1/15/2016
Heifer Development and Calf
Raising Strategies
Dr. Jim Drackley
Standards for calf performance:
1. Mortality less than 5% (> 24 hours old)
2. Morbidity (treatments) rates:
Professor of Animal Sciences
University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign
Diarrhea: < 25%
Respiratory disease: < 10%
3. Double birth weight by 56 days
90 lb birth weight
180 lb @ 56 days
Requires average daily gain = 1.6 lb/day
Dairy Calf and Heifer Association, Gold Standards I
Healthy rapid growth begins at birth
Maternity pen management
Total heifer death loss is often
underestimated
• National means from NAHMS 2007 heifer
data:
Stage
https://c2.staticflickr.com/4/3786/10351748823_e38f8feb82_b.jpg
Healthy calves and efficient
growth depends on good
colostrum management
http://calfcare.ca/content/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/colostrumpooling.jpg
Why the emphasis on early growth rate?
Mortality (%)
Stillbirth
8.1
Preweaned
7.8
Weaned
1.8
• Total death loss = ½ stillbirth + preweaned +
weaned mortality = 13.6% of heifers born!
Are we feeding enough milk for growth
and health?
• You are in the food production industry. Your production
machinery is a collection of individual, highly
sophisticated bioreactors. These units take
approximately 24 months to bring into service.
• Your business is converting human-inedible feed into
high-quality human food. In all things you do, therefore,
efficiency (output / input) should be a major metric.
~ 6 qt/day
~ 4 qt/day
 Milk / DMI
 Gain / feed DMI
 Gain in milk / change in investment cost per heifer
 Etc.
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1/15/2016
The best innovation in calf feeding in recent
years: 3-qt and 4-qt nursing bottles!
Mother Nature’s feeding program
• Cows’ milk: 25 – 26% protein (dry solids basis)
2 qt
3 qt
• Feeding rate: > 2x the “conventional” feeding
rate of milk replacers (2 to 3 lb milk solids vs. 1
to 1.25 lb), spread over 6 – 12 meals daily
4 qt
• Why have we always dictated how much calves
eat by bottle size or milk replacer scoop size or
milk replacer bag weight?
• Shouldn’t we design feeding programs and
equipment to meet the calf’s needs?
What happens if you leave a
“modern” Holstein calf with the cow?
2.3 lb/d vs. 0.8 lb/d
Kept with cow
Separated at 1 day
Body weight (kg)
Calves gain
weight about 3
times faster
60
50
40
1
14
Calf age (days)
Flower and Weary, 2001
Calf rearing:
Historical “convention”
• First solid feed: High-quality fresh grass (easily
fermented in developing rumen)
• Weaning: gradually, at 6 to 10 mo vs. 4 to 8 wk
Energy (ME) and protein requirements for body
weight gain in a 100-lb calf
Rate of
ME
gain (lb/d) (kcal/d)
ADP
(g/d)
Req. DMI
(lb/d)1
CP
(% of DM)
0.5
2296
82
1.1
18.1
1.0
3008
136
1.4
22.9
1.5
3798
189
1.8
25.3
2.0
4643
243
2.2
26.6
1Assumes
milk replacer with 2080 kcal ME/kg DM.
Adapted from NRC, 2001
In conventional systems growth is
directly proportional to starter intake
• Management decision to limit
milk or milk replacer to 8 to
10% of BW
• Designed to promote early
intake of starter and allow
early weaning
• Starter intake provides minor contribution to
nutrient intake until ~ week 2 of life
• Growth is proportional to starter intake
* Milk replacer fed at 0.45 kg/d wk 1-3, 0.23 kg/d wk 4
Kertz et al., 1979
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1/15/2016
Intensified milk replacer systems result in
greater early growth of calves,
proportional to amount of milk intake
Correct MR formulas increase
skeletal growth, not fatness
Stamey et al., 2012
Potential biological and economic
impacts of better early nutrition
Stamey et al., 2012
Areas of potential economic advantage
for greater milk feeding programs
• Capitalize on rapid early growth potential
– Most efficient weight and height increase
• Decrease days to breeding and first calving
• Improve health
• Improve future productivity
Percentage BW increase (open bar) relative to
previous 2-mo period and feed costs per kilogram
of BW gain per 2-mo phase (closed bar)
Kertz etetal.,
Kertz
al,1998
1998
Calves fed on high plane of nutrition better
withstand a Cryptosporidium parvum challenge
Male Holstein calves fed either conventional plane (CN; 0.49 kg/d) or high plane
(HPN; 1.11 kg/d) of milk replacer, challenged on d 3 with C. parvum oocysts.
