F o u r H u n d r e d Y e a r s L a te r :
A n A p p re c ia tio n o f J o h a n n W ey er
JOHN MARTIN, M.D.
. . and if she will not, let him order
the officers to bind her with cords, and
apply to her some engine of torture."
(1, Part III, Question XIV)
T h e R en aissance: a re -b irth , a re n e w a l,
a n e w b e g in n in g . T he w o rd calls to m in d im a g e s of th o se
g o ld en c e n tu rie s (ap p ro x im a te ly 1300-1600) in W e ste rn E u ro p e
w h e n n e w id ea s, n e w e n e rg y , n e w d isco v eries, n e w h o p e for
th e h u m a n c o n d itio n w e re s p rin g in g u p in e v e ry a re a of m a n 's
efforts. It w a s a tim e of g re a t lite ra tu re , u n p re c e d e n te d
p ro g re ss in th e m ed ical a rts, d a rin g n a v ig a tio n a n d e x p lo ra ­
tio n , original scientific in q u iry , a n d a tim e w h e n m a n y c o u ra ­
g e o u s m e n d a re d to q u e s tio n o ld a u th o rity a n d to b re a k o p e n ly
w ith old tra d itio n s. It w a s th e tim e of su c h histo rically g re a t
n a m e s as A lb e rtu s M a g n u s, A rn o ld of V illanova, E ra sm u s,
L u th e r, Jean F ernel, M o n ta ig n e , F ra sc a to riu s, S h a k e sp e a re ,
a n d th e g re a t a n a to m ists of th e school in P a d u a . It w a s th e tim e
of g re a t a rtists a n d th e ir c o n te m p o ra rie s, su c h as L e o n a rd o ,
T itian, a n d M ichelangelo. T he p rin tin g p re s s e v e n tu a lly al­
lo w e d th e ra p id a n d w id e s p re a d availability of th e s e n e w a n d
stim u la tin g id eas. T h e d isco v eries of th e E n g lish , S p a n ish , a n d
P o rtu g u e se e x p lo rers a d d e d n e w y e a st to all th is fe rm e n t. W e
h av e re a s o n to th in k of it as b a th e d in a g o ld e n light.
But th e R en aissan ce, as e v e ry h isto ria n k n o w s , h a d its d a rk
a n d u g ly side. T h e g re a t m a ss of m e n a n d w o m e n d id n o t sh a re
th e glories of th e age, b u t re m a in e d slav es to th e o p p re ssiv e
social c o n d itio n s c arried o v e r fro m th e M id d le A ges. W ars
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
3
c o n tin u o u s ly u s e d u p th e re so u rc e s of n a tio n s. T he d e v a sta tio n
of su c h c a ta s tro p h e s as th e b u b o n ic p la g u e of 1348-1350, for
e x am p le, a n d th e a p p e a ra n c e of sy p h ilis in 1492-1493, is
difficult fo r m o d e rn m a n to realize. E d u c a tio n , sa n ita tio n ,
p ro p e r n u tritio n , in fact, th e basic e sse n tia ls for n o rm a l h u m a n
life w e re lack in g for th e a v e ra g e p e rs o n . A lo n g w ith th is w as
th e c arry -o v er of th e s u p e rs titio n s a n d p a ra n o ia s of th e p re v i­
o u s d a rk c e n tu rie s, a n d esp ecially o p p re ssiv e w e re th e d e ­
m a n d s a n d th re a ts of th e C h u rc h . T he C h u rc h w a s n o t, to th e
p e a s a n t m a sse s, a p illar of h o p e or h e lp ; ra th e r, it w as
so m e th in g to b e o b e y e d w ith fear, a n d lives w e re lived o u t
u n d e r th e b u r d e n s of toil a n d h o p e le s s n e ss . It is sm all w o n d e r
th a t s tra n g e p h e n o m e n a a p p e a re d a n d flo u rish e d a lo n g w ith
th e w in d s of c h a n g e in th e a rts a n d sciences. T he F o u r
H o rs e m e n of th e A p o c a ly p se ro d e th e skies of E u ro p e, as if to
verify th e m y ste rio u s B ook of R evelation.
