to be replaced as soon as
definitive self-registering ones.
That part of the river extending from Shan-tshou
2.
tsin-hsien,
with the
Mong-
to the ferry of
mountain-pass of I-Titshu and the rapids. Accurate knowledge
as to the cross-sections, the flood-levels and the velocity of the stream in this gorge
is
of
great
of well
tion
importance for a proper consideration of the river
;
whilst the construc-
chosen bottom-dams, together with the use of explosives,
may
be of
great assistance in getting rid of the rapids. The placing of these ground-jetties
depend upon the accurate soundings, referred to
Thus
may
loess
at the very beginning very important and very desirable
be planned;
,
to
which
is
must
in a foregoing paragraph.
improvements
taking into due consideration the peculiar character of the waterreferred in § 6
,
of the current; the chief guide here
viz. that it is
not easily worn
away by the
action
must be experience.
In this part of the river one of the most important considerations
is
how
to
53
prevent the current from undermining the loess-walls along the banks, and carrying
made
the loess-materials, which are thereby
The
3.
For
tshou.
it
eventually appears that there
to the
from the
river,
fall
I
no settlement of
is
draw many valuable deductions
this part, it will be possible to
of the
velocities
for
mud
to the sea.
or sand in
the improvement
and the sections found here, considered
in relation
of the river in this part.
have thought proper,
for
the present, to limit the river improvements as
mouth
the observations and surveying upwards as far as the
also
downwards
into its bed,
fall
from the mouth of the Wei-ho or from Tung-kwan to Shan-
river
if
to
because above the mouth of that river there
of the F6nn-ho,
no navigation worth mentioning.
is
This need not prevent a later extension of the observations and surveying
further up the stream
;
but an opinion as to whether this would be desirable
formed only after the river has been provisionally inspected, up to the
For
above mentioned observations, surveys,
the
all
,
can be
glacier-regions.
the cooperation of
etc.
officials must be considered as being of the highest importance, to famiharize
them with the method on which this kind of work is carried on in Europe.
Chinese
§ 38.
From
the general review in § 2
improvement of the Hwang-ho
is
most
have become evident that the
will
it
connected
directly
with the dangers to
Dangers
great
to
Plain of the
which the great
lower plain
alluvial
is
exposed.
up with mud
or sand;
They
from the bed of the
result
is
river being gradually filled
the bed and the
embankments
are left; and, as
from the neglected state in which
many
suppose, from the slow rising
of the southern coast-line of the Gulf of Petschili.
These dangers
according to Mr. von Richthofen
,
,
assume a threatening character
at the eastern extremity of the loess-walls along the right bank,
embankment
dike gave
begins.
way and
,
where the southern
Experience confirms these views. In 1868 the Yung-tso-hsien
6 districts were flooded. The
£
new works were
distroyed again the
was then asserted that the
at
the
the
were
made
of sand, and that the
dikes thrown up
prolongation of
loess- wall
bed of the river, as it crosses the plain, pent in between embankments, was rising
next year, the whole costing nearly 600.000
in repairs. It
higher and higher through the sedimentary deposits.
These breaches have caused the most awful calamities, have destroyed towns
and
villages,
calamity
and cost the
however,
1887,
in
fives
of hundreds
surpassed
all
of thousands
of people.
the preceding ones.
reports from China, an area of no less than 1.942.400 hectares
by
it;
it
The
According
was
latest
to
the
severely affected
caused more or less damage over an area of 3.107.850 hectares; innumerable
people perished in the inundation; nor could
the
number
of those
who
lost their
whole property be estimated.
It
bring
its
has been observed that, when the river after such calamities could not
bed into correspondence with
transformed
the
new
into lakes
,
its
which remained
discharge, the most fertile districts were
for
dozens of years, until by embankments
river-bed had acquired renewed durability.
The calamity
of 1887, just as
the
one that took place in 1868, occurred
in the district pointed out as dangerous by Mr. von Richthofen.
The inundation spread
which the
alluvial
Lower-
Hwang-ho
exposed.
54
Honan and
over the great plain that extends over the eastern part of
part of Ngan-hui. Its area includes 11 towns.
towns
are
was
situated
flooded
a
to
The whole
considerable
the northern
district
within which these
depth,
and was described
an inland sea with httle or no outflow, into which the Hwang-ho, having
as
bed below the breach to dry up, discharged
its old
It
itself.
had forced
way
its
left
into
bed of one of the tributaries of the Hwai-ho, probably that of the Sha-ho. The
the
great city
on the
of Kai-fong-fu,
before
on the right bank, was thus for a time virtually
left.
Various opinions were expressed as to the nature of the water, which by
some was asserted
and
beneficial;
immense
as
be quite as baneful to the
whether the Chinese would ever be able
As
dike-breach.
that
soil in
the flooded districts
if its
to be
such an
it
may
be
nature had become as barren as some writers have
would be contrary to the universal law of nature,
asserted. Also this
stream has
settle
down
water and rapid currents. In this part of the river only
such sediments will be found as do not impoverish the land but
fact that the
great depth, by the
for the gravel
successively to the bottom soon
the mountains, only reaching the lower part of the river
left
in exceptional cases of high
remains a
it
dam
to
a proof of the fertility of the water however,
and sand swept down by the torrents,
the
soil
the husbandmen would not devote their time to the cultivation of the
stated
after
as others declared
to
to
sand forming the river-bottom
fertilize it. Still it
frequently scoured out to a
is
bursting of the dike, and spread over the neighbouring lands
burying them over a great area.
As
to the Chinese being able to
doubted of
accomplishment;
its
may
of river-engineering
be,
for
dam
the breach,
however
have never
I
for
one
moment
knowledge
their theoretic
indifferent
they show indefatigable perseverance in overcoming the
greatest difficulties, and they have a practical knowledge that rests upon the experience
have
in a
As
of centuries.
most
Capt. P. G. van Schermbeek and Mr. Visser, both experts,
extremely
testified, the
difficult
damming
last part of the breach are unequalled in
Europe and merit the highest appreciation.
on the one hand, the desire of the Chinese Government for the maintenance of the
If,
direction of the river is to be respected,
present
we may
that the present difficulties can be surmounted, provided
by a
preceded
are
tion
careful
theoretic
however, should not be underestimated,
and though
this
may
compared to the
entail
disasters,
of.
The
and
,
difficulties
great pecuniary
„
river.
left
still
in that direc-
These
difficulties,
any longer
these
are
to itself;
not to be
in
Europe, which
may be taken advantage
attending the training of the Rhine were in 1817 no less serious
after
happy the
good stead, and
the
sacrifices,
,
still
they corresponded in
be encountered in China; while the European
proverb
of
measures
misery and pecuniary losses caused by the inundations.
though of a different kind
acquired until
in
study
on the other be quite sure
all
nor the river
There exist moreover encouraging examples
to
accomphshed
of the breach has been
meritorious and clever manner, and the sinking- works at a great depth in the
is
may
man whom
1817,
of
still
serve as an
respects with those
experience and knowledge,
example
for China.
The truth
not
of the
makes wise" may serve China here
when we reflect that the heavy expenses
another's loss
higher value
many
55
Rhine improvement, as compared with
of the
its beneficial results,
are quite insig-
was accomplished,
various opinions
'
nificant.
Before the closing of the breach
§ 34.
were expressed about the contemplated river-improvements. These opinions were
partly prompted by a diversity of interests, the question being whether the river
made to take a north-eastern or
Government declared itself in favour of the
should
be
The Chinese
south-eastern direction.
first-named direction and, in consequence of this resolution, accomplished with extraordinary vigour and at great cost
the closing of the breach,
that for the present the question resolves itself into
so
an improvement of the river in a north-easterly direction. It must nevertheless be
acknowledged, that many important commercial interests have been adduced in favour
of
the
south-eastern
direction
for
into
purely
and there are thus good reasons
direction,
commercial
Without disregarding the
interests.
Government, this can only be accomplished by
that
in
it
the
would
first
great
alluvial
a
considerable
present
before
have
are
of the Chinese
two arms, so
whether the water supply and the
to be conside'red
plain
decision
splitting the river into
sufficient
for
both arms to
hold
south-easterly
direction
of
the
At aU
extension.
river
will
events,
the
incline
own. The
their
which cannot be too highly valued, would then have
inquiry,
scientific
taking this
for
consideration in case the improvements should be undertaken
serious
undergo
to
observations
have to be completed as pointed out
in
the
in §
32
the important principle of separating the river into two arms can be taken
into consideration.
On the other hand one will have to take into account the disquieting
phenomena observed in the Gulf of Petschili. According to the communications of
Captain Ferlie of the Pioochi the southern coast must have risen considerably during
the
years, which
thirty
last
rivers streaming
different
attributed
is
to
into the gulf. This
the
seems
mud deposits of
me beyond dispute, but
continual
the
to
the
importance of this deposit can only be duly appreciated when
its
extent has been
properly inquired into. The observations required for that purpose have been pointed
out in Nr. 10 of § 32.
Attempts
and
reservoirs,
districts
these,
to
lying lower
What
also
been
made
to
show the
desirability
been proposed to build a
than the river. The
river-water would be
of
constructing
dam round several
made to flow into
thus giving the sediments an opportunity for setthng. This has given rise
much
side,
have
for that purpose it has
so
I
not remarkable for the clearness of the arguments used on either
strife,
that
I
presume
have
is
not
meant,
by the Swiss Rhone,
always been able to understand what was proposed.
a
is
which,
purification
entering
the
of
lake
such as
the
river,
of
Geneva
in
is
exampled
a troubled state,
re-issues 70 kilometers further on, freed of its sediment.
No
decision can be
come
to in a question of such importance, based
on mere
Hwang-ho has been shown by the observations of
Captain P. G. van Schermbeek to be very considerable. The subject however requires more
study. Under these circumstances, it was going too far to assume as was actually done
supposition.
The mud-alloy
of the
,
South-easterly Direct'°" ^"'^ proposal for
"^T^
ir"'^
ion"
the River.
56
That, notwithstanding the powerful current, judging from the appearance
1.
of the
other half
down
carried
is
and the
in its bed,
to the sea.
That the water would reach the sea
2.
down
one half of the sedimentary d'eposits settle
river,
in
a fairly clear condition,
the
if
area of the reservoirs were double that of the river-bed.
That the function
3.
down
crust
sweep great portions
of rivers is not to
to the sea, although
was doubted whether
it
of the earth's
this natural process could
be arrested.
To determine the mud-alloy from the outward appearance
of the river, is to
form an opinion from an incorrect standard. The comparison of the Swiss Rhone
with the Hwang-ho, and of the Lake of Geneva with the proposed reservoirs, seems
to be rather
venturesome and at
The Rhone
events inaccurate.
all
Switzerland
in
is
120.4 kilometers below Brieg, where
chiefly
its
a mountain-river for a length of about
character of a glacier stream ceases, with
a discharge at Geneva of 270 cubic Meters per second and a
highest watermark
known
of 900 cubic Meters per second.
maximum discharge
The breadth
of the river
at the
is
30 M.
above Brieg and 42 M. by the Lake of Geneva at low watermark, and from
just
66 to 96 M. at high watermark. This makes the area at low-water 433,44 and at
high water 975.24 hectares.
In
between
comparison
a
point of significance,
Hwang-ho may be looked upon
the
mountain stream and
this
as an absurdity.
Moreover the lake of Geneva covers an area of 57786 hectares and contains
great depths. These are of 145 to 210 M. in that part, comprehended between
and the opposite shore
,
a distance of 389
M.
;
of
Vevey
300 to 350 M. at Meillerie
;
of
194 M. at an hour's distance from Evian; of 162 M. by the Castle of Chillon and
very most 97 M. between Nyon and Geneva. Without taking into account
at the
its
great depth and consequent vast volume
area of the lake
of
Geneva and that
high water (a rare occurence) 51
On the
level, is given as
The two
also
is
Hwang-ho
,
at an
unknown and consequently
differ
so
considerably
rendered
there
this,
At
the
stream,
gation.
,
and at
the
along
are,
for
comparatively
possibility
as
uncertain water-
that they admit of no comparison.
Hwang-ho and that
in
lower Hwang-ho,
no valleys of any
best there are a few districts, outside the mountain regions,
utilized
serviceable
The
1
out of the question.
is
the
settlement of the river-mud
depth below the bed of the stream they might
bed.
,
the case with the matter in suspension in the
considerable depth.
within
:
2:1.
relations
which might be
mark
between the
1.
the Rhone; comparison between the two
Besides
the relation
other hand the relation considered necessary for the area of the projected
reservoirs to that of the
This
:
of water,
of the Pthone at low- water is 133
in
few
years.
strengthening
however
reservoirs
of
on
rise to a level
These
the
making use
a
larger
smaller
embankments
of
scale,
but being of
trifling
with the usual water-
mud-reservoirs
might be
or maintaining the river-
valleys
will
;
on
the
require
upper part
special
of
investi-
57
from what precedes
It is evident
§ 35.
tliat
no improvement of the Hwang-lio
take place until the river has been methodically made to correspond in dimen-
can
sions with its discharge and
The
fall.
thing to be settled
first
is
determine the cross-section, which will not
to
by any means be the same at different parts of the river, but
constantly
modified
discharge.
It
Nevertheless
is
it
down
impossible
accordance with
in
determine
to
these
its
fall
and increasing
cross-sections
at
once.
not superfluous to observe here that the determination of cross-
sections constitutes a
not
stream
the
therefore
is
have to be
will
main
principle of
all
river-improvements; but to simplify matters
the cross-sections themselves, but so called normal-lines indicating the normal
breadth of the rivers are drawn on the map.
Attention should also be called to the following rules.
When
1.
the
difference
between the usual and the maximum discharge of a
river is comparatively small, as is the case with the
to
make use
of a sectional area on
single lines
and
Swiss Rhone,
to determine
it
will be sufficient
-.
The breadths of the river at average, high and low water-mark.
b.
The heights of these water-marks.
c.
The heights above these water-marks which may be judged necessary for
the grounds between the embankments and the river as also for the projected
a.
river- works
either
forming jetties
,
longitudinal or transversal.
river-piers or cross-dams
The heights
d.
Where
of the highest
The sloping summits
of these
works,
are thus determined by these heights.
water-marks and
embankments above them.
of the
the river curves, the shallows which the passing of the current from
one bank to the other occasions,
Whenever the
2.
,
may
be obviated by narrowing the stream.
between the common and
difference
maximum
discharge
increases, the relation between the sectional areas at the corresponding water-marks
n'.
in like proportion.
increase
will
1
would
enlarge
therefore by the
the
The
sectional
application of the
area
principle
by increasing the
described
river's
in
rule
breadth
and
construction of long cross-dams or piers with gently sloping tops.
These would occupy a great breadth of the river would not guarantee the undisturbed
flow of the water at high floods; and would cause difficulties in the execution
;
of the
works, without
its
being possible to determine
how much time would
be
necessary for the gradual covering of the foreshore by alluvion or sand deposit. Another
objection is that the construction of slightly inclined cross-dams would, in consequence
of the
limitation of the sectional area at high water-mark
,
very probably raise the
and thereby necessitate the construction of high dikes, the execution of
not being always immediately followed by a scouring of the river-bed,
works
these
while on the other hand high floods may occur at any moment.
water-level,
These
difficulties
downwards,
sectional
area
velocity,
must become
increases,
larger
so
area,
unknown
are
will
very
in
much
increased when, as generally happens, the
consequence
larger. It should also
of decreasing fall
and thence decreasing
be borne in mind that, as the discharge
the floating matter increase
too,
and require a proportionately
which, as long as the amount of material present
in
the stream
is
an
quantity, cannot be accurately determined. The section however can only
Pi-opo'^od
improve-
'"""* "^ ""^
'''""^'''
58
increasing the breadth or by raising the water-level, so that
be enlarged either by
the
longitudinal
section
of
the
and
river
very careful examination, before
it
heights
the
of the
soil
would require
can be determined whether a higher water-level
would be advisable.
In the sectional area on single lines too, the great difterence in the discharge of
stream leads
the
the river.
In
into
section
an
all
which raises the bed of the stream with every change of direction
of its current. This is visible
one immediately preceding
upwards
bank
of every
increases the
it; it
,
or near the lower part of the
downwards
fall
and, in that case, leads
an increase of the depth and a diminution of the breadth.
that a diminished
It is
breadth of the low-water channel, provided
the capacity of the stream at flood-time, will be the only
course of the stream, giving
It
this
words, the river cannot deviate from the universal law of
other
watercourses,
to
which convert
the formation of banks,
to
double-lined section with a separate low-water channel within the bed of
irregular
a more regular
it
fall
mean
it
evident therefore
be consistent with
to diminish the
winding
suitable to the purpose in view.
obvious then that a section on a double-lined system becomes unavoidable,
is
with a narrow river-bed, with secondary embankments limiting the breadth of the
sectional area
and
finally
up
to a certain height, but getting flooded
when
the water
is
higher,
with high embankments destined to prevent the river from overflowing
at exceptionally high floods.
The determination
from
would depend on the results obtained
of this sectional area
the following observations of the water-levels.
The average low- water and lowest water-mark, because
a.
The
probable water-level
often
as
b.
as
rises
falls
it
below
i.
it;
the r6gime of the river, and the
close relation to
d.
The usual high-water
e.