Ollivett et al., 2012
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1/15/2016
Calves fed on high plane of
nutrition are more resistant to
Salmonella enteritica challenge
Male Jersey calves 77 d old previously fed
either conventional plane (CN; 0.409 kg/d) or
high plane (HPN; 0.610 – 0.735 kg/d) of milk
replacer, challenged with Salmonella enteritica
serotype Typhimuriam.
Ballou et al., 2015
Differences in first-lactation milk due to increased
early milk or MR intake
Study
Response
Foldager and Krohn, 1994
Foldager et al., 1997
Bar-Peled et al., 1997
Ballard et al., 2005
Shamay et al., 2005
Pollard et al., 2007
Raeth-Knight, 2009
Terré et al., 2009
Morrison et al., 2009
Moallem et al., 2010
Davis-Rincker et al., 2011
Stamey et al. unpublished
Flockhart et al. unpublished
Kiezebrink et al., 2015
+3,092 lb
+1,143 lb
+ 998 lb
+1,543 lb @ 200 DIM
+ 290 to +2,904 lb
+1,839 lb
+1,580 lb
+1,373 lb
− 200 lb
+ 1,610 lb
+ 915 lb
+
31 to + 277 lb
+ 911 to + 1,272 lb
−
55 lb
How do we increase milk
solids intake?
Meta analysis of effect of increased milk
during early life (difference of >75% in early
milk intake) on first lactation milk yield
Effect on 1st
lact. milk, lb
SE,
lb
Lower
limit, lb
Upper
limit, lb
P Value
+ 957
257
451
1461
<0.001
(Odds ratio of effect was 2.1 times greater for
increased milk intake)
Soberon et al., 2012
Strategies for increased milk intake
Type of liquid feed fed to pre-weaned calves in
Illinois study herds and nationally
• Feed more per feeding
60%
• Increase number of feedings daily
50%
• Increase solids concentration (<18%) of
milk replacers
• Fortify pasteurized milk with a balancer
• Use an automated calf feeder
National averages (NAHMS, 2011)
11
Liquid diet
40%
Percent (%)
SE
Any milk replacer
85.9
3.9
Milk (any type)
32.1
5.3
6
30%
Total
20%
3
10%
0%
Milk or Waste Milk
Milk Replacer
Combo
Morrison and Cardoso, 2015 (unpublished)
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1/15/2016
If feeding milk, it should be
pasteurized on-farm!
• Particularly if using
waste milk
• Quality control
• Proven benefit to
growth and health
• Convenience
•
Using a pasteurized milk balancer product
(25% CP, 10% fat) to enhance growth
Correct for feeding program goals
Concentration

•
• Consistency
Volume

•
• Biosecurity without cost and labor of
pasteurization
• Your “babies” –
most vulnerable
animal on farm
Accuracy and consistency are critical
•
Advantages of milk replacers
10-15% solids, consistent day to day
Temperature

At mixing

When calf drinks (40 ˚C)
Quality and nutritional balance
Glosson et al., 2015
Key management aspects
for early growth
Colostrum management
• Colostrum program
• Supplemental water
• Milk or appropriate milk replacer;
proper mixing
• Starter/weaning management
• Post-weaning nutrition
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1/15/2016
Colostrum: Nature’s first food
Important Concepts for Colostrum
Management
• Single most important
management factor for calf
health and survival
• Quickly
 31% of heifer deaths preventable
by improved colostrum
management (Wells et al., 1996)
• Quantity
• Quality
• Cleanliness
• Rich first source
of nutrients
Get colostral antibodies to intestine before environmental bacteria!
http://calfcare.ca/content/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/colostrumpooling.jpg
For consistency and simplicity, feed 4 L
by esophageal feeder
• Ensures adequate intake
• Workers must be trained to use correctly
and safely
Colostrum:
More than just antibodies…
• Single most important
management factor for calf
health and survival
• Rich first source of nutrients
• But also the “gatekeeper” for
growth… and future
production?