T he m a d n e s s of th e C ru s a d e s h a d a t last p a sse d . B ut in th e
tw e lfth a n d th irte e n th c e n tu rie s su c h o p p o s in g sects as th e
A lb ig en ses a n d th e W a ld e n se s a ro u s e d th e C h u rc h to in ­
c re a se d vigilance, a n d in 1227 th e In q u isitio n , u n d e r th e
d ire c tio n of th e D o m in ic a n o rd e r, w a s in s titu te d as a p e rm a ­
n e n t c o u rt to s u p p re s s h e re s y a n d p e rse c u te Jew s. F u rth e r
d e v e lo p e d a n d re o rg a n iz e d u n d e r F e rd in a n d a n d Isabella in
S p ain , it e v e n tu a lly b ecam e e sse n tia lly a S tate trib u n a l, a n d
w a s n o t officially a b o lish e d u n til 1834. M ass m an ia s of v ario u s
ty p e s d id s p rin g u p fro m tim e to tim e all o v er E u ro p e , su c h as
th e h y ste ric s of th e St. V itu s D an ce a n d th e w a n d e rin g Flagel­
la n te s, a lo n g w ith th a t age-o ld practice of w itchcraft, all th e
o ffsp rin g of ig n o ra n c e , s u p e rs titio n , a n d fear of th e s u p e rn a t­
u ral. W itchcraft, a so rt of g am b le for th e s u p p o s e d p ro m ises of
th e D evil, w itc h h u n ts , a n d th e w h o le sale ex ecu tio n s of w itch es
a n d h e re tic s o rd e re d b y C h u rc h a n d S tate e n g u lfe d E urope.
H o w c o u ld su c h c o n d itio n s exist for th e v a st m ajo rity of th e
citizen ry , m ire d in p o v e rty a n d ig n o ra n c e, a lo n g w ith th e g rea t
a d v a n c e s w h ic h w e k n o w as th e R en aissan ce? P arad o x in d e e d ,
a n d o n e th a t h a s n e v e r b e e n fully e x p lain ed .
4
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
It is n o t th e p u rp o s e h e re to re v ie w in full th e h isto ry of
w itchcraft, for it is a w ell k n o w n a n d p a in fu l scar o n th e h u m a n
record. P re se n te d h e re is o n ly a b rie f b a c k d ro p for o n e im p o r­
ta n t g ain in th e a rt a n d science of m ed ic in e w h ic h re s u lte d from
th e in sa n e cru elties of th e In q u isitio n . N o d o u b t m a n y u n r e ­
co rd e d o p in io n s of m ed ical m e n , as w ell as th o u g h tfu l p e rs o n s
in o th e r e n d e a v o rs, voiced d e n u n c ia tio n of w itch craft, w itch
h u n ts , a n d e v e ry th in g a sso c ia te d w ith re la te d practices, b u t th e
p re s s u re of th e C h u rc h , h o ld in g u p th e w e ll-k n o w n th re a ts of
b o th th e O ld a n d th e N e w T e sta m e n ts, m a d e th e g e n e ra l
p o p u la tio n co w er a n d give a t lea st lip service to th e actualities
of th e p o w e r of th e D evil a n d h is d e m o n s o v e r a m e re h u m a n
b eing. " T h o u sh a lt n o t su ffe r a w itch to liv e " (E xodus, 22:10)
becam e th e rally in g cry for th e D o m in ic a n in q u isito rs w h o
s p re a d o u t o v e r E u ro p e to sniff o u t h e re tic s a n d w itch e s,
alm o st alw ay s w o m e n a n d girls. W as th e c o n c e n tra tio n o n th e
fem in in e sex a n e x p re ssio n of th e u n e a s y sex u ality of th e
m o n o m a n ia c a l clerical in q u isito rs? W as th e h u n t a rele ase from
th e ir o w n p a in fu l celibacy? T his m iso g y n o u s m an ia , th e p a th of
w h ic h w a s m a rk e d b y b lo o d a n d s m o u ld e rin g h u m a n a sh e s,
s p re a d like a p la g u e in its o w n rig h t all o v e r W e ste rn E u ro p e.