The highest
called
for
any
it
possible
e.
water-mark, above which the water
the
because
exercises a preponderant influence on
it
dimensions
of
the
river-bed
must be kept
in
special
interferes with the drainage of the district.
level.
water-level.
These water-levels will
traversed
makes
it.
The water-level which
c.
this
depth of channel at low-water requisite for navigation.
to consider the
attention
by the Hwang-ho
wet and dry periods. This has not however
Europe. The differences however in the regions
differ in
in
will
in all probability
be greater, because the drainage
during the dry periods, in consequence of the steppes and loess-regions, diminishes to
such an important extent. Very
likely
a sectional area on a double or even triple hned
system wiU be required , but on this subject no definitive conclusion can be arrived
until
we
The question
of normal breadths cannot be discussed at present.
hand there need be no hesitation about determining
at once the
may
As
be
judged necessary for the high-water dikes.
kept a more than
provide
at,
are in possession of further data.
sufficient distance apart.
them with the necessary
fascine-
vation, to harden the summit, so that they
On
the other
improvements that
a rule they will have to be
To strengthen these embankments,
or
stone-works
may
to
for their general preser-
serve as traffic-roads,
—
bestowing
59
-
especial attention on the southern dike in the great alluvial plain,
a
is
work which
should be proceeded with without any delay. Wherever the high loess- walls have been
undermined
or
washed away they must be
by embankments,
protected, for instance
so that, isolated from the river-bed, they cannot increase the material in the stream.
The right-bank
too, especially in the alluvial plain,
may
in
many
to the necessities of the case, be brought into a normal condition
away by
have been eaten
reaches
will
have
the
action
of
dredged to a
to be
which
to state accurately the depth
and
of greater tonnage;
great, as no great depth is necessary for the
will require later
it
successfully.
quantities.
Even
we
we
The limits ofthe ultimately required
they must indeed remain
;
still
for the
present
have never been
in the river, in its present condition, they
are
mine
on a deeper channel for ships
importance of the matter in sus-
this materially increases the
sectional areas are therefore not to be gauged
properly observed, and
impossible at present
is
the developing industry of the coal and
which
pension and the necessity of combating
unknown
depth. It
will be required to render these channels nagivable.
Still
districts should not be lost sight of,
the banks which
;
water must be repaired; and some
the
sufficient
The requirements cannot however be very
transport of agricultural products.
places, according
in uncertainty as to the fall of the
stream and
its
how far the tide is felt up the river. After
this many arms which are out of place in a regular river may be dammed and the necessary
steps taken to have them filled by the settlement of river deposits. Where strong curves
render cuttings desirable, these may be begun at once by digging a channel and
velocity
;
know with
do not even
certainty
counting on the force of the current to widen
from these cuttings should as
it
bye and bye. The ground excavated
far as possible be
used for
filling
up the condemned
arms, in order to diminish the downward flow of matter in suspension.
Meanwhile the necessary works must be planned
marshes and other low-lying
purpose, wherever
might be
overflows
filled
it
may
districts
be judged necessary, mud-reservoirs might be made. These
at the upper end with water from the river, by
the embankments.
in
for raising the surface of the
along the Hwang-ho, by alluvion; for which
After
means
of sluices
or
a sufficient period of rest, during which the
greater part of the sediment would settle down, the water might be allowed to flow
back into the stream from the lower extremity of the reservoir.
At the same time in view of the improvement of the river
,
should be allowed to pass of utilizing the
mud in
it,
for
,
no opportunity
strengthening the
embankments
or for levelling or raising the land outside the actual bed of the river.
By
regularizing the depth and constructing ground-jetties, the difficulties caused
by the rapids in the mountain-pass, might soon Ije considerably diminished; while
at the same time, by constant soundings and measurements, the condition of that
portion of the river should be carefully observed for subsequent operations.
The power
loess,
of the stream to
Rhine near Wesel to
view
wear away the
should be carefully noted, since, as
of this
it
is
we have
loess,
withstand the wear and tear
of importance to obtain as
much
more
seen in §
particularly the water6, it
was
able in the
of a powerful stream; and in
information as possible as to the
nature of the loess and of the river-bottom.
At
this
stage of the
works, the above described improvements
will already
60
have borne
since in
fruit,
tlie
uninterrupted
the
staff
tlie
inspection
meanwliile
of
the
with the state of the
regularize the opposite or left bank.
scientific inquiry described in §
works already executed,
river.
normal breadth of the river at some
tlie
This
of the
will
enable
step
have familiarized
to
determine
the
more favourably situated parts and
Thus the works may be
while the information gained at every
will
them
82 and
will
to
steadily proceeded with,
further
serve as a basis for the
determination and development of the general plan, the object finally to be attained
becoming more and more
clearly defined.
This only completes the
the
something
may
first
and widenings
contractions
period of river-improvement, without considering
of the stream incident on its changes of direction;
be done to get rid of them even at this stage, but they can only be
understood and rectified after a thorough study of the regime of the river. They are
however,
for the present,
but of minor consequence.
Nor have we bestowed any further attention on the dreaded dust-storms, as
they can only be kept in check by extensive forest plantations. In consequence of the
and of the protracted droughts, the steppes, which are the centra
salt-alloy in the soil,
of these storms, admit of no forest-growth, and vegetation of
any kind
is
scarce.
There are moreover no sufficient indications that might help in answering the
difficult
interests
question
as
whether,
to
without
the
injuring
all-important
which are indissolubly bound up with the loess-formations,
possible to protect
the
river
up
to a certain degree
plantations along its banks. For the present
agricultural
it
would be
from the dust-storms by tree-
we merely
call
attention to this
;
it
must
remain a matter for after consideration.
Meanwhile the observations and surveys require so much care, that
§ 86.
Division of Labour.
would be necessary, as
far as possible, to
spot. It should consist of
enabled to master the
have the technical
staff constantly
Chinese and foreign experts, in order that the former
it
on the
may
be
knowledge connected with the rivers, and become
accustomed to apprehend with exactness the European methods of working. In the
case
of river-works,
down with
the
plan and the
difficult
is
it
strictest
of the
utmost importance
to
foUow the
lines once laid
exactitude; for should the connection between the general
river-works
be
broken, the soundness of the latter would be greatly
impaired. Nevertheless the practical execution of the works, as well as the choice of
materials
etc.,
of
might take place as
is
customary
in China, as the advisabihty of the
making osier-works, can only be gauged during the progress
the works. The presence of stone of great hardness in close proximity to the
Dutch method
of
river will greatly facilitate the execution of the works.
The general tendency of the training-works must proceed upwards from the
mouth of the river. This admits however of exceptions some of them even necessary.
The works intended to strengthen the right-bank, from the eastern extremity of the
loess- wall as far as Kai-fong-fu, must be reckoned as among the first and most necessary.
,
The
scientific
inquiry
for a distance of
rest
into
the state of the river below
Tung-kwan must however,
85 kilometers up to Shan-tshou, take place simultaneously with the
of the inquiry,
because this part of the river seems to be in a normal state,
61
and would therefore be of great value
forming an opinion as to the regime of
in
the river.
Throughout the whole extent of the
alluvial plain the following points should
never be lost sight of:
How
1.
may
the later definitive works
be prepared by temporary ones.
This
requires the utmost caution.
How
2.
give
stream within the dikes, thus rendering
waters.
of its
neglected
in the river and, as far as possible,
;
and
less
it
and
stand here, no doubt, before a
less suitable for the
conveyance
problem, whose solution
difficult
every year that the river remains in
difficult
The consequences
state.
incalculable
to
We
become more and more
will
mud
to diminish the quantity of
a better destination than that of raising to an alarming extent the bed of the
it
of this neglect
if
its
not speedily remedied
present
may
be
such a powerful country as China does not take immediate steps
if
check the deterioration of this important
river,
she will very surely have reason
to regret it later on.
The
would thus have
staff
to consist of five chief divisions according to the
following division of labour.
Division
I
The placing
:
the construction
division
II,
of provisional .level-gauges
of bases
for
;
the fixed beacons and, after consultation with
also those for the triangulations
the arrangements for the reading and booking of the water-levels on the level-
gauges;
the general levellings and longitudinal measurements
,
and the observations and
calculations relating to the discharge.
must be strongly represented.
the survey and mapping out of the river,
In this division the Engineering element
Division II
The triangulations
:
measurements being confined
country on either side of
it,
at
;
first
to
the river and
but afterwards,
a limited
to
when a more
correct
part
the
of the
judgment can be
formed, they would have to extend to the loess-districts, wherever they come in any
way
Hwang-ho; the soundings.
into direct contact with the
These operations being concluded, the tributaries must be attended to in the
same way, together with the loess-basins, with which the labours of this division
come to an end.
Division III: The observations of the rainfall; evaporation; direction of the
the barometrical and thermometrical readings
force of the wind etc.
wind
;
;
exploration
the
of
the
loess-formations
and ravine-systems
in
connection
with
division II; the mud-alloy and the chemical analyses.
Division
it;
IV
:
The measurements
of the sea-coast line
and the soundings along
and
Division
The
V
:
The execution
staff of division II
of the works.
and of division
III
have each a separate
tions,
and though under the same management and frequently
other
divisions,
completion,
they
must
when they have
in
most
respects
after consultation
bring their
with division
I
field of
in contact
task to
opera-
with the
independent
proceeded as speedily
62
as possible in the placing of the bases or piers for the beacons and the sines of the
triangulations.
The
the other divisions will form so to say, one whole of engineers
staffs of
and sub-engineers or foremen whose duties
the work in hand. Chinese
may
they
learn
be placed with these to be instructed, that
officials will
manage
to
vary according to the requirements of
will
for themselves, taking
a more and more active part in
the works.
into
an Upper, Middle*
The
§ 37.
Division of the River
rlver
may,
above purpose, be considered as divided into the
for the
following parts.
and Lower Part.
rpj^^
^pp^j.
p^^.,.
mountain-range along
from the source. In
between
it
may
which according
works
3043 kilometers
to § 2 is at a distance of
must be those
be completed
first of all to
Tung-kwan, a distance
and
up the
first
down
the
towards
river
downwards, must de determined
continuation
eastern extremity of the northern
of 85
order
in
kilometers,
that
be taken of this apparently normal part of the river. The continuation
works, either
of these
,
this part the
Shan-tshou
advantage
^^^ p^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^
^^
^
on according to circumstances, though their
later
seems
river
junction with the Fonn-ho, or
its
Here the importance of with-
preferable.
drawing the loess-walls from the undermining action of the stream should not be
lost sight of.
may
be begun at once without awaiting the results of the scientific
provided a regular channel of more than sufficient breadth at high water-
inquiry,
mark
This
be assured.
The Middle Part, extending from the eastern extremity
of the
above named
northern range to the Great Canal.
In this part the works must,
below the
i),
of 1852
breach
proceeding upwards to
the Emperor's canal proceeding upwards to
Here,
begin at some distance, say 3000 M.,
first of all,
beginning; and then from
its
junction with the first-named.
its
should be borne in mind, the works for strengthening the southern
it
banks and the southern dike should be begun as soon as
and where necessary
possible,
and practicable the river-bed straightened, and brought into a normal condition.
The
great
1)
to this
The
hau
the
water
the
bed
present
of
Hwang-ho
Mr. Noy Elias
was
in
arms
principal
is
at
at Tsin-kiang-]
though likely to be of
,
is
mentioned as such
1867
still
in the
open
an
maps
till
1852.
question.
With respect
u have demonstrated that the chantje
and took place between the years
a gradual one,
northern embankment occurred
in the
plain.
water of the
This
their
The high
in the old
had formed
in
to
two
into
-ISSl
and 1853. The
hiyh water during the '.ummei' of 1851, near Lan-Yang-
Honan. Only a portion of the water then streamed through the opening of the breach over the northern
and eastern
of
river
old south-eastern course of the
old
breach
in
of the
promoting great commercial interests,
however, the investigations
from the
first
division
service in
Hwang-ho streamed over
for itself
18.5-2
for
so
in
much
1853
the lowlands to
increased the size of the opening that the flow
this
process had so widened the breach, that
the north
and
east,
till
in
the present river-bed
all
it
an outlet through the Tatsing-rivei- (now the Hwang-ho) into the Gulf of Petchlli.
occasioned
struggle
state of the water in
bed constantly diminished. Finally
great
poverty
existence,
in the deserted districts of the
betook themselves
misery the neglect of the Hwang-ho gives
rise to.
to
Hwang-ho, and the wretched inhabitants
rebellion ami plunder. It
may
be judged from
this,
what
63
The examination required
must be conducted with understanding
this purpose
for
and great accuracy. In a river
Hwang-ho, containing such a
like the
two branches
of sediment, the division of the stream into
large proportion
a very serious question
is
it
should not therefore be undertaken without serious consideration of the consequences
it
might lead
be
and
made
answer
to
commercial
the
to
Hwang-ho permit
the
of
fall
Should however the inquiry show that the Emperor's Canal cannot
to.
a
of
and
requirements
division
the
of
the extension of the works to an inquiry into the south easterly
This
justified.
inquiry however
and include
decision
The Lower
the
that
river
capacity
two arms,
direction would be
into
must absolutely guarantee the soundness
of
the
also the sea- deposits.
from the Emperor's Canal to the
Part, extending
sea.
The works at
sea undertaken with a view of forming a correct judgment of the sea-deposits
be reckoned under this head. The settling of the
mud
in the
must
marsh-lands should be
an object of special consideration, as also the straightening of the river-bed, and the
closing
and
filling
§ 38.
of the side-branches.
For each division
be necessary to
will
it
fit
up large vessels
for the
residence of those employed on the works, with suitable apartments for office-work
whicli
at
this
stage
dweUings must
first
permanently fixed at chief places, as
be
not
could
be erected corresponding with the requirements which, though
unknown, wih evidence themselves with the development
at present
efficient
of the works.
This question cannot be finally settled until the views of the government have been
made known. This however
and even more,
will
is
of no consequence as quite this
number
of vessels,
be necessary for the prosecution of the works later on. The
outlay for the staff in comparison with that required for the execution of the works
is
of
minor consequence
direction.
would be exaggeration
it
;
Moreover the value of the
Every expenditure
in
direction
this
scientific
is
to endeavour to economize in this
inquiry
cannot
be over-estimated.
but an extra guarantee for the execution of
money
the works without disappointments. The
laid
out in an inquiry of this nature
ways and means.
vessels the communi-
will be repaid a hundred fold in the diminished expenditure in
For the general management
;
the tugging of the great
;
cation with the banks where the works are going forward; the transport of materials
in boats or barges;
and
finally for the observations at sea, three or four
would be required at once. The power and
size of these
steamboats
steamboats would have to
depend upon the state of the river; upon the places where the vessels would have
to
retreat during the ice-drifts, a subject on
mation to-hand; and upon the more or
Chinese
government. This makes
it
which there
less broad
not yet sufficient infor-
is
view of the works taken by the
impossible to
come
at
once to any definite
conclusion.
The smaller vessels
from the general
for the
installation
soundings and other works are matters inseparable
and need not be discussed here.
The whole economy of the management and execution of the works depends upon
the annual
sum
available for this purpose
be obtained. Every thing
has
still
,
together with the working-power that can
to be settled.
One matter
for careful consideration
Residence of
ttie staff,
the
is
supply of materials, and the working of the stone-quarries,
financial
importance that these should
communication roads
of river- works,
it
,
system, with good
definite
To ensure due economy
necessary to allow to the technical
is
staff,
the execution
in
while holding them
very great deal of discretion in taking advantage of circumstances,
strictly responsible, a
as they
present themselves,
savings.
It
leaves
worked on a
be
or temporary railroads.
being of great
it
for the execution of the
very freedom
for this
members
the
the
of
staff free
may
works which might otherwise
frequently result in great
suffer
from want of foresight.
should also be remembered that a vigorous prosecution of the works
It
run the most economical, provided
and the due superintendence
technical
staff,
and that a proper balance be
maintained between the working power and the materials employed by
China
this scourge of
is
by which the future
past,
which
If
if
energetic
sum
a
Hwang-ho.
1.5
does
During
million
Gl.
however
reckon that during the period extending between 1852 and 1885,
346600
it
If
to be attained,
development of the region.
the Rhine improvements cost annually an average
£,
is
conception wifi ever be infinitely less
scientific
beneficial to the general
we
a condition of the river
requirements of a good river, and of commerce, agriculture
serious,
and more
§ 39.
Conclusion.
a
removed;
be secured from the calamities which have afflicted the
will
will fulfil the
and industry;
costly,
to be
This last
it.
matter which may, in China, be pretty confidently depended upon.
a
is
the long
is in
preceded by the necessary prehminary works,
it is
of the
moments
choose favourable
to
seem
not
the
first
by experience, the
three
£ may
125000
or
advisable
to
fix
4.159292 or about
of Gl.
less
sum
for
those
be sufficient, until, with the knowledge taught
grant can be determined with closer accuracy.
annual
of the
or four years however an annual outlay of
By
that
time the great importance of these works will be universally recognized.
Should these views meet with approbation, a good organization of the staff
and
preparations
for
the
works may
at
once
be
proceeded
with,
and advance
with firm tread, that the manifold advantages connected with the improvement of
the
Hwang-ho may be
our
Society
aims at
of the Yellow River
industry.
