Group 2, Topic 2:
Visual Narratives
Marlana Petro, Amanda Eskins, Jared Nichols, Allison Heinz, and Derek DeMaiolo
Survey of Art History I (AH1541)
Dr. Leo
October 5th, 2007
2
As the old saying goes, “One picture is worth a thousand words.” This statement holds
true throughout the test of time. From the Paleolithic cave dwellers to modern day graphic
novelists, visual narratives have been an enthralling and captivating way to capture the essence
of the human psychology and the spiritual soul. In order to captivate their viewers, artists then
and now use a variety of pictorial strategies such as alternative perspectives, arrangements of
scenes, and symbols to capture a sequence of events. Without these visual narratives, it is very
possible, more likely probable, our history, our past, our today would cease to exist. By
definition, a visual narrative is a picture that tells a story; moreover, they convert new meaning
as they pass on from generation to generation. Although it is debatable to their true intentions,
visual narratives often serve as a record of a time. For example, the members of Paleolithic
society used them to portray their stories of pursuing wild game whereas Egyptian artists used
them to encase the legacy of royalty in the afterlife. Although centuries have passed, cultures
continue to adopt means of telling stories through a variety of techniques. Throughout the
millennia, many different cultures have told stories through the form of art. Egyptian artists, for
instance, used the power of narratives to preserve their cultural lineage while members of
Paleolithic society used art to describe their experiences. Through a comparison and contrast of
both members of Paleolithic society and Egyptian artists, visual narratives emerge as
predominant forms of expression and as visual vehicles of recorded history.
Although there is a gap of thousands of years, the members of Paleolithic society and the
Egyptian artists have had different experiences to develop their own techniques in creating visual
narratives. Accredited as some of the world’s earliest artists, members of Paleolithic society, in
theory, often turned to walls of caves to portray their remarkable experiences on the hunt. The
3
term “Paleolithic means ‘old stone,’ from ‘paleo’ (old) and ‘lithic’ (stone). Paleolithic peoples
were the earliest of the homo sapiens humans.” 1 Taking refuge in caves or wooded shelter, the
Paleolithic people lived in “a crowded flog of people living like animals.” 2 Although very
primitive in nature, these early humans were very keen in using their intellectual abilities by
finding food wherever it was available and discovering medical uses for a variety of plants.
Additionally, the members of Paleolithic society discovered the secrets of animal migratory
paths, following them wherever they went, the benefits of fire as a source of heat and enhancing
food, as well as designing tools. Among these natural tools, Paleolithic artisans produced axes,
obsidian cutters and scrapers. Although these technological advances in prehistoric society were
remarkable, nothing compares to the exploration of art as a means of life. As the Paleolithic Age
ended, “humans produced some art as well, [illustrating] their cave walls with the depiction of
their everyday lives, such as hunting scenes, symbolic paintings related to fertility, and wild
animals. The art they produced was the most distinctive element which differentiates human
beings from the wild animals.” 3
Unlike members of Paleolithic society, Egyptian artists often chose narratives regarding
the legacy of priests and pharaohs, including life accomplishments, funerary journeys, and the
promise of a glorious afterlife. At the beginning of the Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods
lie hidden hundreds of “tantalizing remains of tombs, paintings, pottery, and other artifacts from
around 3500 BCE [that] attest to the existence of a sophisticated culture on the banks of the
1
Sue Rowland, “Pre-History, Pre-Civilization, and Paleolithic People,” (2002).
http://members.aol.com/peterow/p2Palpp.htm.
2
“Paleolithic Age-Old Stone Age (500.000-10.000 BCE),” Paleolithic Age, Thracian Ltd., (2003-2005).
http://www.ancientanatolia.com/historical/paleolithic.htm.
3
“Paleolithic Age-Old Stone Age (500.000-10.000 BCE),”
http://www.ancientanatolia.com/historical/paleolithic.htm.
4
Nile.” 4 During this time period, “Egypt was divided geographically and politically into Upper
Egypt (the Southern, upstream part of the Nile Valley), a narrow tract of the grassland that
encouraged hunting, and Lower (northern) Egypt, where the rich soil of the Nile Delta islands
encouraged agriculture and animal husbandry. With this in mind, Egyptian artwork is much
easier to identify by understanding the division motifs and thematics throughout. In addition, the
significance of animal domestication is extremely prominent in Egyptian art to signify Man’s
power over beasts. Unlike the Paleolithic period, however, Egyptians heavily believed in
polytheism and the journey into the afterlife. They displayed this philosophy by showing
funerary scenes in many of the tombs, such as Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis.