It w as n o t as th o ro u g h ly p re s s e d in S p a in a n d Italy as it w a s in
G e rm a n y , th e L o w la n d s, a n d esp ecially in F rance. It h a s b e e n
re p o rte d th a t in th e late s ix te e n th c e n tu ry m o re th a n 900
w o m e n w e re b u r n e d a t th e stak e as w itc h e s in F rance alo n e,
m ain ly in th e p ro v in c e of L o rrain e. Ju liu s C a e sa r, a n ex p e ri­
en c ed o b se rv e r, c e n tu rie s p re v io u sly h a d re m a rk e d th a t of all
th e p e o p le s h e h a d e n c o u n te re d th e G au ls w e re th e m o st
s u p e rstitio u s, w arlik e, a n d cruel. B ritain, to o , s h a re d th e
sh a m e of th is d a rk e p iso d e in h isto ry . H e n ry VIII, E lizab eth I,
a n d Jam es I w e re all b eliev ers in th e p re se n c e of w itc h e s a n d
d e m o n s a n d th e ir co n tro l b y S atan . A n d w e can recall w ith
sh a m e th a t in o u r o w n M a ssa c h u se tts, in Salem V illage, in
1692, 1693, a n d 1694 w itch h u n ts s w e p t th ro u g h th e c o m m u ­
n ity w ith a b rie f b u t m u rd e ro u s effect. A s m a n y as five w itch e s
m ig h t be e x e cu te d in o n e d ay , th e village p o p u la c e tu rn in g o u t
to w a tc h th e spectacle as a t a n y village fete. H a n g in g or
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
5
d ro w n in g w e re th e fav o rite m e th o d s of ex ecu tio n , b u t " p re s s ­
in g " to d e a th w ith sto n e s w a s also fav o red . W h e th e r or n o t
m iso g y n y , a b la ta n t p rin c ip le of th e w itch h u n ts , o rig in a te d in
th e J u d a e o -C h ristia n th e o lo g y m ay b e a rg u e d , b u t it is obvious
th a t th a t th eo lo g y s u p p o rte d a n d c o n tin u e d th e p e rse c u tio n s.
M a im o n id e s (1135-1204) ". . . o p p o s e d w ith g rea t v e h e ­
m en c e all id ea s of w itch c raft a n d d e n o u n c e d th e p re te n s io n s of
a stro lo g y . . . ."1 It w ill be recalled th a t M a im o n id e s later fled
h is n a tiv e C o rd o v a to se ek safety in first Fez, a n d finally in
E gypt. O th e r, late r, d is s e n tin g voices of Jew ish d o c to rs are o n
rec o rd , p ro te s tin g in th e ir p u b lic a tio n s th e p e rse c u tio n of
so-called w itch e s. (A m atu s L u sita n u s, 1511-1568 a n d A n d re s a
L a g u n a , 1499-1563). V oices o f d e risio n a n d o u trig h t d e n ia l of th e
C h u rc h 's cru el d o g m atic te n e ts w e re m o re a n d m o re fre q u e n tly
h e a rd , su c h as th o se of M o n ta ig n e a n d R abelais, b u t th is h a d
little effect o n th e ste a d fa stly g ro w in g practice of w itchcraft.