The
and
its
evident.
will
confer
a lasting
It
knowledge available
will
benefit
wih open up many sources
technical
will no doubt soon
speedily recognised.
in
then
appear that
Holland
will
find
meet with due appreciation. The enterprizing
commerce and
an outlet which
spirit of
cannot but be acknowledged
It
Here we may
the
,
that one of the most important though at
for
of hydraulic
restored
more than
to
thirty
after
may
thus
of China cannot but agree with these views.
refer to a past such as history rarely presents to us,
Emperor Yao and
management
abiUties,
the Society
endeavours to promote the welfare of China will become more and more
made to answer to its destination.
Whoever understands the interests
ago,
object
upon China. The improvement
of prosperity to Chinese
present almost unused factors in the development of this mighty country
be
the
when 4000
him the Emperor Yu-shun, took
in
years
hand the
and river-works, and by their extraordinary energy and
the husbandmen
years.
those fertile regions which had been flooded
These two emperors who set such high value on the
65
knowledge of hydraulic architecture, were regarded as the saviours and founders of
The
the Chinese Empire.
who conquered China
in
later
emperors, even the princes of the Mongol Tartars,
1280, were compelled to keep up and continue the great
engineering-works begun before the conquest, in order to maintain themselves upon
the Imperial throne.
The
gigantic
labour
and marvellous perseverance, which distinguished the
is no less characteristic of them in the present, as witness the
damming of the breach. These characteristic traits of the Chinese, which have enabled
them to turn constantly flooded lands into the richest and most fertile provinces,
may be depended upon now in the present, as in the past. Beyond all doubt the
Chinese in the past,
present generation will uphold the glory of their forefathers, nor be behind hand
with Europe, which
in
the
improvement
of the
Rhine has given such a strong
proof of development and of a just appreciation of its true interests.
be assumed that the truth of the foregoing
remarks
will
It
may
therefore
become more and more
generally recognised and assist in bringing this important question to a useful issue.
J.
G.
W.
FIJNJE.
Part
II.
Introduction.
We
give in the following pages an extract of the written and verbal accounts
of our delegates,
G
Captain P.
van Schermbeek and Mr. A. Visser, concerning their
researches in China, with especial reference to the Yellow River.
The
Memorandum shows
last part of Mr. Fi/jnje's
clearly
what prolonged and
comprehensive labour will be required, to aiTive at any plan, worthy of the name,
improvement
the
for
Nor did we ever imagine that the data
of the Yellow River.
which our delegates might
a few month's stay in the districts of the
collect during
lower Yellow River, would enable us to lay before the Chinese Government anything
an elaborate plan of river-improvement
like
so
many
millions
we
will
make
or to
;
put your river to rights
it
for you. "
any such
the only epithet by which to stigmatize such a proceeding; and
tation too highly to suffer
The despatch
any imputation
of Mess''^
we
:
„ for
value our repu-
upon
of that nature to be cast
Van Schermbeek and
offer as
Charlatanism would be
it.
Visser to China had a threefold
object.
First
to
enter
into
machinery,
floods
the
for the
Secondly:
the attention of the Chinese Government to our Society, and
negociation
with
of foreign
services
it,
in
engineers
case
or
it
expressed any desire to
contractors
and
to
acquire
survey and improvement of the Yellow River.
we
wished
to
know whether
the task of confining the ever recurring
Yellow River within reasonable bounds, presented such insuperable
of the
difficulties
call
provisional
once
at
secure
to
:
as
the assertions of foreign
experts and Chinese authorities had led us
to believe. This subject has been discussed of late years in various instructive works
on China and Central- Asia
for especial recognition
who
experts,
to
solve
volumes.
;
,
among which
but besides that
desired to have the evidence of reliable
should personally examine the river and
certain questions which have been left
On
,
its
appurtenances and help us
unanswered
the return of our experts to Holland,
the details of their communications
named
Mr. von Richthofen's excellent book calls
we
and compared
we
in the
above-mentioned
carefully discussed
their data closely
writings of Mr. von Richthofen and others. The conclusion
with them
with the above-
we came
to
was:
67
that
we might
loyally
and confidently advise the Chinese Government
and mapped
river accurately surveyed
plan
utility
is
declare emphatically that the
improvement
on an elaborate and finished plan, does not seem to
of the Yellow
any
us, in
his
respect, a
and we venture to express our absolute conviction, that the names
hopeless task;
of the rulers or functionaries
who
should be the
unavaiUng struggles, bringing under
named
an elaborate
unquestionable. Mr. Fijnje has fully discussed this in
Memorandum. Further we
River,
have the
and to proceed at once with the execution of certain
of river-improvement,
works whose
to
out, to collect all further data for
effectual
means
of bridling
and lasting
,
and
control, the
after a
few
monster
sur-
China's Sorroio, would be respectfully and gratefully remembered in after ages.
Thirdly
Mess''^
:
economical data
Van Schermbeek and
we might
Visser were instructed to collect the
require for our estimates, in case our Society should be
requested to conclude contracts with the Chinese Government.
We may
mention
here
that
the
stay of our delegates in
led
to
an order by the Governor,
This machine
is
to
Shantung
for regularizing the
be delivered in the
new mouth
for
Summer
a dredger
of 1891,
fitted
and
is
the province of
with a mud-press.
primarily destined
of the Yellow River, formed in 1889,
by the breach
on the right bank of the Hwang-ho, just above Tie-monn-kwan (about 37° 42' N. Lat.
118° 29' E. Long).
After this short preface,
reports of Mess"^^.
we now
Van Schermbeek and
proceed to the following extract from the
Visser.
Van Schermbeek
Extract of the Accounts of Captain P. G.
and Mr.
A. Visser, relating their travels in
China and
the Results of their Inquiry into the State of the
Yellow River.
On our
First ExpcdiiioH
from Tientsin to
jeUow River.
the
by the
Civil
first
expedition from Tientsin to
g^^^j
^-^q
^^
G.
Yellow River,
we were accompanied
who was subjoined to us on our departure
who was to serve us as interpreter,
Engineer B. W. Blijdenstein,
from Holland, by Mr. W.
tlie
CoUingridge Bing ,
Chinese Secretary
Wu
Ta Liang. Our party
consisted in
all
of 22
men,
5 saddle-horses, 20 mules and 10 carts.
We
we
shall briefly describe the route
we
followed and the chief places
visited.
1889
March
April
31.
7.
—
—
Departure from Tientsin.
Arrival at Lin-tsing-chow
(36°
52'
N.
lat.
115°
52'
E.
long
»).
Inspection and survey of the locks at the junction of the Emperor's
Canal and the Weiho.
April 15.
—
Passage of the Yellow River at Lin- Yuen, about 12 kilometers
north of Kai-fung-fu (34° 47' N.
of the province
and on
the
Commissioner
114° 32' E. long.), the capital
lat.
Honan, where we
of
arrive
on the same day,
16? wait upon the Governor of the province, the
Wu- Ta- Cheng
Yellow River
of the
,
and the two
Taotai's of the river.
April 19—22.
—
Stay at
visited
of
24—26.
April
—
Lai-t' ung-chai
(34°
55'
and surveyed the works
N.
lat.
for the closing of the great
Stay
at Sz-shui-hsien (34° 58' N.
the right bank,
route lay
1
— —
6.
down the
1852 (34°
river,
>)
These and the
breach
lat.
its
we
lat.)
the highest
reached, and where, on
river (eastward) along the right bank.
,
about 10 kilometers south of the great lireach
52' N. lat.
determine
113° 20' E.
streams past high loess-walls. From here our
it
Stay at Lan-i-hsien
of
we
September 1887.
(western) point of the Yellow River
May
114° E. long.) where
114° 40' E. long.), where
we survey
tho
discharge etc.
following longitudinal and latitudinal measurements lay no claim to accuracy, but are
given merely with the purpose to assist tho reader of this account in consulting the map.
69
1889
May
10.
—
12.
—
We
at Chining (35° 28' N. lat. 116» 30'
Emperors Canal
cross the
E. long.).
May
11
—
May
17
— 21. —
Visit
Chu-fu-hsien
to
,
and burial-place of Confucius,
birth-place
about 40 kilometers east of Chi-ning.
Stay at Pei-tien-tzu, on the right bank of the Yellow River, opposite
45'
N.
lat.
determine
its
discharge etc.
(36°
Tsi-ho
river,
On
the
18*''
of
116° 50' E. long.), where
May, at Tsi-nan-fu (36°
who has us conducted back
in his
we
survey the
117° I'E.
40' N. lat.
the capital of the province of Shantung,
we
long.),
wait upon the Governor,
steam-yacht from Lo-koio, the
harbour of Tsi-nan-fu, to Pei-tien-tzu.
On
2P*
the
May we
of
the Yellow River and begin
cross
our
return-journey to Tientsin.
May
23.
—
Arrival at Techotv on the Weiho (37° 28' N.
where we send
May
28.
—
Return to
lat.
116° 22' E.
lat.),
our carts and horses and embark in house-boats.
off
Tientsin.
The distance covered during
was from 1900
this expedition
During our second expedition,
we had no
to
2000 kilometers.
other companions but the Chinese
Second Expedition
from
Secretary and Interpreter Mr. Shih, and our attendants.
Tientsin to
Yellow River.
The
we
principal places
visited,
were as follow
1889
September
15.
September
21.
—
—
Departure from Tientsin in house-boats up the Weiho.
Arrival at
(37°
Techoiv
leave the boats
,
28'
N.
lat.
116° 22' E. long.), where
and continue our journey
in carts.
we
The road from
Techoiv to Tsi-nan-fu, being impassable in consequence of the recent
make a considerable detour to the west,
and even then suffer much inconvenience from the water.
We cross the Yellow River at Kwan-Ghuang (36° 31' N. lat.
we have
breaches,
Septeimber 25.
—
to
116° 38' E. long.)
September
October
26.
6.
—
—
Stay at Tsi-nan-fu (36° 40' N,
lat.
of the province of Shantung, where
117°
we
1'
E. long.), the capital
wait upon the Governor.
His Excellency receives us with the utmost courtesy, and
offers
us an opportunity of inspecting the stream from Tsi-nan-fu to
mouth,
we
(36°
and witnessing the recent
visited
44'
N.
breaches.
From
its
Tsi-nan-fu,
on the 29"" of September the breach of North-Lokoio
lat.
on the right bank, opposite the
117 E. long.),
capital.
October
6.
— We
start
October
downstream on board a
7'\
visit
the
breach
sailing gunboat,
on
the right
and on our way,
bank (37°
3'
N.
lat.
117° 15' E. long.), between Tsi-Yang and Tsi-Tung.
October 11-13.—
We
lie
moored at the mouth
of the
measurements, and tide-observations.
Yellow River. Soundings,
the
70
1889
—
October 14.
we arrive at Tie-monn-ktoan
where we leave our gun-boat and
N.
lat.
118° 29' E.
lat.),
our return-journey to Tsi-nan-fu, in carts, along the
The land
— We
October 18.
is
—
117° 11' E. long.).
lat.
October 29.
October 31.
—
Arrival at Techoto,
—
Return to Tientsin.
The unembaiiked
Yellow River in the
Loess
The highest
return in carts from Tsi-nan-fu to Tientsin.
cross the Yellow River at
26*''
to the
whence we
most western point
or
hsien (about 34° 53' N.
district.
and 113°
lat.
Kivan-Chuang
September
(see
25).
set out in a house-boat for Tientsin.
of the Yellow River
20' E. long.),
that we might see the
of April
deliver to H. E. the Governor a report
and discuss various river-interests with him.
We
We
6.
we
Stay at Tsi-nan-fu, where
—
—
November
embankment.
left
flooded in consequence of the breach of North-Lokotv.
of our inspection
October 27.
continue
cross the Yellow River at about 7 kilometers above Tsl-Yang
(36° 58' N.
October 19-27.
(37° 42'
Returning from the mouth,
we
reached
,
was
Sz-shui-
where we remained from the
river
where
it
streams
,
24""
as yet undi-
ked, along the high loess-banks.
Sz-shui-hsien
situated on the right bank of the Yellow River, in the valley
is
of the Sz-ho, about 1^ kilometers above its junction with the
The
of
valley
the
mountain-stream
a
Sz-ho,
1889 had but a very small discharge,
April
meters wide and
at its
Hwang-ho.
in
the
lower end but a few hundred
A
of the river,
terrace formed of the highly fertilizing clayey sedimentary
which
floods it at high
way
water, extends by
of
on both sides of the stream. The terraces are irrigated by means of wells,
the water
town
little
and at high water
alloy
is
sometimes
is
on
situated
cave-dwellings
refuge in the
rich
the
flooded.
hewn out
terrace
of the right
higher up in the
front
loess-walls.
waU, as
in
a
casemate,
there
loess being easily
cave-dwellings
sorts
all
carved in the
Through the
many
years.
They
are
openings often supplied with
worked with spade
doors and
or knife, one finds in these
of queer niches, cupboards, fire-places, benches, couches etc.
loess.
The Yellow River,
walls
to take
white-washed or plastered with a mixture of loess and lime. In the
windows; and the
all
fertile.
bank of the Sz-ho,
carbonate of lime in the loess, which answers th6 purpose of cement
of
usually
which
in
The inhabitants are then obliged
the walls and arches of these casemate-like dwellings endure for
are
foreshore
on a level with that of the adjacent river, and are extremely
is
The
part of
latter
confined between steep loess-walls which attain an elevation of
is
from 50 to 80 meters.
deposit
is
which
in this region,
which at Sz-shui-hsien
rise
a
to
streams on
its right
bank past steep
loess-
height estimated at from 50 to 80 meters
above the surface of the water and are incessantly undermined and eaten away by
the action of the stream.
On
the opposite side, gently sloping
the fertile plain of Hioai-kiwi-fu, the
40
kilometers
the Tai-hang.
wide,
of
the
„
down
to the river, is
garden of China", a prolongation, from 25 to
detritus-slope
of
the
opposite-lying
mountain-range,
71
During our stay at Ss-shui-hsien
surface
to
be but
the spring of 1870
he reckoned
,
we
,
found the breadth of the river at the
more than 300 meters.
little
When
pretty fertile strip of sandy
which
streams rising
irrigation-canals, of which the
Tai-Hang range
opposite
of
strip
the
in
rises
between
land
S-x^shui-hsim
is
,
first
|
the
river
According to
and the
lies
higher than
Bichthofen's
Tai-Hang range,
foot of the
about 38 kilometers wide. Starting from the river, the
15
8
kilometers
and
meters,
15 kilometers
the next
in
From
height.
not embanked
rather indistinct communications concerning the
embankments
between the river and the Tai-Hang range, we might,
in the plain of Hioai-king-fu,
we
think,
upon
decide
irrigation-works,
summit,
its
itself is
would be 111 meters above the stream. The Yellow River
this
is
Von
108 meters, so that at 30 kilometers from the river the inchned plane at
at
then a
embanked mountain-
whose bedding
to the north,
the surrounding districts, form the main arteries.
map, the
000 meters.
to 15
river-bed,
This sloping terrace
luxuriantly.
thrive
fruit-trees
by a system of
in the
in
clay, and finally the gently rising fine clay-bottom in
and
of crops
sorts
all
artificially irrigated
it
and the Toatai (mayor)
;
town told us that at high floods its width was from 14000
At low-water, one finds on the left bank first a sandy
of the
land
Vo7i Richthofen crossed
4000 meters broad
to be
it
viz.
partial
embankments
upon town and
village
in
connection with the above-named
such as are found in great
polders,
numbers both along the Yellow River and the Wei-ho.
As the Tai-Hang range is covered with loess to a great height (Von Richthofen
met with it as high as 2000 meters above the level of the sea), and a number of
mountain-streams
with
detritus-slope
an
begins,
itself
felt to
E. long.),
detritus
into
southern
its
declivities,
it
no wonder that the
is
gently sinking prolongation, continually overflowed by water
spread wider and quicker than the dejection-slope
should
mountain.
ordinary
which the northern
slope
its
down
deposit,
of fertilizing
full
of
flow
This
a southerly
the river below Mong-tsin-hsien
forces
This pressure towards the south
direction.
a few leagues below the mouth of the Tsin-ho (35°
the
slope
left
tributary on which Hwai-king-fu
of the
Tai-Hang range deviates
streamed, with short intermissions,
informed, the regular
opposite
,
from the stream and the action of the detritus
loess- wall retires
till
N.
From
situated.
is
2'
lat.
makes
113° 36'
this point the
and the Yellow River
to the north,
1194 A. D. northwards.
If
we
are rightly
dikes on the left bank begin here, and thus join the detritus
slope or the left dike of the Tsin-ho.
Evidently the right bank,
slope,
has
much
to withstand. It is formed,
by the above-mentioned high
Apart from
the
local
influence
exposed to the onslaughts of this ever advancing
dangers,
of the
slope
loess-wall,
this
from about 112°
which further adjoins the right embankment.
embankment remains,
of the
30' to 113° 40' E. long.,
Tai-Hang range,
in so far
a
critical
as
it
lies
water-board
within
which
has frequently been burst through.
Before
the Yellow River had penetrated so
far,
the whole basin between the
southern slope of the Tai-Hang, and the northern slope of the
must have been
filled
with
loess,
whose
Sung-Shan mountains
surface, as is generally observable in loess-
basins, presents the appearance of a canvass loosely
drawn across from one mountain-
72
slope to the other. Getting farther and farther from the
way southward
cleaving its
bank, which grows higher as
for itself a right
Tai-Hang range the
,
has passed the lowest part of the loess-basin, and
,
riyer stiW
now creates
advances. The evil consequences, to the
it
regime of the river, caused by the continual wear and crumbling away of this bank,
although not veiy
obvious at
increase
in
size,
as
fragments
whilst the
rate,
proportion
in
worse and worse. The undermining
get
sight,
first
same
process goes on at the
farther south into the thickening
penetrates
it
the stream
into
falling
loess-layer.