Before investigating the monuments and their pictorial strategies, viewers need to
understand the background and history. To begin, exploring the Lascaux cave paintings’ history
will help relate to the framework of the actual monument. Perhaps the origin of visual
narratives, the Lascaux cave paintings left its markings on art history near the hills of Montignac,
Dordogne in the region of France. In conjunction with the Altamira caves of Spain, the Lascaux
is perhaps one of the best-known sites for Paleolithic cave art. 5 According to research,
“radiocarbon analysis of some of the charcoal fragments found has provided dates of c. 17,000
B.C.” 6 Other sources indicate the caves date as close to ca. 15,000-13,000 B.C.E. 7 Around
1940, “the discovery was by two boys with a black-eared fox terrier, named Robot. The dog
disappeared down a hole and led the boys to the artwork.” 8 Upon its discovery, the caves were
eventually opened up to the public, although eight years upon its opening, however, it “had to be
4
Fred S. Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 12th ed., Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 2005, 56.
5
Paul G. Bahn, "Lascaux," In The Dictionary of Art, vol. 18, ed. Jane Turner, 806-807, (New York:
Grove, 1996), 806.
6
Bahn, 806.
7
Kleiner and Mamiya, 22.
8
John E. Pfeiffer, The Creative Explosion: An Inquiry into the Origins of Art and Religion, (New York:
Harper & Row, 1982), 30.
5
closed when it was realized that excessive numbers of visitors were having a radical effect on the
cave’s microenvironment, causing the proliferation of algae and bacteria.” 9 Although in 1963
the public was restricted to enter the caves, fortunately, an alternative solution in 1983 surfaced.
Lascaux II, a replica of its predecessor, allows tourists and visitors to enter a recreation of what
the actual Lascaux caves would resemble both pictorially and geologically. 10 Although Lascaux
II intended to create an ideal environment for the recreation of chambers such as the “Hall of the
Bulls,” the engineers improperly excavated the area causing the destruction for many
archaeological materials and potential preservations. 11 Fortunately, researchers believe
“Paleolithic people merely visited [Lascaux II only] briefly for artistic or ritual activity.” 12
Although Lascaux is famous for its extravagant ceiling art, “it is far richer in engravings, housing
one of the largest collections of engraved Paleolithic wall figures: there are almost 1500
engravings, and only about 600 painted animals and abstract ‘signs.’” 13 One of the most famous
scenes found in the Lascaux caves is that of a bird-headed man. Despite many art historians
have debated the context of the cave’s sole human figure, “there are numerous interpretations of
this scene, many of which involve shamanism.” 14 In the scene, “the man has an erect phallus
and is falling back in front of a bison that has apparently been speared, causing its entrails to spill
out; a bird stands on a nearby stick, and a rhinoceros painted in different style walks off to one
side.” 15 Above all other reasons, “Lascaux is particularly important for studying the techniques
of Paleolithic cave art, [with findings of] 158 mineral fragments…together with crude mortars
and pestles stained with pigment and naturally hollowed stones still containing powdered
9
Bahn, 806.
Bahn, 806.
11
Bahn, 806.
12
Bahn, 806.
13
Bahn, 806.
14
Bahn, 806.
15
Bahn, 806.
10
6
colour.” 16 For example, the technique of using anamorphosis, “the deliberate distortion of a
figure so that it looks normal from ground-level,” could be a very interesting subject to research
in regards to visual narratives. 17 Without understanding the history behind the Lascaux cave
paintings, it would almost be impossible to comprehend the visual narratives of this Paleolithic
art.
Although the Lascaux cave discoveries were accidental, the grandeur of Egyptian
excavations unearthed the most important monument to the Predynastic period. Lasting since
3200 B.C., the Tomb 100 frieze, or “a sculptured or painted band in a building,” at the forgotten
site of Hierakonpolis has lasted the test of time. 18 Under the authority of J.E. Quibell and F.W.
Green, their 1896-1897 excavation brought fame and glory to their careers marking one of the
first Predynastic discoveries. Hierakonpolis was the center for Predynastic records with a central
focus on King Narmer, pharaoh who was able to unite Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt, and
Egypt’s formation of the 31 dynasties. 19 Although it is one of many Egyptian treasures, the
frieze at Tomb 100 was the first of its kind to reveal the mysteries of the Predynastic period.