H e re sy b e c am e o n e w ith w itchcraft; c o n fu sio n re ig n e d co n ­
c e rn in g C h rist a n d th e A n ti-C h rist. K ing F red erick II of N ap les,
w h o d id so m u c h to p ro m o te a n d s p re a d th e fam e of th e School
of M ed icin e a t S alern o , w a s a g o o d C atholic, y e t h e w as
s u s p e c te d by h is critics of b e in g a d a b b le r in n ecro m an cy . H e is
re p o rte d to h a v e sa id o n o n e occasion th a t M oses, Jesus, a n d
M o h a m e d w e re h is to ry 's g re a te st im p o ste rs. T h a t th e re w as
co n fu sio n a b o u t w h o w a s o r w a s n o t a w itch m ay b e se e n in th e
old sto ry of th e b u rn in g of Jo an of A rc a t th e stak e in R o u en in
1431. A s th e flam es e n g u lfe d h e r sh e exclaim ed, "Jesu s!" A n
E n g lish so ld ier s ta n d in g b y cried o u t in terro r, "W e h av e
b u rn e d a saint! W e are lost!" B ut in sp ite of voices of d o u b t a n d
p ro te s t fro m v a rio u s p laces, th e In q u isitio n flo u rish e d w ith
u n a b a te d fu ry for w ell o v e r th re e c e n tu rie s. O n e of its early a n d
lastin g in v e n tio n s w a s th e Index Librorum Prohibitorum, a list
p u b lis h e d b y th e R o m a n C atholic C h u rc h restric tin g th e re a d ­
in g of ce rtain b o o k s. It also s p a w n e d o n e of th e m o st, if n o t th e
m o st, coldly cru el b o o k s e v e r to d isg race literatu re. It w a s a
1 Harry Friedenwald, The Jews and Medicine; Essays (2nd ed.; New York: Ktav
Publishing House, 1967), Vol. 1, p. 214.
6
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
b est-seller of th e R en aissan ce, a n d ra p id ly w e n t th ro u g h m a n y
ed itio n s in m a n y d iffe re n t locations. Its b ib lio g ra p h y is v ery
com plicated a n d n o t y e t fully e sta b lish e d . It h a d g o n e th ro u g h
th irty ed itio n s by 1669. It is a lo n g , c o m p lic a ted w o rk , obvi­
ously th e re s u lt of m u c h s tu d y a n d w o rk o n th e p a rt of its
au th o rs. Its tw o m o st p ro m in e n t c h aracteristics are th e g e n iu s
w ith w h ich logic is tw iste d a n d its u n re le n tin g voice of m iso g ­
yny. It is o n e of th e m o st n o tab le litera ry p ro d u c ts of th e
R enaissance, th a t p e rio d of b lo sso m in g o f th e h u m a n itie s , th e
arts, a n d th e sciences! It is a m u s in g to sp e cu la te w h e th e r
S h ak esp eare, w h o c ertain ly m u s t h a v e b e e n a c q u a in te d w ith
th e book, d id n 't fin d in it in sp ira tio n for th e w itc h e s scen e in
Macbeth (Act IV, Scene I).
T h at b o ok, The Malleus M aleficarum, a p p ro v e d a n d p ro m o te d
by a P ap al Bull fro m P o p e In n o c e n t VIII in 1484, a n d finally
a p p ro v e d ag a in by th e C o uncil o n T h eo lo g y of th e F aculty of
C ologne, w a s th e w o rk of tw o in d u s trio u s , am b itio u s, singlem in d e d , a n d self-rig h teo u s D o m in ic a n in q u isito rs, H e in ric h
K raem er a n d J o h a n n S p re n g e r, th e b irth a n d d e a th d a te s of
w h o m are n o t certain . T h ey c o llab o rated o n th e ex h a u stiv e
rese a rc h for th is b o o k w h ic h a p p e a re d in L y o n s in 1486. It h a s
b e e n tra n s la te d in to m o st E u ro p e a n la n g u a g e s, a n d in to E n ­
glish for th e first tim e in 1928 b y Rev. M o n ta g u e S u m m e rs, a n
E nglish c lerg y m en , w h o p ra is e d th e b o o k fo r its sc h o la rsh ip , its
" su p re m e ly a u th o rita tiv e " c o n te n t, a n d called it " a v e n e ra b le
v o lu m e " a n d a " g re a t w o r k " .2 " O n e tu rn s to it a g a in a n d ag a in
w ith edification a n d in te re st. F ro m th e p o in t of p sy c h o lo g y ,
from th e p o in t of ju ris p ru d e n c e , fro m th e p o in t of h isto ry , it is
s u p re m e ." 3
T he g o o d re v e re n d , w h o h im se lf s h o w s a p ro fo u n d k n o w l­
ed g e of th e h isto ry of th eo lo g y , so rcery , w itch c raft, a n d th e
R enaissance, p ro fe s s e d h is to ta l a p p ro v a l of th e p recise a n d
c o m p re h en siv e ru le s of The Malleus Maleficarum a n d h e a s su re s
2Heinrich Kraemer and James Sprenger, The Malleus Maleficarum, trans. by
Montague Summers (New York: Dover, 1971), pp. XXXIX, XL.