At
such as Sz-shui-hsien
places
promontory
projection or
where mountain -streams
,
of rocky fragments is formed,
which
the river, a
join
affects the
main
river
same way as a breakwater, and in conjunction with the adjoining
usually marks out the spot for a ferry. The action of the stream upon the
nearly
in
valley,
the
loess-bank of the main river
hereby locally diminished
is
loess- wall at Sz-shui-hsieti, instead of inclining
and
;
struck us that the
it
forward, deflected backward. This in
our opinion leads to the conclusion that the action of atmospheric influences, rain
and dust-storms,
as
we have
in these places, exceeds that of the stream.
our questions
nor anywhere
Sz-shui-hsien
concei-ning
the
annual
We
on the southern loess-bank.
and
40'
come
It
from any estimate of the quantity
between 112°
river in that part comprised
30'
tJie
corrosion very trifling,
we
to a respectable figure.
intention
determine
to
the
but the stream was so swift
.
;
at our disposal
On
get reUable answers to
East longitude, being more than 100 kilometers. Even reckoning the
was our
Sz-shui-shien
plan.
is
of the corrosive action of the river
progress
average height of the loess- wall at 50 meters, and
still
we
else, did
refrain therefore
swept away every year by the
113°
projecting outline
stated the rule with loess-banks exposed to the fullactionof the current.
Neither at
of loess
A
this
were so defective
occasion
the
,
civil
discharge
and
,
that after repeated attempts
engineer
Yellow River at
the
of
the vessels, cables, grapnels etc.
Blijdenstein
we had
and two
to
abandon our
came
coolies
in for
a ducking.
The
river
was
by
divided
a
sand-bank into two arms. The breadth at the
meters below the mouth of the Sz-ho, was:
surface, at about 100
Southern arm
235 Meters.
Sand-bank
15
„
Northern arm
60
„
Total
Close
was very
was not
2
to the southern bank, although
strong:
less
at
than
meters throughout
1
3
or
it
middle part
of
shore, the velocity at the surface
and rapidly increased
could not
possibly
take with
the
boats
much
etc.
its velocity
from 1.90 to
slighter.
at
necessary soundings for determining the discharge of the stream,
attempts to gauge
to
the stream, to within 20 meters of the
sand-bank. In the shallow northern arm the velocity was
As we
310 Meters.
formed no hollow curve, the current
4 meters from the
meter per second,
the
...
our
disposal
,
the
we made no further
more accurately.
The soundings showed that the bottom along the southern bank sloped pretty
73
on an incline something less than
regularly
where the depth was
water-line,
our
1:2,
to within full 20 meters of the
9 meters. In the middle of the river, with
fully
meters long, to which was attached a weight of 3.5
sounding-line 45
kilo-
grammes, in experienced hands (Mr. Visser's), we found no ground. The boatmen
whose vessels we had hired, declared unanimously that at 80 to 120 meters from
the southern bank the water was from 45 to 50 meters deep. This would point to
a continuation
of the
bottom-incline
we had
found
something
,
less
than 1:2, to
about 100 meters from the shore. The northern arm was shallow and fordable except
across a breadth of 10 meters.
We
our
much
regret very
plan
of
ascertaining
Sz-shui-hsien with
this kind
we
that the wretched boats, cables and grapnels
with the swiftness of the current, made
together
the
depths,
we
succes, as
it
and discharge
velocities
did at other points.
was always attended with great
had,
impossible for us to carry out
At
stream at
of the
other places too
work
of
difficulty.
According to our boatmen, and also according to the Taotai (mayor) of the
the water-level during our stay (April
townlet,
and at high-water
mark
in
summer
rose 2.50 to 2.80
The marks of the
at that time.
24—26
was „ rather low,"
meters above what was the water-
latest floods
1889)
on the loess-walls had of course
been long obliterated through the combined influences of
rain, decay, dust-storms, etc.
We
asked some of the people how high, up the loess-wall, the water generally rose
summer, and they showed us a point 3.10 meters above the water-level.
The mud-alloy of the water at Sz-shui-hsien, near the bank, at a depth of
1.75 meter, and 0.50 meter from the bottom, was 8708 grammes per cubic meter.
in
we
In conclusion
add our opinion about the protection of the high loess-walls
from the destructive action of the water.
the inclined
plane of about
1
:
of the
2
we
It is,
river
believe,
beyond
doubt that
all
bottom consists of firm virgin loess
and not of the fragments of the loess-walls that topple over into the stream.
quite certain
that the force
of the current very
It is
soon melts or rather decomposes
mud, which remains in suspension in the water,
the bottom or is swept down it with the stream. The loess-
these masses, converting them into
and sand that sinks
down
in
which
is
we
to
runs nearly vertically to a Uttle above or below the low- water line, and sinks
wall
a
rather
faint
incline
the
to
bottom of the
river.
Should
it
the vulnerable part of the loess-wall, to which the river directs
be asked,
its assaults,
should answer: the vertical strip between the lowest and highest water-levels,
which at Sz-shui-hsien, according to the reports
high. This part therefore
A
covering
must be
of natural
of the inhabitants, is about 3
meters
protected.
stone
beginning a
little. below
the lowest water-level
and extending to about 1 meter above the highest — thus in the case under
consideration, about 4 meters high — seems to us to be the most desirable. The
nature of the loess would allow of a steep covering
than
this
the
4:
is
1.
The
possible,
upright
less
loose
earth
there
is
they should be sunk into the
covering
should
about 4:5; experience must
be
protected
teach
how
;
the gradient need never be less
behind the stones the better; where
solid wall of the loess.
The
by rough stonework on an
high
it
should rise and
how
foot of
incline
of
far it should
10
74
we surmise
project; but
need not as a rule be higher than
it
Should the bottom-incline be locally steeper,
water.
the outwork or support
much used
such as are
it
meter above low-
be necessary to extend
of millet-stalks or of willow twigs
by osier-works, made
purpose in Holland
for this
may
it
1
i).
In the region of the high loess- banks, there are quarries on the river, of which
the
in
among
stone,
breach
of
immense
other
and
1887
was used
purposes,
for
for
the
closing
quantities from quarries
about two days'
works
the great
of
The stone was brought
the neighbourhood.
in
jetties
up the
sail
thus from
river,
just above Sz-shui-shien.
It
would certainly be desirable,
covering,
the
for
above
loess-wall
after the completion of the
be dug
to
it
away
above-mentioned
to a breadth of
from 6 to
10 meters. This would be tantamount to laying a road along the upper end of the
which
covering,
loess-mountains
regions,
into
where the
the
river
pheric
wind up and down the
immense advantage. But
traffic-roads
the interior, would be an
and moreover it would be a
amount of waste earth. To throw it
would be hazardous. Nature however will co-operate through atmosto the works,
question to dispose at once of the whole
difficult
is
these
miles
would give too great a compass
this
in
in
for
the loess-wall above the stone covering.
in decreasing
influences
A
footpath
that would be necessary at first, and this might be widened gradually as the
all
loess-wall got
We
worn away by decay,
expect
that
a
rain, dust-storms etc.
trial-experiment
for
a
with the
distance
short
aljove-
described stone covering would give very satisfactory results.
As we
The Einhanhmenix
aiomj ihe Lower
n^o
Said
^q' ^^ ]Qjjg_^
before,
the
embankments
extending from there to
its
of the
Yellow River begin at about
mouth. Between 116°
2U'
and 116°
50'
and through the detritus slope of the Tai-shmi
Here we came across a part where the right bank of the river was
E. long., the river flows past the foot
mountains.
undiked
may
:
the ground sloped gently
embankments on
be partial
system of dikes at
upward towards the mountain. Very
this side, but at all events there is
this part of the river.
The embankments are generally double, consisting thus
bank, an outer and an inner one. Below Tsi-ncm-fu this
for
instance at
found
on
Tsi-nan-fu,
the
tlie
left
likely there
no uninterrupted
Kwan-chuancj ferry (36°
bank double
the Yellow River
dikes.
31' N. lat.
is
in
two dikes on each
the rule, and above
116° 38' E. long.),
According to the assertion of an
must have double dikes
right
we
it,
also
official
at
through the province
of Shantung.
Towns
between the inner and outer dike are often inclosed
within a separate embankment, thrown up at the expense of the parties interested.
or
villages lying
For the same purpose, both dikes are sometimes connected by cross-dikes, having as
far as we could see no locks, culverts or overflows. Finally the dikes of the tributaries,
^)
around
The whole
district
of
Hz-shxd-shien
poplar,
nut-trees,
the lower
leaves of the willow are eaten as greens.
Hioany-ho
date-trees
is
rich in cxcellpiit willow- woorl. In the Iooss-moiint;iins
and mulberry-trees grow
also in considerable nimibers.
The
75
the
into
falling
on
main-river
inner and outer dike
i).
right bank, cross the ground lying
its
between the
This district must therefore be considered as divided into
Below Tsi-nan-fu we found the distance from the outer to the inner
be 1500 to 4000 Meters. Here and there we met with outer polders with
different polders.
dike to
dikes almost as high as the main-embankment. Thus there
seen
—
with our own eyes
it
may
—
be
four successive big dikes along the
and
we have
same bank,
all
parallel to the river.
Higher up,
Honan, we saw
in
the double dikes only where towns (as Kai-
fung-fu) and their dependencies had been separately
or
where
as a matter of precaution, a
,
ill-conditioned part of the
The
new
embanked
dike had been
;
along former breaches
made
before or behind an
embankment.
river- or inner dike runs along the left
bank
to about 20 kilometers,
along the right to about 10 kilometers below Tie-monn-Jman (37° 42' N.
lat.
and
118° 29'
The point where the double-embankment ends, and the outer dike joins the
lay on the left bank two kilometers above Li-tsin (37° 80' N. lat. 118° 23' E. long.).
E. long.).
inner,
broken through at the doubly embanked part, the water
If therefore the river-dike is
cannot find any outlet either to the sea or to the plain until the outer dike has given
way
This however generally
too.
places.
takes place, as
we
witnessed ourselves in three
one pictures to oneself the rush of the waters through the breach on to
If
dike only
the outer
1.5
preventing
this
;
the
kilometers distant, one can guess
4
to
A
resistance are soon overcome.
we saw however had
dikes
outer
tliat its
powers
of
very gentle inchne on this side would be a means of
the usual incline of 2
:
or 1:2.
Both the properties of the
dimensions and elevation,
As
soil
of
which the dikes are made, and their
differ considerably.
made
of such ground as
is
available in the neighbour-
hood, and, generally speaking, their composition is sandy,
whereby they are unable
to
a rule the dikes are
much
offer
resistance to the action of the water. Thus, for instance,
the dikes below Tsi-nan-fu channels
made by the rain-water
often
we saw
in
more than a meter
deep; and at other places too, for instance by the breach of 1887, the rhaterial of
the
dike
mounds
was
decidedly of bad quality. Nearly everywhere along the dikes
which did not seem
It is
to be suitable for such a purpose.
very easy to say
of less sandy ground
made
we saw
of earth in the shape of big mud-pies, to serve for repairs in times of flood,
;
:
the dikes along the Yellow River ought to have been
yet, although this is indisputable, it should not be forgotten
that the earth available generally contains a strong admixture of sand, and appeared
to us less suitable for dike-making than for instance the average Dutch clay. This
evil
can be remedied by giving the dikes bigger dimensions, but especially by protecting
1)
a
A
bridged
river.
The
small tributary, a few kilometers below Tsi-nan-fu, was undiked.
stone
lock in the inner dike.
sluice-boards
(one row) were not
similar vent in the outer dike.
It fell
into the
This was dammed up with earlh on account
let
down
mainstream through
of the high water in the
in the grooves of the stone piers.
There was probably a
76
the exposed dike-planes by a solid covering, and by keeping
As
we saw
to
the
we
point,
first
are
along the Yellow River were
examples among many. Close
able
them
We
of solid dimensions.
well in repair.
^).
many embankments
that
assert
to
will
mention a few
1887 the dike was 18 meters across
to the breach of
and about 2 meters above the highest water-mark. Some 15 kilometers further down
new
a
dike had been recently thrown
hundred meters further from the
from 23 to 25 meters
of April
was
1891,
28,
and rose 8 meters above the water-mark
2.5,
:
its crest of
meters above the highest water-mark. The outer incline
3
away by
good as eaten
as
inclines of 1
,
e.
i.
up, as a protection for another dike a few
The new dike had a breadth at
river.
and
water,
the
stood
very nearly perpendicular
to its full height of eight meters.
They had been
—
obliged
the dike against the stream by
works further on;
the
control
of
means
to our second point
We
of jetties.
the
,
river-bed
properly protected. The river
is
is
— to protect
give a short description of these
we merely wish to call attention to a
rivers which we unhesitatingly pronounce
present
at
of the Chinese
course
the
viz.
we come
and here
peculiarity in
to be faulty
not regulated, nor the dikes where necessary
wind
suffered to
or modify its course at will, within
the strip of land between the two dikes, and nobody thinks of setting to
river, having reached the foot of one of the dikes, places it in
the
has actually injured
or
and
it.
jetties ai-e constructed
;
Then under
executed
would have been unnecessary,
difficult
a praiseworthy manner, but which
the river-bed proper had been kept in check by the
if
construction in due time of smaller and simpler jetties. The works too,
directed
diately
towards the preservation
more imme-
the dike against the current, which
of
consist almost exclusively of millet-fascines behind stakes, are only resorted to
has already been
the dike
damaged.
dike either protected by fascines or
We
never saw a
this
a warrior should not wait until he
None
of the dikes
covering,
natural
to
we saw were
which
in
ground
is
ramming down
venture upon a simile
it
before putting on his armour.
drawn up a couple
ram
On
men who
this
rightly attached, the
In Europe infinite pains and trouble are
carefully
rammed down. The number
workmen,
is
of freestone attached to four or six ropes.
of meters by 4 or 6
is
but also from the rains and the violent
the ground, in proportion to the other
stamped down with a ram
go and the
2)
^).
,
Wherever we saw dike-making, the ground was always
in
is
we
any degree grass-grown. For want of
in
dust-storms so frequent in North China
1)
wounded
Europe so much importance
dikes suffer worse not only from the stream
employed
is
when
or a recently repaired
the third place a few words regarding the means of keeping the dikes in
In
repair.
:
new
placed in comparative security at
its declivities
the outset by a covering of loose stones or debris. Might
would be
until
peril,
circumstances costly fascine-works
true, in
it is
work
imminent
always greater than with
The ram
lying
of
men
us.
The
on the ground
haul at at the ropes in a circle; they then suddenly
let
descends with a heavy thud on to the ground.
the
29""
of
April,
at
Tung-Chang,
to
the west of Kai-fung-fu,
we had
a good opportunity of
observing the results of a dust-storm which had taken place the day before, upon the northern slope of the dike.
A
sheep
feet
The
or
some other quadruped had been walking on the bare
slope just before,
and the ground under
having been firmly kneaded together, resisted the force of the wind which blew away the loose
little
mounds which had remained wherever the animal had stepped were from 6
carried away a layer of that thickness.
The wind therefore must have
to
soil
its
around.
10 centimeters high.
77
we
taken to lay down turf and sow grass- seed, in order to obtain what
be
an indispensable protection
We
for the dikes.
we saw
eyes when, on arriving at the Yellow River,
consider to
could therefore hardly believe our
along
the declivities of the
all
dikes people engaged in plucking and tearing out the last grasshalms and other plants
to serve as fodder for their cattle.
The same observation
applies
the dikes by the population. To mention one instance only in
few kilometers above the breach
to a spot, a
15 meters across
rose
its
summit, and on the
ways and paths in
many we draw attention
wanton cutting
the
to
,
had been gnawed away
river side
if
,
on the right dike which measured
of 1887,
almost perpendicularly. In this, and as
of
till
it
from choice at a very dangerous
point, a cart-ascent had been cut, which locally diminished the summit-breadth from
15 to 8 meters.
What would
side
through
half
truth,
marks
should be
it
varies
maintenance
noted
on board a ship,
that
of
the
dikes
the
who
should
to great
much
stricter.
the figures
mentioned above (about 2 and
state tliat the opposite-lying dikes of Tsi-ho lay 6 to 6.2 meters
above the watermark of
May
18,
i.
e.
about
meter above the highest watermark
1
and that about midway between Tsi-nan-fu and the mouth of the
we
river,
on the northern dike, within a few kilometers' distance, a difference
crown
ship's
danger? In very
China should be
in
saw the
height of the dikes above the highest water-
Referring to
considerably.
we may
3 meters)
man
and thus expose his fellow travellers
ordinary
the
Finally
be done with a
>);
found
in height
from
to water-level of I'/j meter.
We
were assured that the double dikes, inner- and outer, were about the
same height. At one point we were enabled to convince ourselves that this was
a
fact.