Colostrum enables calf to use the added
nutrients from more milk
• Purchased male calves were fed either intensified early
nutrition or conventional milk replacer.
• Average daily gain (ADG) through 5 wk compared in
calves with adequate (Good; >1000 mg/dL) vs.
inadequate (Poor; <1000 mg/dL) blood IgG concentration
Variable
n
IgG, mg/dL
ADG, kg/d
a,b
Control
Poor Good
21
20
558 1793
0.53 0.50
P < 0.05. Interaction, P < 0.07
Intensified
Poor Good
17
25
609 2036
0.63a 0.74b
Water: the most
important, and
most neglected,
nutrient
Osorio et al., 2009 (unpublished)
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1/15/2016
Milk-fed calves need free water
• Milk or MR bypasses rumen, whether fed
by teat or bucket
• Need supplemental water to enter rumen
and support microbial environment
Weaning:
The “other” transition period
• A critical stage of calf’s life and subject to many
stressors
• Changes in diet, environment, and social structure
• For 1 lb starter intake, need 4 lb water
intake
• Inadequate water = less starter intake
• = Decreased growth
• Growth slumps, behavioral stress, more disease
Challenges with greater rates of milk
feeding
Increasing milk replacer intake
delays starter intake
• Maximum total DM
intake is 2.0 to 2.5% of
BW
• High rates of milk or
milk replacer substitute
for starter intake
Higher rates of milk feeding decrease
preweaning starter intake
Intensified
Conventional
Starter Intake and Rumen
Development
Weaning
Cowles et al., 2006
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1/15/2016
Effects of diet on rumen development
Reticulum and rumen lining of
6-week-old calf fed milk only
• Milk and hay do little to develop rumen
epithelium (papillae)
• Grain (starter) or fresh grass (sugars) are
key to development of rumen papillae via
VFA production
• Papillae development can occur by 3-4 wk
of age with good starter management
• Process takes ~3 wk no matter when start
http://www.das.psu.edu/dairynutrition/calves/rumen/
Reticulum and rumen lining of
6-week-old calf fed milk and grain
Reticulum and rumen lining of
6-week-old calf fed milk and hay only
http://www.das.psu.edu/dairynutrition/calves/rumen/
Weaning “stall-out” has been
common with increased milk feeding
http://www.das.psu.edu/dairynutrition/calves/rumen/
Insufficient rumen development (starter intake)
before weaning decreases nutrient digestibility
after weaning
Weaning
Conv.
Intensified
Conventional
Intense Diff., %
- 5.6
- 5.5
- 5.5
- 14.4
- 5.8
Terré et al., 2007
Stamey et al., 2012
Hill et al., 2010
Also found a 6 to 9 % decrease in OM digestibility
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But, proper nutritional management during and
after weaning prevents the weaning slump
BW (kg)
175
Older age at weaning improves success
Intensified
Conventional
125
At wk 35:
366 kg vs 351 kg
75
25
0
5
10
Week
15
20
de Passilé et al., 2011
Osorio et al., 2012
Slower weaning improves starter intake
Meeting the nutrient requirements
of calves around weaning
Sweeney et al., 2010
Starter concentrates provide less
energy per unit solids than milk
• Lower digestibility than milk solids
• Efficiency of use of ME from VFA and
milk endproducts not greatly different.
• Differences in digestibility mean that:
– ME of starter is ~ 65 to 70% of ME in milk
replacer
– Growth will be ~2/3 of that on equal DM from
milk replacer.
Starter dry matter intake (DMI) required to
support various rates of gain in weaned calves
BW (lb)
ADG (lb/d)
Starter required (lb/d)
130
1.3
3.2
130
1.8
4.1
180
1.3
3.9
180
1.8
4.7
Based on starter containing 1.4 Mcal ME/lb DM (NRC 2001)
NRC, 2001
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Starter dry matter intake (DMI) required to
support various rates of gain in weaned calves
BW (lb)
ADG (lb/d)
Starter required (lb/d)
130 Because
1.3 of differences in
3.2
energy
content of1.8
starter and its use
130
4.1by calves,
we need 1.3
1.6 to 1.8 times more
starter
3.9
than milk replacer for same amount of
180
1.8
body weight gain4.7
180
Based on starter containing 1.4 Mcal ME/lb DM (NRC 2001)
NRC, 2001
Should we feed hay (or silage)
to young calves?