Using the previous historical knowledge, viewers are able to know understand the image
on a fundamental basis including media used, scale, and the observable. Besides understanding
the historical significance of the Lascaux cave paintings, viewers must conceive an
understanding of the artistic approaches used in developing these works of art. Since caves do
not have any natural light, the painters of the Lascaux cave had to bring torches or lamps filled
with animal fat to see what they were painting. 20 Some historians believe the technique the
16
Bahn, 807.
Bahn, 807.
18
Kleiner and Mamiya, 523.
19
Kleiner and Mamiya, 22.
20
“Lascaux,” New World Encyclopedia (12 September 2007) :
<http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Lascaux> (accessed 24 September 2007), 4.
17
7
Paleolithic people used to apply paint on the cave walls were brushes, mats of moss, hair, or
chunks of raw color. 21 Using these medium, they painted with charcoal and used earth pigments
like iron to create a permanent image. 22 Beyond these methods, certain parts of animal figures
had an airbrush technique and hollow bones, stained with color, have been found in the caves. 23
Spanning an impressive 250 meters deep, the caves house an array of interesting hunting scenes.
Although numbers cannot capture the true size in nature, the paintings encompass the entire
length of the cave ceilings, with the largest bull in the “Hall of the Bulls” reaching a massive
eleven feet, six inches. 24 When entering the cave and sloping downward, the viewer enters the
Hall of the Bulls, an impressive chamber with walls covered with stags, bulls, and horses.
Although the artists’ intentions are unknown, all the figures “except for a small group of ochre
stags, tree red bovines, and four red horses…are painted in black.” 25 When looking at the cave
paintings, the Unicorn, the first image viewers see when entering, is named because “of the way
the two horns in profile view appear almost to be one large horn, like the mythical unicorn.” 26 In
the scene, the unicorn seems to be chasing a group of horses and a partially drawn out bull. On
the other side of the chamber, there are three large aurochs, an extinct kind of wild ox, and a
small group of stags painted in ochre. Altogether, over 1,500 animal figures that age over 17,000
years old fill these chambers representing pictorially what the artists saw back then. Although
the animals have a significant representation, it is a curiosity as to why there are no
21
New World Encyclopedia <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Lascaux>
(accessed 24 September 2007), 4.
22
New World Encyclopedia, <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Lascaux>
(accessed 24 September 2007), 4.
23
New World Encyclopedia, <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Lascaux>
(accessed 24 September 2007), 4.
24
Turner, 807.
25
New World Encyclopedia, <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Lascaux>
(accessed 24 September 2007), 2.
26
New World Encyclopedia, <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Lascaux>
(accessed 24 September 2007), 2.
8
representations of vegetation or plantation in the cave paintings. Beyond the Hall of the Bulls
and the “Unicorn,” there is a side gallery containing a large leaping cow, three red cows, and a
“Chinese” horse, named because of the “delicacy of the drawing.” 27 Although various sources
have their own suggestion to the representation of the narratives, little is factual or verified. As
previously mentioned, the scene titled “The Shaft of the Dead Man,” located in the back of the
chamber, is a good example of open interpretation. Again, the composition consists of “a bison
wounded in its hindquarters and attacking a stick-figure man with a bird’s head and penis erect.
The man is falling over backwards, and just below him to the left are a pole with a bird’s head on
top and a two-horned rhinoceros.” 28 According to one theory, the scene displays “a hunter who
belonged to the bird totem that was killed by a bison. One of his companions, a member of the
rhinoceros totem, came into the cave and drew the scene of his friend’s death—and of his
revenge. The bison has spears or arrows in it and is disemboweled, probably by the horns of the
rhinoceros.” 29 Mysteriously, this scene is the only one that shows a human figure throughout the
entire cave. Throughout the splendor of the Lascaux caves, paintings that include scenes of bull
hunts, stampedes, and suggestively, shamanism, are predominant as viewers progress their way.
Although there is much debate over the intended purpose of the cave dwellings, some historians
discuss how early humans believed that a cave symbolized the birth canal or a place of life. 30 By
displaying artwork of animal figures all along the interior of the cave, it worked like an
enchantment to ensure plentiful herds and successful hunting. Others believed the scenes drawn
were after a hunt to replace the animal’s spirit and give the slain animals a resting place. 31
27
Pfeiffer, 30.
Pfeiffer, 31.