In default of regular datura-observations of the river the variable and alternating
,
fall
of the
Hwang-ho makes
Especially from this point of view the
From
to
the rather
contradictory
want
must be
regretted.
to obtain,
we came
of the said observations
we managed
information
that the main dikes along the rivers are considered as domains,
conclusion
the
determine the proper height for the dikes.
difficult to
it
and are administered, by the Provinces
moneys come out
or their dependencies the Districts.
general provincial fund
of the
a government contribution. As we were
told,
,
to
which
is
added
this subsidy in
,
The
if
requisite
necessary
1889 amounted to
Shantung and to 6 millions for Honan.
Local embankments, as those of towns or villages, are thrown up at the cost of the
community. Many parts of the secondary dikes or the double embankments also seem
4
to
of
millions
have
been
interested
in
taels
the
for
raised
originally
them. H.
E.
mentions that, some time
1)
On September
province
at
of
the
Shang-yao
in
We
30, the water
have been obliged
to
his
districts
more immediately
Memorial on the Yellow River (1890)
after the breach of 1852, the idea of constructing proper
was 3.27 and the mark
was about 4.30 meters higher than the water-level on
as possible, but
expense of the
May
lelt
by the recent flood on the slope of the dike
18.
fake our flood-levels from local information, which
which nevertheless varied
in
some
we have checked
places to the extent of 2 to 3 feet.
as
much
78
embankments
supplement the dikes
to
We
the Government.
of
jetties
This
is
by the people, was given
built
protection
able with
more
by
effect to
told that the Provinces take charge of the building
the
of
dikes,
and of the repair of breaches.
the information respecting the ownership and
all
we were
dikes,
the
for
etc.
were further
management
of the
or less certainty to acquire by reiterated questioning
and cross-questioning.
The
hi,jh
In consequence of
Fore-shores
bciwecn Ike Dikes
certain
conditlous,
October
great mud-alloy, the alluvion of the Yellow River, under
As an example
we saw
a
number
—
of fore-shores
we mention
of this
and 19, on our return-journey along the
15
Tiii-nan-fu,
which
its
enormous.
is
—
•
to
upon
during the high water of the previous two or three months, a mud-layer had
,
we had
others
where a
was being
brick-kiln
place from a
first
meter
1
thick.
built
and the walls of the trench clearly marked the
network
mud was
rapidly shrinking. This appeared in
of dry bursts, at the surface 8 to 15 centimeters wide,
and elsewhere from a tent-shaped coating of
mud
round
all
the tree-trunks, which
0.25 to 0.80 meter high, giving the vertical height of the shrinking
Although the mud-layer had not anything
period.
sank down into
instance
Amongst
one particularly good opportunity for observing this, on a fore-shore
thickness of the mud-layer. The fresh
was
mouth
bank, from the
left
partly flooded outer polders
been formed, which at various places measured 0.80 to
the
that between
like completely subsided,
here and there on trying to walk upon
it
by the brick-kiln, and at another place
easily
the last place the
mud was mixed
down
it
to that
and one
one could cross
it,
was
it
for
already ploughed.
At
with more sand, but the bursts in
it
were
still
so
wide, that the horses before the plough sometimes stumbled into them. The shrinking
.
must
of this alluvion
downward
ploughed
in
in its entirety be
proportion
as
very considerable. Not only
but as soon as
dries;
it
it
is
is it
a great deal of the surface splits up into the dry clefts which
,
from 15 to 20 per cent of the surface. These dry
to cover
compressed
again trodden upon or
we
clefts frequently
estimate
penetrated
deeper than the bottom of the
new
Where,
was only 2 feet, the dry bursts were
new mud-alluvion therefore does not only compress
mud-layer, as might be seen from the walls.
for instance, the thickness of the layer
often 8 feet and even deeper.
A
the existing bottom vertically, but cleaves to
into
the
it,
,
so firmly as to strike its clefts right
thereby also increasing the density of the subsoil horizontally. Such being
case,
stream
it
the solidity of the fore-shores,
may
be greater than
,
and
their resistance to the action of the
judging from their rapid
formation
,
one might be
inclined to suppose.
On some
to half-way
of the
flooded
outer polders and fore-shores the mud-layer reached
up the doorways of the houses. At others an unfavourable direction or
the force of the
current had on the other hand scoured out the bottom, and in a
great measure destroyed the houses.
At a few hundred meters above
the houses between
the fruit-trees
new bottom
to
the outer and
their
very tops,
consisted in sandy
the
the breach which
we
visited on October 7,
inner dike were buried to their roofs, and
under sand or mud. The upper surface of the
mud, on which, though the breach had occurred but
79
months before, grain had already been sown, and was shooting up luxuriantly.
the dry bursts did not occur here, in anything like they same proportion as on
three
As
the fore-shores,
mud
with
mass
the
of
it
probably consisted of sand either covered or mixed
at the surface.
This clearly shows that the alluvions of the Yellow River may, in a short
period of time, reach heights which
Where
ficance.
>).
watermark, which as a rule
They
meters below the crest
to 2
1
high
villages
and dry; then
in,
upon them, safe from the water on raised mounds.
a sudden local fall in the river, which leaves the fore-shore
is
grow up on the
gradually
fore-shore,
and the dike
useless.
That part of the
we
from
built
Not seldom too there
becomes
is
are then, especially along the lower part of the river, diked
sometimes houses are
or
those of European rivers sink into insigni-
favoured by circumstances then, the fore-shores speedily rise to the
level of the high
of the dike
make
surveyed,
offers
river just above the breach of 1852 (114° 40' E. long.),
which
a remarkable instance in point. Through this breach the water
found an outlet and flowed across a relatively low-lying region to the north-east,
thence through the bed of
new
course at a
much
Ta-tsing-ho to the sea.
tlie
down
stronger rate than
was choked up with mud. The
The water flowed down
this
the old one below the breach which
must undoubtedly have
water-level above the breach
considerably fallen, and the bed have become
much
both sides of the river proper, in the
days of May, showed a high fore-shore
to
1
2 kilometers in
first
deeper
and our measurements on
;
breadth, 6.50 meters above the then rather low water-mark,
and quite 2 meters above the highest water-marks of the previous
which rose 2 or 3 meters above
old dike
was not kept in repair
was dug away to a level with the
this high fore-shore,
and at places where the roads crossed
either;
The
years.
it,
fore-shore.
In
reading that the high southern
and that the river pursues
E. long.,
its
loess-bank terminates at about 113° 40'
way
through the plain to the sea,
not- be forgotten that, especially above the breach of 1852,
high steep banks of alluvial loess, which
which
is
it
it
should
streams- between pretty
incessantly loosened by the current into
crumbles. So long as neither the dikes nor the villages are threatened, the
it
river is left undisturbed to its
It
requires
own
devices.
no demonstration to show that this
alluvial loess will yield
more
readily to the action of the water than the actual virgin loess-mountains. In reference
we
this
to
one of the survey
we have
arm we observed an
a
full
May
quote the following lines from our journal of
just spoken about:
incessant wearing
meter above the
water.
We
away
„0n
the northern bank of the northern
of the bank.
sailed along
4, the last day but
The bank was steep and
something
less
than half an hour,
and saw incessantly, on an average every 10 seconds, great pieces of the bank
1)
dike.
This
fall
Along the Weiho, there was occasionally an. alluvion upon the foreshores as high as the crest of the
gave the whole the very uncommon appearance of a heavy dike 200 or 300 Meters broad, through
whose surface the
river
had cut
itself a
narrow deep bed with steep
walls.
80
water.
the
into
current
We
are
much
tively
was a
It
!
From
sand; but the action of the
this
unless
caprices,
compara-
referring here to a shoal in the broad river-bed, containing
meter high, was not
6.5
continual splashing; and this with a slow velocity of the
low water, and in a dead calm
,
water upon the bank of the fore-shore,
slight either.
point of view
the
also,
the
of leaving
policy
river
to
its
own
assaults the dikes, cannot but be disapproved of; and one feels
it
the necessity of training the river-bed
that
own
its
discharge and those of navigation;
it
may
satisfy the requirements of its
banks, where necessary, being properly
protected by jetties and other works.
we append
with the preceding remarks,
Conjunction
In
Mud-alloy.
the following obser-
vations concerning the mud-alloy of the Yellow River.
Our own measurements gave the following quantitiesof dried mud
^rmwmes,
in
per cubic meter of water.
Close
to
—
the bank at Sz-shui-hsien (113° 20' E. long.)
drawn up from a depth
3T08 grammes.
of 1.75
April 26, 1889
meter under water and 0.5 meter above the bottom
In mid-stream above the breach of 1852 (114° 40' E. long.)
drawn up
as before
4491
:
5639
:
— May
3,
1889
grammes.
In mid-stream at Tsi-ho (116° 50- E. long.)
surface
—
- May
1889
21,
-
drawn
at the
grammes.
Mr. Kingsmill, engineer and architect at Shanghai, found the following quantities.
Near Tsi-nan-fu (117°
At Taocheng
At Shi-li-pu
At Shi-li-pu
It
is
— May
E. long.)
4,
1887
(116° E. long.)
—
June
6,
1750 grammes.
April 28, 1887:
184S grammes.
:
—
1887
May
16,
3640
:
1887:
3360
grammes.
grammes.
striking to find that the results obtained
by Mr. Kingsmill
in the
same
much lower. He describes the manner
season that we
in which he set to work as follows
„ the deposit was carefully dried over a stove
at a temperature of about 180° Fahr. and weighed. In this operation I was assisted
by one of the most marked peculiarities of the stream. However muddy the water
may be when taken from the stream, it rapidly settles if permitted to stand, and in
obtained ours,
show
results so
:
hour a large jar will have become perfectly clear."
about an
—
This leads us to
suspect that Mr. Kingsmill allowed the water to settle during an hour, then poured
it
off,
and then dried and subsequently weighed the remaining mud.
evaporated the water
in
We
a glass bowl, with a cotton cloth stretched over
it
gradually
to prevent
the intrusion of dust, and placed in a sand bath, kept at a temperature of 180° Fahr.
The
method must give higher
latter
results than the former, especially in
view
of
the salts in solution in the water.
In
consequence of those unavoidable
during such prolonged journeys in carts,
little
we have no
accidents, which invariably occur
figures to
the mud-alloy in the months of September and October,
trip to the
communicate concerning
when we made our second
Yellow River, and the water was pretty high.
We
mention however that
81
the
Secretary of the Tientsin Municipality A. J. M. Smith, on August 10, 1888
that
to say in the
is
near
time of rain and high water
—
-
found in the water of the PctAo,
drawn out at about 2 Isilometers below the mouth of the Weiho,
grammes of dried mud per cubic meter. We have every reason to place the
Tientsin^
105S3
utmost rehance on
this
figure arrived at
by Mr. Smith, who amongst other things
whom we had more than one discussion as to the
means of determining the mud-alloy.
To assist our readers in forming an opinion on the above figures, we add
lent us his fine scales, and with
best
that during his observations on the Loioer Danube, between the years 1862
and 1871, Sir Hartley found the greatest mud-alloy to be 3151 and the smallest
further
354 grammes
per cubic meter.
On the Lower Rhine,
it
was found amongst
Dutch
in
territory,
between the years 1879 and 1885,
other things that, at Pannerden near the
was 310^ and the least
midway between the German frontier and the sea,
minimum 10 grammes per cubic meter.
the greatest mud-alloy
Before quitting this subject be
months
the
after the closing of the great breach of 1887
we
frontier,
at Gorinchem,
maximum was 1174 and the
mentioned that on April 20,
it
the dike in the deep pool formed there,
20 meters,
German
grammes; and
3|-
i.
was accomplished,
e.
just three
just behind
found on sounding a depth of more than
was only
while on the other side of the dike, in the river, the water
meters deep at the most, and on an average about 5 meters. Four months
7.75
before the vent, which then measured 120 meters across,
Engineer at Shanghai, sounded
Civil
doubt
still
dam had
in its course'
800 kilometers, exhibits so many
direction
etc.
doubt show great
wise
conclusion
will
become
through the alluvial plain, a length of about
irregularities
and sudden changes
that the diagram indicating the
As
irregularities.
of having
apparent
connection
in
and found a depth of 27 meters, which no
been reduced 20 meters in depth, by alluvion.
The Yellow River
river,
closed, Mr. J. Morrison,
increased in proportion as the hole became narrower. Thus in 3 months the
river before the
depth,
it,
was
the
from
with
soon "as
river
the
along
in breadth, velocity,
its course,
must no
the Chinese Government come to the
surveyed according to
common
observations
the
fall
results
of
its
the
respecting the
requirements, this
levellings
along
watermarks at
the
different
points,
requires
It
no demonstration to show what must be pecuUarly true of such
an irregular river: that
the
fall
of the
it
would be hazardous to come
whole river,
extending along a portion of
or
its
to
any decision concerning
even of any considerable reach, from observations
length only.
Let us hope that a proper survey of the river will soon become an accomplished
fact, and be contended provisionally with the following figures, which will at any
rate give a general idea of the fall of the lower part of the Yellow River.
Mr. Kingsmill found by levelling, in West Shantung in 1887, an average
of
0.333
In
fall
meters per kilometer.
1888 Mr. Morrison visited the great breach of the previous year, and
11
F'^V-
82
found that the river below
had pretty nearly run dry.
it
Careful levelling
„
doubtedly correct, for a very considerable distance" showed the
,
un-
of the river-bed
fall
below the breach to be as nearly as possible 0.19 meter per kilometer.
At
we
same
the
found
meter
0.48
We
2200 meters,
on
fall
months
about three
,
after
the
0.31$ meter
or
of the breach
closing
per kilometer
i).
mention here the elevations of certain points on the river above sea-
same time
giving at the
level,
place
their 'distances along the stream to its
mouth.
„ approximate heights deduced from past
Kingsmill gives the following
Mr.
observations": Mong-tsin-hsien (840 K. M. from the mouth)
Ferry of Kai-fung-fu
According
to
(680
According to
mouth) would be
vo7i
133
about
M. above the
3T
it
M. above
enters the
„
province
183 M.
131 M.
of Honan
sea-level.
Richthofen's estimate, Sz-shui-hsien
Bestimmungen an 27 im N.
is
„
„
„
where
153
about
is
Fritsche mentions in his
the mouth)
„
the river
Morriso7i,
(930 K. M. from the mouth)
„
(800 K.
M. from the
sea.
Geographische
Magnetische und Hypsometrische
,
China gelegenen Orten " that Tsi-ho (340 K. M. from
0.
M. above the sea.
These heights have not been arrived at by
levellings,
but are estimated or
deduced from barometric observations. Mr. Fritsche calculated his heights from the
differences
his
in
barometric
with simultaneous
observations
observations of the
Russian Observatory at Peking whose height was fixed at 87.5 meters above the
sea.
His aneroid, after and before his journey, was compared with the standard
barometer
the
of
the
observatory,
carefully determined.
Thus
correction
and temperature being
reading
for
for instance, the height arrived at for Tsi-ho (36° 45'
116° 50' E. long.), lying about 360
K.
N.
lat.
M. in a straight hne from Peking, was
37 meters.
During our whole journey along the Yellow River, and also during our three
days' stay at Pe-tien-tzu,
observations
which
exactly opposite to Tsi-ho,
lies
with the Naudet Aneroid
with the observations taken daily
(8
,
a.
in
m.,
noon and 4
Custom House Service, we might determine the heights
our route. Taku lies at the mouth of the Peiho in the Gulf
in a straight line from Tsi-ho
As
and
we
took a series of
the hope that later on
p.
,
by comparison
m.) at Taku, by the
of the various points on
of Petchili, 270 kilometers
Pe-tien-tzu.
soon as possible after our return from the Yellow River,
our barometer during some days (June
1—5),
we compared
Taku, with the aneroid of the
at
Custom House Service, and, after a series of simultaneous observations, succeeded
compihng a formula for the correction of the readings at Taku at the then
existing temperature, which gave very satisfactory results. In accordance with these
in
formula
we
corrected the readings at
Taku on May 17
,
18 and 19, the days of our
readings at Pe-tien-tzu and arrived at the results hereunder.
1)
lost,
su
The notes
that
of a levelling at Pei-tii'n-tzu (-1-10° 50' E. long.),
we cannot commnnicate
the results with certainty.
where we surveyed
The
distance levelled
a part of the river,
were
was only 1600 meters.
88
Date and
84
above the breach of 1852 (640
„
at Tsi-ho
(340
„
„
„
„
at Putai
(120
„
„
„
„
„
)
1.96
„
„
)
1.93
„
„
)
87
„
„
„
M.
1.93
(800 K. M. above the mouth)
at Sz-shui-hsieu
„
1
These accurate statements are confirmed by numerous estimates and rough
measurements; and on our expedition from Tsi-nan-fu
at
we
that time in flood,
to the
mouth, the river being
witnessed at various places velocities greater even than
2 meters per second.
Above the breach
sectional
By
and then,
area,
dividing
in
we
and at Tsi-ho, where
of 1852
and determined the discharge,
we measured
the velocity in a
surveyed river reaches
number
of places in the
connection with the depths, calculated the discharge.
the figure thus obtained for the discharge, with that of the surface of
we
the sectional area,
get
tJie
mean
velocity at that place.