Characteristics of desirable starter formulation
• Palatable ingredients
• Sufficient fiber (>15% NDF, particle size)
• Easily fermentable carbohydrates
• Protein for rumen and post-ruminal
digestion; adequate total protein content
– 22% CP (~25% of DM) for greater growth
• Avoid whole oilseeds and high fat
content; corn byproducts less palatable
• Mineral and vitamin supplementation
First, let’s ask the calves
?
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1/15/2016
Summary of arguments against forages
• If limit concentrates with ad lib hay, calves don’t
grow well.
Calves fed milk and starter are healthy and
well-grown before weaning
• Hay is fermented and digested to a low extent in
the young and developing rumen. Calves get “hay
belly”, less concentrate intake.
• Hay is not necessary for development of rumen
volume and rumination.
• Hay does not reliably increase rumen pH.
• Therefore, don’t feed hay before weaning!
– Unless calves are not bedded on straw or to prevent
bloating on pelleted starter
Calves fed ad libitum hay and limited concentrate
do not grow and are in poor health after weaning
Summary of arguments for forages
• Calves “crave” forage fiber. Satisfies behavioral
needs, prevents stereotypic behaviors.
• Small amounts of hay increase starter intake and
feed efficiency.
• Hay particles keep rumen papillae and epithelium
healthier and prevent abnormal growth.
• Therefore, feed small amounts of hay with
concentrates before weaning!
Forage to concentrate ratio selected by calves
given free choice of both
Forage
None
Oat hay
Barley straw
Rye-grass hay
Corn silage
Alfalfa hay
F:C
ADG (kg)
--8:92
5:95
4:96
5:95
14:86
0.72c
0.93a
0.88a
0.84ab
0.82ab
0.76bc
Hay or straw chopped. Gain:feed was not different among diets.
From Castells et al., 2012
Forage to concentrate ratio selected by calves
given free choice of both
Forage
F:C
ADG (kg)
None
--0.72c
Oat1.5-kg
hay
For
total DM intake,
8:92forage intake
0.93a
would
75 g/d for barley
210a g/d
Barleybe
straw
5:95straw vs.0.88
forRye-grass
alfalfa hay.
hay
4:96
0.84ab
Corn silage
5:95
0.82ab
Alfalfa hay
14:86
0.76bc
Hay or straw chopped. Gain:feed was not different among diets.
From Castells et al., 2012
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1/15/2016
Summary: Hay or not?
• Free-choice alfalfa hay decreases starter intake,
which is most important for rumen development.
“Feeding more milk is too expensive, with little
immediate benefit.”
• Cost or investment?
• Small amounts of grass hays or straw may
increase starter consumption.
• We must move beyond cost per day for
feeding calves
• Hay is not necessary for development of rumen
volume and rumination.
• Think of:
• 5% to 10% chopped hay can be provided with
starter if calves not bedded on straw or to prevent
bloating on pelleted starter
• Free choice hay should not be provided until >4
wk postweaning
 Cost per pound of BW gain
 Cost per day of life until enter milking herd
• Must be coordinated system…birth to heifer
to lactating cow.
An excellent economic analysis
2013 Western Dairy Management Conference, Reno, NV
“However, even with what some would consider to be
an overly conservative approach to modeling the two
programs, there should be no doubt to the economic
advantage of the intensive approach to rearing dairy
replacement heifers.”
Overton et al., 2013
Overton et al., 2013
Overton et al., 2013
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1/15/2016
Summary and Conclusions
• Management for greater early growth should also
improve health and decrease mortality.
• Increased milk feeding improves early growth,
decreases age at first calving, and increases milk
yield.
Thank you!
[email protected]
• Proper starter and weaning management
preserves and continues early growth.
• Need good colostrum program and supplemental
water; limited or no hay.
• Think cost per unit weight and frame increase; if
implemented correctly will pay!
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