29
Pfeiffer, 31.
30
New World Encyclopedia <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Lascaux>
(accessed 24 September 2007), 4.
31
New World Encyclopedia, <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Lascaux>
(accessed 24 September 2007), 4.
28
9
Although historians are still uncertain, they all agree that the animal images were important to
early humans because that is all they drew on the cave walls; it could mean that they have an
animistic religion. 32
Similar to the Paleolithic cave paintings, the frieze in Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis was
constructed with closely related earthy tones although their scenes of divinity were opposite in
respect to the mortality of their chosen colors. In order to create the monumental painting,
Egyptian artists painted on “a mixture of mud-plaster that was covered with a yellow ochre wash
using yellow, white, red, green, blue, and black colors.” 33 Housed in what could have been the
national shrine for all Upper Egypt, Tomb 100’s frieze towered at a colossal sixteen feet, three
inches, adding to a massive collection of Egyptian visual narratives. 34 Hierakonpolis itself was
an important settlement in the Nile Valley and harbored a court that stretched over 105 feet long
and 43 feet wide. 35 Painted on a wall of Tomb 100, or the “decorated tomb,” the visual narrative
includes a variety of scenes of hunting, combat, boating, and desert animals incorporating more
of a symbolic sense as opposed to depicting actual events.
To help further enhance their visual narratives, both Paleolithic and Egyptian cultures
developed pictorial strategies to portray their stories. Using a variety of techniques, the members
of Paleolithic society dramatized their daily life to one of great prestige. Although there was no
clear connection behind the arrangements of the scenes and the date they were painted,
Paleolithic painters incorporated the technique of anamorphosis, or method of adjusting correctly
the images from the ground level. By looking at the paintings of the “Hall of Bulls” and the
32
New World Encyclopedia, <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Lascaux>
(accessed 24 September 2007), 4.
33
Richard H. Wilkinson, The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, (New York, 2000), 17-18.
34
Peter Lacovara, "Hierakonpolis," In The Dictionary of Art, vol. 14, ed. Jane Turner, 513-514, (New
York: Grove, 1996), 513-514.
35
Lacovara, 513-514.
10
“Shaft of the Dead Man,” the importance of the art is what story they are trying to convey.
Paleolithic art may have been the first in history to create these visual narratives. In addition, the
compositions throughout the cave walls seem to be displaying fragmented stories where there are
simple gestures in the work of art that can tell simple stories. 36 Depicting very few symbols, the
only signs in the compositions are a series of black dots or colored dashes inside the animal
figures. In addition, these artists were able to “create a third dimension on several levels through
their portrayal of the subject as well as the slightest anatomical details.” 37 By placing figures in
a composition in a certain manner, certain panels received a “group perspective.” 38 In the Bison
Diptych, the following techniques add a third dimensionality:
“being more elaborate on the back hooves, reserves around the hindquarters make a clear
demarcation between subjects, forequarters are more markedly out of proportion to
emphasize the effect of flight, location on a curving wall, dihedral structure, and reserves
around the joints in the limbs in the background.” 39
Similar to the style of Paleolithic cave art, the Egyptian depiction of visual narratives
embraced a comparable style of pictorial strategies. Resembling the Paleolithic cave artists,
Egyptian artists at Tomb 100 included twisted perspective, adding a bizarre and mysterious
effect on their visual narratives. To some people the frieze in Tomb 100 of Hierakonpolis tells a
story. To others, it is a “grouping of smaller narratives that tell either a religious parable or try to
express the daily life of people in this era.” 40 Although many figures are distinguishable, the
meaning was lost with its creators. Egyptian art heavily emphasized an organized fashion to
36
“Perspective.” Painting and Engraving Equipment (Reconstruction). 2007,
<http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/lascaux/en/perspective.htm>, (accessed 26 September 2007).
37
<http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/lascaux/en/perspective.htm> (accessed 26 September 2007).
38
<http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/lascaux/en/perspective.htm> (accessed 26 September 2007).
39
<http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/lascaux/en/perspective.htm> (accessed 26 September 2007).