Average velocity
Names
Discharge in cubic
of Places.
meters per
Above the
l
breach of
[
1852
1
A
known
0.86
528
867
1288
992
1.44
1.30
other
of
of the
rivers '),
proves
Lower Hioang-ho
our
in
opinion
fall,
a matter of very great importance; for the
fall
fall
seems
to be pretty evenly divided along the
800 kilometers;
other words,
in
the faU
is
that any projects for the
must
Under
impede
is
that
comparatively not very rapid at the
is
good, without being
or prevent navigation.
circumstances
these
fall.
so to say yield us the
whole river-reach of more than
upper end and very gentle at the lower. Finally the velocity
so uncontrollable as to
sec.
and the
not be checked by an insufficient
will
necessary for the river-improvement. Another favourable circumstance
force
the
meters per
comparison between the above figures respecting velocity and
data
is
in
406
Southerly riverarm
improvement
This
square meters,
sec.
348
Northerly riverarm
Tsi-ho
in sectional area
Sectional area in
we
do
not
consider
the
improvement
of
the
Hioang-ho in any sense a hopeless task.
1)
fall
of
From 700
0.24
to
300 kilometers above
its
meter per kilometer. From the
mouth, the Rhine has a
last
named
fall
of 97 meters,
point to the mouth, the
fall is
which gives a mean
36 meters, or on an
average 0.12 meter per kilometer.
The Iron Gate
which makes the mean
According
i,
e.
a
mean
A
fall
to
lies
fall
955 kilometers above the Sulina-Outfall of the Danube, and only 35.6 meters higher
0.037 meter per kilometer.
Kingsmill,
of 0.027
the
fall
of the Lower- Yangtze along 1000 geographical miles,
comparison between the velocity of the Hwang-ho and that
favourable to
its
fall.
is
only 163
feet,
meter per kilometer.
of other
streams, leads also to conclusions
85
We
have already referred more than once to the river-reaches we surveyed
above the breach of 1852 and near
included
this
in
we
extract;
Tsi-ho.
confine
The drawings
ourselves
Di-schanjc.
of these surveys are not
the following description more
to
particularly concerning the cross-section of the river.
Our survey above the breach
of
1852 (114° 40' E.
long.)
made
it
at once
evident, that the general water-level had considerably fallen since, presumably because the
water had found a better outlet than through the old bed which was choked up
with mud. On either side of the river extended a high fore-shore, a couple of miles
broad, and 6.50 meters above the river ^ which
told,
was then (May 2—6),
as
we were
rather low." According to the boatmen, the river at high floods rose to nearly
„
meters below the surface of the fore-shore. The old dike^ which lay 2 or 3 meters
higher than the fore-shore, was therefore of no further service.
2
Following the cross-section from the right bank to the
the high fore-shore rose steep above the waterline (3:1 or 4
away by
the
water.
At
left,
we mention
that
and was much worn
1)
:
meter above the water was a small berm or
1.80
flat,
presumably the work
of a recent flood which had remained some time at that level.
Below the waterline the bank descended along an incline of 1 6.5 to the point of
;
lowest depth (2.40 meters).
The
surface,
river,
its
or
greatest
sectional area
covered
1.96 meter, the
mean
rather the
southern arm, measured 273 meters across at
depth being 2.40 meters and
367
J-
lay
its
M. The
a channel with a
and an estimated discharge of
4
*-
cubic meters per second.
about 0.20 meter above. About
area of
sectional
538
lay a shoal, 1414 meters wide, of
about 0.15 meter under water, and
middle was
the
1.34
square meters, the greatest velocity at the surface was
velocity 1.44 meter, the discharge
Between the northern and southern arm
which
mean depth
its
more than 10 square meters,
cubic meters per second.
The northerly arm, with a surface breadth of 409 meters, had a maximum
depth of 1.80 meter, and a mean depth of 0.99 meter. The sectional area which was
very
irregular,
included
406
square
meters,
the
maximum
1.96 meter, the average velocity 0.86 meter, the discharge
After
this
came a bank
of
muddy
evident had recently been under water. The
minimum
0.15 meter,
bank was
also a broad fore-shore, 6.50
The whole
line,
sectional
for
it
height
meters above the river
On
was
it
was
1.23 meter, the
this
').
area, including that part of the shoal below the water-
880 cubic meters.
4430 meters.
total discharge
The
water-level, according to local reports, reached a point 4.30 meters
was during our
survey.
Assuming
this to be correct, it
the whole sectional area at that level a surface of more than
1)
was
348 cubic meters per second.
breadth of the bed between the two high fore-shores was
The highest
velocity
and the mean height 0.80 meter above water. North of
measured 816 square meters, and the
above what
surface
sand, 2320 meters broad, which
maximum
would give
17700 square meters.
the very edge of the unprotected steep bank of the fore-shore stood a Httle village, part of which
had evidently been ah-eady destroyed and swallowed up by the
river.
Cross-secUons
and
The reach we measured between May 17* and 20* near Tsi-ho (116°
long.), was much more regular than the one just described.
E.
The
993
was
section here
the greatest depth
maximum surface-velocity 1.92
ViSH cubic meters per second.
square meters, the
The
at
right dike,
line
were about
slopes
its
;
and the land on the other side at
3.84;
133
meters
Here
it
and
across,
meter, the mean velocity
meters broad' was in the middle 6.21, and at
7
meters above datum
-\-
was 328 meters,
the breadth at the surface
;
and the mean depth 3.02 meters. The sectional area was
4.65,
1.30 meter, the discharge
6.07
fairly regular
50'
down
sloped
descended suddenly at
regularly
+
1
:
3.44.
its
2.5.
The
The
fore-shore
summit
was
fore-shore
along that length
measured
+
to
2.69.
0.90, and thence the bank sloped gently down to
-j-
the water-line 34 meters further on.
The
dike,
left
+ 5.87;
+ 2.17; and
at
inclines
its
to
7
high, with the top at
The distance
-|-
down to the river side. From there the bank
down to the water-hne. The outer slope of this
0.80
-|-
1
:
3
was provided with a covering
of millet-fascines secured behind stakes,
According to
between the
local information,
Shantung, the highest water-level of
The
sectional area at that level is
Between these two measures
lies
„a
little
500
meters.
confirmed by His Excellency the Governor of
years was about 5 Meters above datum-
late
4100
square meters.
which
of discharge,
what the water had done during
differ
we
about 400 cubic meters,
could get to our repeated
that period, was that
it
had become
higher."
Both cross-sections, and especially the high steep
river-side,
meter
two opposites dikes was
crests of the
a period of 2 weeks. At Tsi-ho, the only answer
inquiries about
1
4.14.
in the section
meters, and 200 meters higher up the river, only
Une.
summit
were about 1:3; the land inside the dike lay at -\- 2.57
-\- 3.14. The fore-shore was 33 meters broad, and
descended along an incline of
513
6 and its
the fore-shore at
sloped along that length to
dike
+
meters broad, was in the middle at
showed
clearly that the river
incline of the fore-shore
had quite recently stood
for
some time
on the
at a higher
datum. At the reach near the breach of 1852, this water-mark was 1.80 meter above
water, and at Tsi-ho, 0.80 to
indicate the
bring the
fall
two measures
meter. Very probably these marks
O.tiO
line of the river
during the higher water of a
of discharge
have been taken at a water-level about
three
of
little
rivers that
any importance at
fall
this
into the
together
1
therefore
,
little
the
Tsi-ho one ought to
Hwangho between
these
two
the
Though we had many
current
takes
a
difficulties to
foremost place,
them, and have therefore obtained
to be reliable.
places, cannot be
time of the year.
The above described measurements, observations, and
of
be taken to
meter lower. The discharge of the two or
calculations
worked out with the utmost care and, whenever necessary and
checked.
may
time before. To
results,
still
have been
possible, regularly
contend with, among which the force
we managed at length to overcome
we can without hesitation declare
which
87
As we
sailed
down
6—11) to its mouth, we took a number
depth we found to be 9, and the smallest
the river (October
of soundings in the fair-way.
The greatest
2.20 meters.
Ney
21—27, 1868), took a
Elias also (October
great
lower part of the river, and found for greatest depth
and
in
many
the
soundings on the
fair-
way
18 meters
for the smallest 3.80 meters.
Though
silting
would be premature
it
up of the
the exact spots
of the
comparison between our
mean depth
to
draw absolute deductions
relative to the
river-bed, unless being better informed about the water-levels,
soundings both in October
own complete
figures
and
1868 and October 1889, yet a
and those
of
Ney
Elias
show that the
of the deep channel of the Yellow River below Tsi-nan-fu has conside-
rably decreased during the last 20 years.
At
where we found a depth
Tsi-ho,
on October 2P' 1868, found from 9.15 to 10.98 meters
in the fair-way.
depth has not decreased in any appreciable degree, and this
remarkable
when one remembers
fact,
speaking, strikingly regular in
is
its
is
that the river-reach by Tsi-ho
course and
inclined to say of the river as of
Ney
at high water of 9.65 meters,
somebody
else
:
Here the
certainly
is,
a very
comparatively
embankments. On seeing
its
Elias,
this, one
„ that, if fairly treated, he's not
so black as he's painted."
The considerable decrease
in
depth of the fair-way of the Lower Hwang-ho
not in our opinion to be ascribed to
its
much
discussed
mud
alloy.
What
is
are the
actual facts? After the breach of 1852, the water of the Yellow River at Yil-Shan
(116° 30' E. long.) flowed into the bedding of the
little
river Ta-temgr-fto
and streamed
Between the breach and Yii-Shan the river formed a great
lagoon. Thus the Ta-tsing-ho had a much less discharge at
first than it had afterwards, when the newly-formed river was completely embanked.
According to Morrison, these embankments were not completed until 1878. At first
the bedding of the Ta-tsing-ho was presumably much deepended, and this was still
down
it
to
the
sea.
unembanked marsh
or
distinctly observable in 1868. Gradually,
and particularly after the completion of the
embankments, the narrow bed of the Ta-tsing-ho acquired a breadth more
with
its
greatly increased discharge
,
our view of the state of affairs and,
returned us
much
be adduced
as
bootless task.
the river, in
while the excessive depth diminished. This
if correct,
it
is
is
no wonder that our soundings
lower figures than those of Ney Elias; but this fact should not
evidence
On
in proportion
that
the
improvement of the Yellow River would be a
hearing that the Engineers of the Dutch Syndicate found on sounding
1889 that
its
mean depth
in the fair- way
had decreased from 4 to 5
meters on an average, as compared with that found by Ney Elias in 1868, one is
so inclined to exclaim the new bed of the Hioatig-ho has risen 4 or 5 meters in twenty
:
years and, though only dating from 1852, must already have reached a level above
that of the adjacent country.
Nothing could be further from the truth, as
is
shown by our
river-section near
Tsi-ho and by other measurements along the Lower Hicang-ho, taken on purpose.
For instance at Tsi-ho the land within the inner dikes was found to be on one bank
more than
2
meters and on the other more than 3 meters above the
level of the
Depth of the river
and gradual elevation
"^ '" '""
88
water,
e.
i.
to
6|-
meters above the deepest point of the river-bed, and 5 to 6
7|-
meters above the mean bottom hne. These figures point to a good scour of a regular
bed of sufficient depth, rather than to a silting up of the bottom and, in connection
with the short distance (540 meters) between the opposite lying dikes at
that
plainly
limitation
accumulation of
silt
may
river-bed. And
breadth
in
in the
a
be
this result is obtained
year shows. There can however be no doubt that,
dammed
breaches only being
the
without any excessive
exactly
in
same way as
the
some
therefore
ho,
new
river is left to itself,
where
river,
in
slowly but surely the bedding will rise
the old river above the breach of 1852. If
river-improvement be not speedily carried out, then
way become
overwhelming importance
did
it
efficient plan of
indeed the case
the
if
as they occur, and the dikes protected only
they come into direct contact with the
Hwang
of preventing
as the navigation on this part of the river during the greater part of the
current,
the
means
desirable
show
Tsi-ho,
nay hopeless; and
critical,
to set about the
along 600 kilometers of
improvement
course
its
why
this is
it
is
of such
of the river, while the
Lower
as regards the silting up of its
is still,
bedding, under the influence of comparatively favourable circumstances. Every year's
delay
makes the task which, by hook
difficult,
or crook, one
day must be accomplished, more
protracted and costly.
As we have shown
a previous paragraph, the breach of 1852 resulted in
in
a lowering of the water levels and a greater scour of the bottom of the upper portion
bottom of the river by the breach
of the river. In 1888 Mr. Morrison found that the
of
1887 was
1
to IJ
agreed closely with
meter above the embanked lands, and our observations there
In consequence of the breach however, the bottom there
his.
must
have been somewhat raised by the sand brought down by the current; and we believe that,
generally speaking, though the bedding of the Yellow River above the breach of 1852
must have risen more before that period, it
The breach has done the upper river good
now certainly
is
:
not worse circumstanced.
at first the scour of the bedding
must
have improved, the general water-level lowered and the velocity increased. Should
be
asked whether this scouring of the bottom
negative answer. The river has,
if
we may
is
so express
sudden downflow from the raised bed into the lower
in
same
the
condition
again slowly rising.
as
it
was
before 1852
;
we
going on,
still
it,
plain,
we
should return a
gradually equalized the
and
is
now most probably
in other words, the river-bottom is
our measurement of the reach above the breach shows that
Still
What
these advantages are not yet forfeited.
a pity
it
would be
to sacrifice the
whole
benefit so dearly bought!
Assuming a bottom-breadth
of the channel of only 400 meters, one meter's scour
of the bottom represents no less than
which
river
case
in
to
silt
river will
We
Yellow
of river-improvement
up again. But
this
become a much more
have,
River
is
we
also
trust,
1
million cubic meters for every
might have
advantage being
to
be
removed
forfeited, the
if
2| kilometers,
one allows the
improvement
of the
difficult question.
shown that the time
favourable
as
regards
this
for
the
improvement
compartment;
year's dflay will surely bring its harvest of bitter fruit.
and
of
the
that evei-y
89
On October
the
when we had reached
Q''',
above Tie-monn-Jman (118° 29'
shallows; and indeed
was
it
would not be stopped
we were
E. long.),
a point four or five kilometers
delayed three hours through the
some time doubtful whether our further progress
A few months before a breach had occurred here
for
altogether.
through which fully 90 per cent of the water flowed eastward to the sea. At
between
points,
and
place
this
Tie-monn-kwan
the
,
river-bed
the
at
many
water-line
measured no more than 20 or 80 Meters across, and was so shallow that, though
our gun-boat had only a draught of two feet it was with the greatest difficulty
we got her through.- To effect this a number of sailors had to strip, and tow us
,
through the narrow channels.
We
should have liked
were raised
much
very
to survey the
new
but objections
outfall,
the gun-boat's venturing through the breach. A Chinese surveyor
engaged in the neighbourhood informed us that the new outfall measured 4^ kilometers across, with a depth at its upper end near the breach of 19 feet. According
to
to
the Memorial
We
to
saw from
Holland
The
this Memorial, an extract of
which
last
we
received on our return
of dikes along 15 kilometers of the
kilometers were to remain provisionally unembanked. The
5
has therefore a length of 20 kilometers. The
outfall
new
and
of creeks
when
98000
at
to Tst-nan-fu,
of course
new
the
flood.
When
matter
we
from the
down
flowing
in
much water
properly
the
with
damming
out
it
to
sea.
The
requisite
depth
direction
as possible to flow in from the sea at
,
deepens the
bedding and sweeps
will prove
is
river,
all
this,
the solid
down which
any such improvement, and we approve
outfall, in
outlet.
Should this work be
case shoals should occur, be kept at
by dredging, the measures
One great advantage
His Excellency Shang-Yao
winding lower portion of the
old
new
and the
out,
discussion.
and embanking of the new
of the training
carried
received in audience by the Governor,
an accumulated mass of water, the product of
is
impetus
double
Governor of Shantung
their
The outlay
and the down-stream arrested by the former;
sea
sailed to the bar, is quite unadapted to
most highly
3.
the necessity of giving a good depth and width to the
us as to
the ebb sets in there
up-stream
we were
came under
outfall
as to allow as
so
outfall,
the
:
for the
holes.
On our return
quite agreed with
new
1
which 12 000 Taels were required
Taels, of
new
new
dikes would be 10 feet high,
with a summit breadth of 20 feet and inclines on either side of
was estimated
depth, in the
outfall, its
feet.
up bedding, and the construction
old silted
outfall.
from 8 to 16
His Excellency very wisely recommends the damming up of the
that
,
Shantung on the new
of the Governor of
latter part of 1889, varied
carried out
by His Excellency the
eminently useful to the Yellow River.
that the dikes along the
and relative distance,
new
outfall,
both as regards
will incontestably be laid on a better
system
than those along the old mouth. In the latter case, the gradual prolongation of the
embankment takes
salt-pans
along
the
place as a rule
river;
and
it
,
without sufficient inspection
is
,
by the owners of
evident that these people set to
regular system, but merely with a view to their
own
work on no
interests, leaving those of the
river to care for themselves.
12
Estuary of the
Rive,-.
Thiai flow.
90
It
new
this
is for
we have
mud-press
already referred
21' 4", its hold 8' 2^"
dredging depth
outfall that
and
ground per hour. The machine
strength to press the
to.
The length
of the vessel is 118', its breadth
draught, without coals and water, 3
its
28 feet, and
is
His Exc. Shang-Yao ordered the dredger with
it
The maximum
and the mudpress should be of sufficient
of 140 H. P.
is
feet.
should raise at least 2500 cubic feet of average
dredged material through 250 meters of tube,
1
foot
wide,
partly floating, and rising on shore to a height of 16 feet above the water-level.
The
was very
a
satisfactory.
which the
of
last
tube
less
sandy
being
showed an amount
It
first
50 Meters were
3"
16'
at
material,
the
of
3955 cubic
feet,
mixed with
of sand
and pressed per hour through 250 Meter length of iron
dredged
blue clay,
little
tube,
the dredger on March 11"" 1891, on the river Lek nea.v Rotterdam,
trial of
above the
can
dredger
on small
afloat
rafts,
When
water-level.
the extremity of the
dredging
and
pressing
master without any doubt 5000 cubic feet
per hour.
1868 Ney Elias estimated the distance between Tie-mmn-kwan and the
In
measured along the
28| kilometers, whereas according to our estimate
the distance in 1889 was quite 12 kilometers more. The figures relative to the
gradual growth of the coast-line through the mud-alluvion of the Yellow River
bar,
considerably.
differ
instance,
for
is
it
river, at
the
In
bar had increased from
other
we
writing
Memorial of the Governor of Shantung
above-mentioned
stated that, since 1852, the distance from Tie-monn-Moan to the
50 to
found
120
that
the
li,
that
70
is
or nearly 40 kilometers. In
li
advanced
coast-line
an
on
average
an
35 meters
a year.
Between the breach and Tie-mdnn-kwan, and also below the latter place, the
shallow. The depth increased again as we approached the bar. At
was very
river
we were shown
Tie-monn-kican
water at the time of the breach;
level of the
line.
At
like
1
these
the outfafl, and a
to
on a pole, notched across at regular intervals, the
little
1| meter above the water-level.
lands
a
lie
little
it
higher up, the
It
was only 2 meters above the waterunembanked mud-flats lay something
may
be
pretty safely asserted that
lower than the high water-mark of the
when
antecedent to the breach,
river at a period
was discharged through
the whole water-volume
this outlet.
On October
11
the bar, and here
we
and 12 our boat lay
off
the coast, about 2| kilometers above
took a few measurements and observations of which
we
give
a short description.
The
river-reach
last
but one above the bar extended in a direction West-
East, bending at about 3 kilometers above the bar round to the south-east. The
course
i.
e.
above
at
to
parallel
the
bar,
both
half-hour
level of the
from
river
40 meters'
hours,
or
of the
at
on
the
the
general
a
direction
river-bed
distance,
ebb
bend down to the bar was North-west
this
and
the
flood,
and
read
off
At about 21 kilometers
coast-line.
regular;
here
measured the stream- velocities
level-gauge
mud-bank.
of
was very
the
level
— South-east
we
took two cross-sections,
in
this
reach at different
of
the
water every hour
whose datum-line was about 1.50 meter below the
91
92
flood sets N.
W., the ebb
S. E.
the
In the Gulf of Petchili, especially on the coast,
tides are subject to great irregularities.
Taku, at the mouth of
the Peiho, on October 10, 11 and 12, are noted in the following table; and from
these, by adding 30 minutes, we get the periods of high water before the bar of
the Hwangho. In the same table are included the observations, taken by us, of the
The periods and heights
of ebb
and
high and low water periods of the river at
Dales
flood observed at
2-^
kilometers above the bar.
93
it
a point where
reaches
enough
dikes
sweep
to
it
end
this
in view,
kilometers from
5
we
should
coast
are
recommend
powerful
that the
planned by His Excellency the Governor of Shantung
outfall,
should not terminate at
and ebb-tide along the
flood-
With
away.
new
along the
the
the coast,
,
but be extended even for
some distance into the sea with heads of millet or osier- and stone-work. Further
most river-mouths, and certainly the Yellow River, require constant dredging to keep
in
check the ground deposits, which occur from exceptional circumstances such as
storms, very great discharge, etc.
Should any attempt be made to carry out these works, and to determine their
distance,
and height, without previously measuring the discharge of the
direction
river at its different levels,
and force of the
and collecting accurate data respecting the height, direction
currents,
tidal
they would lead to inevitable miscalculations and
disappointments. The data necessary for forming a good plan of embankments and
new
piers along the
river-mouth might however be got together within a few months,
independently of the systematic general survey of the river.
As
regards the outfall too,
present time
river, the
is
forming such an important compartment of the
most favourable and seems almost
to be pointed out for
the measurements and observations required for the proper application of the most
recent principles of river-engineering.
It
was
Sz-shui-hsien ,
of
Honan,
long.)
intention
sail
down
after
inspecting
view
where
of the important
breach
for
years the river
forming a vast marsh to
Ta-tsing-ho,
which
During our
it
of
1887
and
visiting
Shantung. This would have
compartment below the breach
kilometers,
we
the
the river from Kai-fung-fu, the capital of the province
to Tsi-nan-fu, the capital of the province of
afforded us a
E.
our
to
streamed across the
Yu-shan, where
it
of 1852 (114° 40'
plain, a distance of
250
found the bedding of the
followed thence to the sea.
first
stay
in
Kai-fung-fu (April 15—18)
might continue our journey by water, and
we had
we had been
told that
already ordered our boats for
Tsi-nan-fu of the mandarin of the ferry at Cheng-chin, the harbour of Kai-fung-fu.
On our return to Kai-fung-fu on April 29, we learned however much to our disap-
pointment, that in consequence of the lowness of the water, the trip down the river
had become impracticable and that, if we wanted to go to Tsi-nan-fu at all, we should
have to travel by land.
Any
departure from the usual route in order to follow the
with such a large caravan as ours, was out of the question; we had therefore
to confine ourselves to measuring two river-reaches: near the breach of 1852 and
river,
by Tsiho.
As
regards this part of the river
we
refer our readers to
Ney
Elias'
1868" pubhshed
„
Notes
in the
of a Journey to the New
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society during the year 1870; and borrow a few
concise details from the accounts and reports of various reliable experts.
Course of the Yellow River
in
After the breach of 1852, the water streamed out of the raised bedding across
the plain in a north easterly direction, without a channel deeper than 3 feet even
in the season of inundation, but ever moving with a swift onward current. An
The Hwang-ho in
Chihli
and West
Shantung.
94
canal,
insignificant
the
called
Chun-hwang-ho
which at that time connected the
,
Emperor's Canal with the Yellow River, formed the basis
itself
still
an unsatisfactory condition, as
in
to accomplish our journey
is
for the present bedding,
evidenced by our fruitless attempt
by water.
1868 Ney Elias found the river between the breach and the Emperor's
In
Canal in a most deplorable condition, a tract of country some 20 miles wide being
practically
given
up
the
to
During the
river.
catastrophe fruitless attempts were
made
to
first
two
or three years after the
the breach, and then only this
close
was given up in favour of converting the new course into a regular river by
means of embankments and closing up the old channel below the breach. In 1868 the
river, for a distance of 150 kilometers upwards from the Emperors Canal, was divided
into two chief arms, of which the southern, the Sunkiang-Canal is now closed and
plan
,
,
dried
up,
the
stream
now
following the northern. Just here a great
formed, no doubt greatly increasing the
Mr.
whom we
Morrison,
describes his visit in
—
May
When
difficulty of building
learnt to
marsh
')
was
the dikes.
know
as a very able and reUable expert,
place
in
1878 as follows
visited
I
this
great changes had been
1878,
effected in the upper portion.
—
Close to the breach
The
desolation.
it
is
true, the scene
river consisted of a
were
followed by
little
more than a
of such
shallows
foot
water,
of
network
slight
was
was
one of the utmost
still
of channels,
depth that
where deep holes
my
on two or three
aground,
often
boat, drawing
occasions for hours at a time, while the banks of the river were unrecognisable
there
and probably
twenty miles however
really out of sight. After about
was a great change
the better; the officials had been at work,
for
and the immense marsh intersected by channels of various
way
to a river confined to one
low water channel
,
had given
sizes
and with embankments
along both sides at a moderate distance, apparently just sufficiently wide
apart to take
the flood waters.
Emperors Canal) as
far as Tsi-nan-fu, the river
as at the time of Mr.
—
Below Pa-li-miao
Ney
(at the junction of the
was
in the
same
It appears, therefore, that as soon as
the
officials
discovered that
they could not close the breach, they set about conserving the
The
portion
between the Canal and Tsi-nan-fu presented no
the upper portion
river
was
condition
Ellas' visit.
little
new
channel.
difficulties,
but
but a marsh and had to be converted into a
by the construction of embankments
;
and, as giving
some
idea of the
occupied by such works, the length between the breach and the
Grand Canal, measuring about 100 miles, had been nearly but not quite
time
brought under control in some 25 years after the breach had occurred.
—
The whole
downwards appears
new course from the great breach of 1852
below the general level of the country immediately
of the
to be
adjacent to the river.
1)
The ancient
Marsh which must have
Yukung-Qivoracles,
which date 5
existed at this place.
centuries
before
Christ,
make mention
of the
Ko
95
On
map
his
of
of
his
in
„
Surveyed May 1878; water nearly at
1887, and by special
researches
interesting
read:
who surveyed
Mr. Kingsmill,
Rwang-ho
part of the Yellow River, which Mr. Morrison kindly
this
we
allowed us to look at,
to
report
the
its
lowest."
the Emperor's Canal and part of the
command communicated
Lower
in writing the results
Governor of the Province of Shantung, mentions
his
in
that in
1887 the river had established a fairly defined channel
occupying approximately the northerraost of the two ill-defined channels or lagoons
through which it made its way in 1868. The southern by Tai-miao and by An'shan
were
effectually
and no remains were apparent of the Sunkiang Canal. At
closed,
some distance from the
river
embankments had been thrown up and were improved
and strengthened.
in direction
Bearing in mind that the
of
1852,
along
a
length
of
new
about
course of the Yellow River below the breach
640 kilometers, has had
embanked; that the embankments are
along
150
kilometers
the
of
river
200 kilometers through a tract
to
be nearly entirely
for the greater part double; that the dikes
had
be laid through a marsh, and for over
to
which had suffered severely from the inun-
of land
—
and was nearly unpeopled,
one cannot help respecting the perseverance
with which this work has been carried on and accomplished, despite the devastations
dation,
of
the
annually
recurring
high
floods.
True, in his Memorial of 1890 the Governor
Shantung names the Lin-ho, the Chin dikes, the private dikes between Tunga
and Litsing, and between the Yiifu-ho and Machuang and the main embankments
between Litsing, the Ghi-ho and the Yilfu-ho, as standing in sorry need of repair;
of
yet for
all
that, the
and
the
the
damming
difficult
The works
The
current.
fairly
embankment
Lower Hwang-ho, from
of the
circumstances attending
carried out on the
was
construction,
Lower Hwang-ho
is
its
enormous extent
a very striking work.
consisted in the laying of dikes,
and the protection of the dikes against the action of the
of breaches,
river
its
left
well along that part of
to
its
do the scouring of
its
own
bed and has done this
bedding formerly occupied by the Ta-tsing-ho
but
;
a very undesirable condition.
A
few
dredging machines, such as the one about to be delivered by our Syndicate
for
the
between
the
breach and this
is
dredging
anywhere
or
still
in
of great service, especially if they
might here doubtless be
outfall,
a part
anyhow,
were not used
in
but set to work on a definite plan of river-impro-
vement.
Whe
shall
treat
here
directly connected with the
The summit-level
of the
Great Emperor's Canal only in so
far as it is
of the canal lies about 35° 43' N.
lat.,
by the Lung-wang
temple at Nan-toang, just where the Wonn-ho, the chief feeder, falls into the canal
on its eastern bank. From here it runs northward to Lintsing (36° 52' N. lat.
115° 52' E. long.), where
it is
connected with the Wei-ho by means of a sluice-gate.
The distance from the summit-level to Lin-tsing, measured along the canal, is
202 kilometers, and the Wei-ho mean water-level at Lin-tsing is 8.25 meters lower
that that of the summit-reach of the Canal. This was the figure arrived at, by
levelling, by Mr. Kingsmill in
June 1887.
The crossing of the
Emperm-s Canaior
Yellow River.
Yiin-hn.
96
river
The canal between Nan-wang and Lin-tsing was at one time a free streaming
whicli was afterwards
divided by locks into
in the interests of navigation
,
and burst through
moment
that
,
,
reaches,
it
new
1852 by the
in
into decay, and at present the traffic
fell
carried on under great
is
as witness the following account of the voyage of
difficulties,
From
course of the Yellow River.
each containing 1000 to 1500 piculs (60 to 90 tons of 1000
more than 1200 junks,
kils),
which meet together
every year in the beginning of April at T'smg-Mang-pu, where the Canal intersects
Yangtze, to caiTy the rice-tribute to Peking.
the
From
very
the
beginning
but only a row of lock-boards
No fewer than 200 men
trouble.
is
down
which have no gates,
{cha)
grooves in the stone piers, give a deal of
in
are often required to pull one ship through. If there
water, a few ships are allowed to pass through and then the lock
little
and the others have
Canal
of the
numerous locks
the
let
of millet
to wait.
that the
•)
As
stalks.
The Yellow Puver
latter
is
so little
is
carried out to its edge
shut
is
below the summit-level
with huge embankments
a rise of a few feet in the river-level might divert
its
course
it
to open out a new channel for itself through the Canal, the heads of
embankment are kept closed by a permanent dam which has to be removed
when the rice junks arrive. Should the river be too high, it dare not be opened for
and lead
the
fear
it
of flooding
has risen sufficiently
taken place, the
is
the lower country;
reached,
fleet
when
even worse.
is
same process has
absolutely
taken from the Yellow River
a
body just
and aided
more
Lintsing.
the
in
channel, and
summit-reach
anyhow
stream.
supply
is
of
When
till
haply this has
the western entrance
water available
state of affairs is
except what
*)
is
so overloaded with sediment that only
admitted at
is
till
Here the
to be repeated.
This
junks
a
time.
By
dint of exertion
by the flush of the river, the boats in about 5 weeks
They reach Tientsin end July or beginning August, and
beginning
it is
of September. Entering on their
is
way back
found to have nearly
the
filled
only by repeated flushings that the junks get back to the
Lung-toang-miao.
From
there
southward they get along easier, but
takes them eight months before they are back at Tsing-kiang-pu. The
it
section of the canal between Lintsing
on
its
Lintsing, the deposit from the Yellow River
at
its
be too low, the junks must wait
it
to a certain extent
Peking as a rule
up
no
itself
sufficient to float the
arrive at
canal
should
permit them to enter
has to drop down some fifteen miles
the
There
to
the latter for
dams have
to
be
its
and the Yellow River, depending nearly wholly
water supply, has
to be
dug out afresh each year, while the
replaced three or four times and extensive repairs
made
to the
embankments.
The above shows
breach of 1852. To effect
what evil condition the Grand Canal has been since the
any improvement it would be necessary to construct good
in
sized and solid locks in the dikes of the Yellow River,
below
its
June 1887
Mr. Kingsmill found the watermark of
where the
latter is intersected
Yellow River by Shilipu, which was then
i)
In
its
ordinary flood-level, to be 1.15 meter above the bedding of the summit-reach of the Canal.
2)
In
bottom 5
May 1878 Morrison found
feet
tlie
the bed of the Grand Canal north of the Yellow River to be dry, and
above the water of the Hwang-ho.
97
by the Canal. The locks would have to be furnished
with two sets of gates forming
chamber. By means of slides in the gates the water could
be raised alternately
up to the level of the Canal or of the river. A ship
might then easily pass through,
without having to be tugged up against a strong current. The locks might
easily
a
be
fitted with suitable cleansing apparatus
for getting rid of the mud. The channel
of the Canal on either side of the river might
be kept free of mud by making wide
basins on the Canal side of the locks; in these
the water, before flowing into the
Canal from the river, on the passage of a ship, would remain for some time
at rest
mud sink to the bottom. These basins would have to be kept at the proper
depth by dredging. If the water-supply for the Canal can be obtained without drawing
it from the Yellow River
it would be advisable to remove the crossing point lower
and the
,
down
in order that the
By
river.
mean
water
level of the
means, the streaming
this
of the
the canal be higher than in the
in
river-water into the Canal would be
almost entirely stopped.
It is obvious, and experience has frequently confirmed it, that breaches in the
dikes of the Yellow River above the breach of 1852 where the bottom of the river
,
is
on an average
more
meter higher than the land inside the dikes, are much
their consequences and more difficult to close, than the dike-breaches
serious in
to
1
1.5
,
in the provinces of Chihli
and Shantung where the bottom has not risen so high.
Concerning the breaches that occurred
before
the
along
the southern
breach
of 1852,
we have no
figures to go upon.
embankment however
the traces of breaches through
,
we saw
After 1852
it.
the southern dike by Yang-kiau (about 114°
and was closed
at
in
114° E.
about
February 1870.
we
January 1889. This
desolation
It
visited
water spread over
three
a vast extent of the
flat
deep.
the
upon
Standing
a
the
recently
measureless barren
new
plain
1| meter
about
dike, lay
middle of the
breach,
but
On sounding we found
creek
a
the
in
shall not expatiate on the
merely mention that the
it
the Yangtze, and through the
,
The inundation was worst shortly
after
was not
it
dam, and looking southward, one
according
to
our
measurements near
below the water-level of the river. Just behind the
a pool had been formed
dike
same dike
in the
into that stream, to the Hungtze-\ake,
constructed
which,
in
1868
southern plain, and, entering different
way
,
covering a surface of more than
which the water was 2| meters below the
6 hectares, in
shallow
in July
and during the high water period of 1888; at other times
breach,
beheld
We
later.
the Grand Canal eastward of
,
which occurred
September 1887, and was closed
in
latter
sluices of the eastern canal-dike to the sea.
the
E. long.),
months
of the Hwai-ho, found its
the Pauying-lake
mention made of a breach
is
resembled closely the breach
and misery caused by the
left tributaries
During our expedition
at various places and repeatedly
there
,
5'
which took place
long.,
above named part of the river,
in the
maximum
few meters wide
level of that in the river.
depth to be 20| meters. From this pool a small
meandered southwards through the plain, the
beginning of a broader and deeper bedding which no doubt the stream would have scoured
out
for
itself
mixed with
if
clay,
the
breach
that
it
had not been
closed.