40
Dr. T.R. Kidder, “ The Decorated Tomb,” (2000):
http://www.angelfire.com/la2/lieberman/tomb100.html (accessed September 25, 2007)
11
their visual narratives including Man’s dominance over animals, historical references to royalty,
religious customs, and funerary beliefs whereas Paleolithic cave art represent simple depictions
of wild animals. Although there are many theories on what this frieze depicts, some historians
believe that it is showing an early funeral procession by pointing out that “the black boat may be
some type of archaic hearse transporting a mummy to his tomb.” 41 The women above the upper
most boat have their arms stretched out in a mourning fashion while the rest of the figures are a
replica of every day events for the mummy’s ka. 42 The only problem with this thought is the
lack of a common background. The lack of background leads a few historians to decipher the
mural as a collection of individual scenes and not one big narrative. For example, there is a man
on the left of the painting "[striking] three prisoners with a mace.” 43 Another of these scenes is
“a heraldic grouping of two animals flanking a human figure.” 44 Additionally, other suggestions
insist that the “one black and five white boats [are] symbolic of the journey down the river of life
and death.” 45 One of the last ideas about the mural is that the animals and humans are rather
standardized, which leads some art historians to believe that the figures in this narrative became
the “basis for the hieroglyphics of the dynastic periods.” 46 Unlike later Egyptian art, the frieze at
Tomb 100 limits its use of hieroglyphics and remains constant with its storytelling elements.
Because of the tomb’s destruction, art historians can only rely on the numerous renditions of
“drawings by J.E. Quibell and F. W. Green.” 47
Although thousands of years separate the two very different cultures, the elements of
visual narratives remain rooted within both distinct periods. Through analysis of Egyptian and
41
Kidder, http://www.angelfire.com/la2/lieberman/tomb100.html (accessed September 25, 2007)
Kidder, http://www.angelfire.com/la2/lieberman/tomb100.html (accessed September 25, 2007)
43
Kidder, http://www.angelfire.com/la2/lieberman/tomb100.html (accessed September 25, 2007)
44
Kleiner and Mamiya, 56.
45
Kleiner and Mamiya, 57.
46
Kidder, http://www.angelfire.com/la2/lieberman/tomb100.html (accessed September 25, 2007).
47
Kidder, http://www.angelfire.com/la2/lieberman/tomb100.html (accessed September 25, 2007).
42
12
Paleolithic visual narratives, modern society is able to view how different cultures utilized
ancient art as a medium of telling stories. To understand fully the variety of techniques
incorporated in creating these visual narratives, viewers must go beyond just researching the
styles they used and apply a historical connotation as well as basic description to the monuments.
Without fully understanding the background of Egyptian society or Paleolithic hunting societies,
our society cannot fully appreciate or acknowledge how visual narratives have transformed over
the past millennia into something entirely different; furthermore, visual narratives, which once
preserved cultural customs, events, and daily life, are now applied to entertainment industries
such as graphic novels. As art historians look upon these visual narratives, viewers today have
the distinct pleasure of reliving a period of time in which the Earth was completely different.
They are now able to interpret thoughts and emotions of the early people of Earth and have
further evolved their own ways to convey narratives through pictures by adapting the success of
these early artists.
13
Figure 1-1
Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis
Hierakonpolis, Egypt
http://xoomer.alice.it/francescoraf/hesyra/Hierakonpolis-tomb100.htm
“Hall of the Bulls (left wall), found in Lascaux, Doedogne, France (Gardener fig. 1-11) is an
excellent example of Paleolithic cave art”
14
Bibliography
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York: Grove, 1996.
Lacovara, Peter. "Hierakonpolis." In The Dictionary of Art, vol. 14, ed. Jane Turner, 513-514.
New York: Grove, 1996.
"Lascaux." New World Encyclopedia. 2007. 24 Sep 2007
<http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?titile=Lasacaux>.
Kidder, Dr. T. R. "The Decorated Tomb." Angel Fire. 25 Sep 2007
<http://www.angelfire.com/la2/lieberman/tomb100.html>.
Kleiner, Fred S. and Christin J. Mamiya. Gardner's Art Through the Ages. 12th ed. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 2005.
Pfeiffer, John E. The Creative Explosion: An Inquiry into the Origins of Art and Religion. New
York: Harper & Row, 1982.
“Perspective.” Painting and Engraving Equipment (Reconstruction). 2007,
<http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/lascaux/en/perspective.htm> (26 September
2007).
Raffaele, Francesco. “Hierakonpolis Tomb 100 (Painted Tomb)." Late Predyanstic and Early
Dynastic Egypt. 25 Sep 2007 <http://xoomer.alice.it/francescoraf/hesyra/Hierakonpolistomb100.htm>.
Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. New York: Thames and
Hudson, 2000.