The sandy surface
might be said to be suitable for agriculture;
was so
was also
soil
it
13
Breaches.
98
made use
new embankment, and
of on the
which the
millet-stalks of
Our opinion
on
latter
was made.
question
as
breach of 1887 or allowing the river to follow
its
of
damming
the
up the crevices between the
for filling
disputed
to
the advisability of closing the
new
course,
is
decidedly in favour
the breach. Mr. Morrison justly observes that the embankment's being
way
assailed and giving
was quite a matter of chance. This might
have happened somewhere along the northern dike; and to
just at that point
for instance just as well
speak, as has been done, of the river's forcing for
itself
a natural way,
is
sheer
nonsense.
the breach
If
century
old
period,
down
still
followed its
choked with the sedimentary deposits of such a prolonged
bedding,
to
1852 had never occurred, and the river
of
the sea, the training and making durable of the temporary south
eastern course of the river after the breach of 1887, might well have been a matter
But if one remembers with what prodigious exertions and
Lower Hwang-ho was diked after the breach of 1852; how
greatly the general state of affairs has been thereby improved; what treasures and
time it would take to form and embank a new river of several hundred kilometers
length, one cannot but applaud the determination of the Government to close the
for
serious consideration.
sacrifices
the present
dike at whatever cost.
The breaches
of
1868 and
1852,
Hwang-ho were not caused by overflow
to
1887 along the
old,
elevated course of the
of the dikes, but because nothing
put a stop to the incessant changes of the bedding of the river,
reached the dike and undermined
it
it
till
that they
was done
at length
it
succombed. Especially this part of the
where the breaches are followed by such
river,
till
terrible
and far-reaching consequences,
partake of the character of a national calamity, should be vigourously
taken in hand without any delay. The threatened banks and dikes (here as a rule
the southern) must be effectually protected
;
and as the works need not
be carried along both banks but only along one of them, they
at
once, without waiting for the proposed survey
hydrometric data to be deduced from
other
bank
works unsuitable
lines or other
it.
etc.
may
for the
present
be begun with
and the normal breadth and
Without the
least danger of
making
to the later general plan of river-improvement,
very useful works might, after a rapid survey, be planned and carried out, which
would retain
their usefulness after the systematic training of the river had been
all
accomplished. To
and projected
rivers.
make
by experienced engineers, who have seen and studied many trained
The question
or of the
sure of this however the works would have to be determined
bank
to be considered is not the protecting of a part of the dike here
there, a
a connection between
yet indeed only
in
matter not very
all
difficult of
accomplishment
;
but to keep up
these partial works, as subdivisions of one great plan as
conception, but
whose
chief outlines nevertheless
must be
clearly
impressed upon the minds of the projectors of the partial works.
On
the
600 kilometers of river lying between the mouth and the breach of
1852, breaches in the dikes are
those described above. This
is
much
less
dangerous and
much
easier
dammed
than
because the river does not flow here through a raised
bedding, but has a low water channel lying below the surrounding districts.
99
Through the kind exertions
we
Secretary
the river
,
of
Shang Yao's Son and Private
of His Excellency
obtained on our request a statement of the breaches on this part of
which we append a
translation.
For want of accurate maps
we
are
unable to give the latitude and longitude of the undermentioned places:
List of Inundations in the Province of Shantung
,
and in
the Province of Chihli
lohen affecting Shantung.
0.
District
(hsien)
Locality
(chuang,
etc.)
B.
B.
= Overflow
= Breach
= Repaired
Yiin Cheng
Ho Hsia Lin
Ho
Chia Chuang
B. July 1874
Tao Yuen
B.
Tso
Remarks
B. Aug. 1872
)
E. Febr. 1873
i
Small dike
make by
people themselves
B. March 1875
Li Ching
Small dike made by
June 1882
people themselves
B.
Hui Min
Ho Tun
Ching
0. Febr.
1883
Small dike only
B. March 1883
Li Ching
Shih Ssu
Hu
0.
B.
May 1883
B. April 1884
Li Ching
Pi'en
Chia Chuang
and Hsiao Li Chuang
Chi
Tung
Hsiao Chia Chuang
0.
B. Jan. 1884
B.
May 1884
B. June 1884
B. Oct. 1884
Li Ching
Ho
Chia Lin
0.
B. June 1884
B. Aug. 1884
Li Ching
Ho Tao Chuang
B. June 1884
B. Sept. 1884
Chi
Ho
Li Chia
An
[Hung-Miao)
9
Tung Ming
Chi
Ho
Chen Hsia Lin
0. July
B. March 1885
B.
Mao Chia Tien
?
Repaired by the Chihli authorities
0. B. March 1885
B.
Chang Chin
1884
May 1885
B. April 1885
[
Sudden breach. Large dike
B. June 1885
Chi
Ho
Chao Chuang
0.
B. June 1885
B. Jan. 1886
Li Ching
Tsao
Kou
0.
B. June 1885
B. Jan. 1886
Li Ching
Ten Toio Chen
0.
B. June 1885
B. June 1885
Ching Cheng
Yang Chia Chuang
0.
Repaired in a couple of days
I
i
B. June 1885
I
B. June 1885
Repaired in a couple of days
100
=
=
=
0.
Locality
District
{chuang
(hsien)
B.
B.
etc.)
,
Chang Chin
Kuo Ghia Chai
Chang Chin
Ho Wang Chuang
Overflow
Remarks
Breach
Repaired
June 1885
0. B.
Government's dike
n. April 1887
0. B. Febr.
1886
n. Nov. 1886
Wang
Yang
Chi
Chia Chuang
0. B. April
Hui Hin
Tao Chia Koto
1886
1887
B. Oct.
0. B. April
1886
n. Dec. 1887
Hsu
Shou Chang
Ghia and
O.July 1886
Wo
E. Oct. 1886
Sha
Chi
Ho
Chu Ho Chuang
U,th
sides
J
B. Jan. 1887
0.
E. Jan. 1888
Kai Choio
Ta Chin Chuang
Chang Chin
Ta Chai
Li Ching
Chih Tang
R.
2
0. B.
Both
\
sides. Splendidly repaired
by the Chihli authorities.
I
July 1889
R.
2
0. B.
July 1889
R.
These
breaches were
2
repair
Pu Chou
Liu Liu Tsun
Aug. 1889
0.
R.
Chi
1887
0. July
Ho
Chang Tsun
when the list was
drawn up.
2
Aug. 1889
0. B.
R.
2
For a proper consideration of this hst, two things should not be
that
first
about
the
river,
very
the complete embanking of this river-compartment
1880
little
;
and secondly
Lower Htoang-ho discharged from September 1887
why
have
able
to
form some
for
sort
immense sums required every year
of the
of idea
the support of the
on a very serious
We
which they cause, and are
for the
wretched inhabitants. Since our departure
these calamities have, according to the newspaper reports
if
January 1889 but
no sense to be compared with the breaches
in
witnessed the misery and devastation
dam works and
Truly,
to
part of the river, their results should not be underestimated.
the higher
personally
lost sight of:
finished until
there were no breaches during that period.
Although these inundations are
along
was not
consequence of the breach of 1887 higher up the
that, in
water. This explains
in
still
,
been repeated during 1890
scale.
we
consider
the
hst
of
breaches
and
reflect
upon
all
this, the
necessity of at once taking decisive measures forces itself more and more upon us.
This
is
the
more necessary
,
every year. Our frank appeal
since
for
,
a
as
we have shown
scientific
,
the state of affairs gets worse
survey of the river as a preliminary to
a complete plan of river-improvement does not arise from self-interest or presumption.
101
We
think
a sad pity
tiiat the inhabitants of the shores of the Yellow River should
be systematically deprived of the fruits of the experience in the department of riverit
improvement, acquired
be infallible
of
incalculable
have
we
but
;
Europe during the
in
are convinced that our
service
view, would open up
in
If
many new and
were here a question
it
We
do not pretend to
dearly bought experience might be
Hwang-ho, and that a
the
to
last fifty years.
own
scientific inquiry
such as
we
fields of inquiry.
probably astonishing
railways, which might interfere
of introducing
with the pecuUarly conservative policy of the Chinese Empire, we could understand
the Government's hesitation. But no doubt, we should do it wrong, to assume that
it withheld, on mere political grounds, a measure intended to save a part of the
We
from great misery.
people
vement
based
on
And
in China.
surveys,
the
we
still
insufficiently
in a
visited afforded us the opportunity of
method
Chinese
and admiration
appreciated
of closing
breaches.
viewing
in actual
,
The works excited our wonder
very high degree. This was especially the case with the breach
by Lai-fung-cfmi
of 1887
are
this is indeed regrettable.
Various places
progress,
rather think that European methods of river-impro-
observations etc.,
,
which, during a three days' stay,
we
both surveyed and
mapped out. The following extract from our provisional report to His Exc. Li-HungChang is if anything an under statement of the truth. „ Considering the unfavour,
,
conditions of depth and velocity under which the last part of the dike had to
able
be repaired,
we may,
without flattery, express our admiration of the sagacity and
with which this truly grand work has been accomplished." No less
was the impression made upon us by the closing works along the Lower
perseverance
favourable
Hwang-ho, which we visited during our second expedition. The order and
with which these works are carried out is truly exemplary.
As no
drawings are printed with this report,
we must
rapidity
content ourselves
with a short description of the Chinese methods of closing breaches, constrrtcting
and other riverworks.
jetties
made
In North China these works are
Lat.
Sorghum
which
plant,
closely
in
vulgare)
is
either alone
,
,
chiefly of millet-stalks (Chin.
mixed with
or
the
China,
with
appearance
our
The bark however
reeds.
Although there
elder-tree.
we saw
The
nothing
is
filled
is less brittle,
used for river- works.
We
would be more
what
prodigious quantities of millet-stalks remain over after the harvest
durable,
otherwise only serve for fuel
we must admit them
made
of
,
—
f.
i.
in
North
beheve the
,
and how cleverly the Chinese know how
which could
to use
them,
to be a very cheap and serviceable material.
hemp, bamboo
,
and the
both under and above water; but bearing in mind
chief peculiarity of Chinese river- works
millet-stalks
,
with pith resembling that
abundance of excellent willow-wood
but Kaoliang
else
but
;
osier
The
Kaoliang
stalks of the millet-
very extensively cultivated, are from 3 to 5 meters long and correspond
stalks are I4 or twice as thick, and not hollow
of
earth.
a.
or
other
jetty or a
plant
new
fibres,
is
the frequent use of heavy cables
by which the newly made work of
dike in a breach
with the bank, the old dike, or the completed work.
—
is
brought into connection
Closing of Breaches.
102
Let us,
for
example, take a breach through which part of a dike has been
washed away. In China the new dike
they
begin
other
till
generally
made
they meet and the opening
is
thus closed. Let us
see
lengthened for some meters by a
it
Very
bows
firmly anchored at about
old one lay
dam
now imagine
of millet-stalks and earth
two metersfrom the head
,
,
of the
men
old dike, both along the surface plane
are busily engaged driving in
wooden stakes
one of the
and
we
shall
with vertical
dam, with her
facing the rushing stream that flows from the river through the breach
and at the extremity of the
the
where the
works have begun
extremities of the old dike shortly after the closing
inclines.
just
at both sides and go on gradually approaching each
same time
the
at
is
,
lies
a ship
and the inchnes,
which are attached strong
to
works are proceeding.
them disappear in the
cables stretched tight along the dike in the direction in which the
we
If
follow
these cables with
the
tightened or
we
eye,
shall
see
dam and reappear again about two meters further on
ship. Here they are wound round a windlass by which they can be
loosened. They hang loosely in the water between the head of the dam
water at the head
against
the
the
of
and the ship, and thus form
a kind of network, in which layers of miUet-stalks
are constantly placed right across the direction of the
embankment
,
the surface plane
men who bring the bundles of
millet, stamp the stalks firmly together; other workmen cover them with a layer
of earth, which they bring up in wheel-barrows; and the men on board the ship
being kept about half a meter above the water. The
keep loosening the ropes a
little
so that the net filled with earth and stalks gradually
,
sinks to the bottom and rests there. Then the ship
new
how
is
towed on a couple
of meters;
work proceeds in the same way. It is remarkable
work is thus carried on. Considering that the depth of the
water in the breach of 1887 was about 30 meters, while the current through it must
have been extremely strong, it must, we think, be admitted, that no other known
method would successfully have dammed the breach. The dam was 2200 meters long,
cables are fastened, and the
orderly and rapidly the
had a
maximum
minimum
thickness of 120 and
thickness of 40 meters
was
height above the level of the river at the time of our visit
height 10.30 meters. The old dike
meters above that
7.20
level.
course more than one ship
lies
was
When
and
let
As
the works advance
pretty strongly under
water through. This
to
,
the cables are no
are compressed to a large extent
feet.
As
,
far as
was
we
still
being raised constantly and shook
could judge
,
the dike let very
when we consider
and
through
must certainly
first
oozes
between the
the great
little
mud alloy
contribute gradually
millet-stalks.
contradictory answers to our questions
conclude that such like
seems
during our visit
,
our
interstices
From many
sional
,
,
dike.
will be easily understood
water which at
up the
fill
especially at first
new
a great deal of water through. The dike hy Lai-t' ting- chai, three months after
the closing of the breach
of the
minimum
maximum
at the upper end 6.50, and at the lower end
at the head.
,
its
such great damworks are being carried on, of
longer fixed in the old but gradually fastened on the
Evidently these millet-stalks
;
5.20, its
closing-dikes of millet
,
we
think
it
reasonable to
and earth are sometimes only
provi-
being replaced during the season of low water by earthen dikes. This however
to
be
the
exception rather than the rule; generally, as the millet- stalks rot
103
and give way, the dike
is
constantly raised higher by fresh layers of earth which
gradually transform the millet dike into a solid earthen one.
In making jetties and other constructions of millet for the protection of banks and
no cable-ship is used, but the cables are fastened to wooden crosses; millet
and ground or stone are then brought up, and the cables are fastened firmly to
dikes,
wooden stakes which are driven
into the bank or dike. When a height of about a
meter has been attained, a new row of wooden crosses with cables attached, is placed
against the outer face of the millet- work, the cables being passed through the millet
drawn taut and fastened
The millet-works formed
to poles.
in this
way
often
showed
gaps or crevices at their starting point from the bank or the dike.
During our first expedition we saw a few jetties recently constructed on a new
system stone and earth covered on the outside with a thin coating of bricks and cement.
:
,
They looked very
should like to see
This
sufficient
present
the
along
workmen and
We
how
present
the
of
purpose.
river-works,
such
in
overseers, generally
wish
as
river-works
Chinese
principal
We
seems
conclusion to state that
in
stone,
clay,
millet
all
their
successfull
us
to
mate-
and rubbish, are
abundance and of good quahty; and that the
made a very good impression on
speaking,
are therefore convinced that, whatever difficulties river- works in this region
present,
we
could not help observing to one another, that
Yellow River,
for
the
we
but
they would look after sustaining a flood and a winter.
account
short
for
requisite
rials
well,
accomplishment under
reliable
superintendence,
the
us.
may
men
and materials being both to hand on the Yellow River, cannot be doubtful.
Before setting out on our voyage to China,
the
first
undersigned. Captain
P. G. van Schermbeek, together with our Vice-President, Chief Engineer
on December
S""*
W.
F. Leemans,
1888, hadthehonour ofwaiting at BerZm upon His Excellency the then
Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of China to the Dutch Government.
On this occasion we had the honour of presenting to His Exc. a Memorial
clearly setting forth the object of our Society.
We
by
cannot,
quoting
the
we
think, better conclude our Review of the Yellow River than
following
words which occur at the end of the above named
Memorial.
„
We
should
consider
a salutary measure and one of great importance
it
,
if
„
the Chinese Government could approve of, and in due time commission our Syndicate
„
with
„
Yellow River, with whatever appertains to
the
technical
preparation
should be adjoined
„
technici
„
and assistance.
to
of
a
plan
for
it;
Chinese experts
the thorough improvement of the
on this understanding that Butch
to
give the latter practical advice
Thus the hydraulic experience of Chinese experts might go hand in hand with
the knowledge of Dutch engineers; and it would indeed be astonishing if such
a confederacy should not succeed in metamorphosing China's Sorroiv into a blessing
to the region through
which
it
flows.
P. G.
VAN SCHERMBEEK.
A. VISSER.
Conclusion.
ERRATUM.
Page 6,
for
Streams
:
lines 19
in
and 20 from above,
a northerly direction along the foot of the Kwenlun
,
and easterly
from the Ta-Hwa-Shan,
read
:
Streams
in
an easterly direction along the northern foot of the Kwenlun and
Ta-Hwa-Shan.