3Ibid, p. ix.
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
7
Witches burned at the stake. From the front cover of a 1971 edition of The
Malleus Maleficarum.
th e re a d e r in h is in tro d u c tio n to th e orig in al e d itio n of 1928 th a t
h e , too, b e lie v ed w ith g o o d re a so n in th e p re se n c e a n d p o w e r
of w itch e s.
The M alleus Maleficarum is w ith o u t d o u b t th e m o st d etailed ,
e x h a u stiv e, a n d a u th o rita tiv e b o o k e v e r w ritte n o n w itchcraft.
T h e in d e x is a m a ste rp ie c e of d etail, as is, in fact, th e e n tire text.
T h e o p e n in g " Q u e s tio n " of th e in d ex re a d s, " W h e th e r th e
Belief th a t th e re a re su c h B eings as w itc h e s is so E ssential a P a rt
of th e C atholic F aith th a t O b stin a c y to m a in ta in th e O p p o site
m an ifestly sa v o u rs of H e r e s y ." 4 T he text, w ritte n in long,
c o n v o lu te d se n te n c e s is h e a v y -fo o te d , tire so m e , u n c o m p ro ­
m isin g , th re a te n in g , erotic, lu rid , p o rn o g ra p h ic , cruel, a n d
sadistic. W itch es are u su a lly o ld w o m e n , so m e tim e s y o u n g e r
4Ibid, p. I.
8
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
w o m e n , rare ly m en . D e m o n -p o s s e s se d girls w e re of c o m m o n
occurrence. All th is is q u ite n o rm a l, since b y n a tu re w o m a n is
lo w er th a n m a n , is n a tu ra lly u n c le a n , g iv en to lu st a n d
lic e n tio u sn ess, a n d is easily s e d u c e d b y th e D evil in to sexual
dig ressio n s. W as it n o t th e w o m a n , n o t th e m a n , w h o w as
se d u ce d b y S a tan a n d to o k th e first b ite of th e fo rb id d e n fruit?
W o m an is from m a n , h a v in g b e e n m a d e fro m A d a m 's rib. N o w
th a t rib, b e in g o n e of th e lesse r b o n e s of th e b o d y , w a s fro m th e
lo w er p o rtio n of th e rib cage, a n d , fu rth e rm o re , a rib is n o t a
stra ig h t b o n e; it is cro o k ed . A n d so o n , w ith p u e rile , lu d ic ro u s,
in fu riatin g , tw iste d a rg u m e n t. W ith in fin ite d e ta il th e p ro o f of
w itch es is e x p o u n d e d , a lo n g w ith h o w th e y are to b e id en tified ,
h o w to be to rtu re d (b ea ten , b u r n e d w ith b o ilin g oil, lig h te d
can d les h e ld u n d e r th e a rm p its, h a n g in g b y th e h a n d s ,
sta rv a tio n , th ro w in g in to p o o ls of w a te r, stre tc h in g o n th e rack,
c o n fin e m e n t in jail for m o n th s w ith o u t trial, etc.), a n d h o w to
be d isp o s e d of (b u rn in g a t th e sta k e w a s b e st, for th e D evil
h a te s fire ab o v e all else). A ll th e p ro c e d u re s fo r th e o p e ra tio n of
th e In q u isitio n are th e re in sh o c k in g d e ta il for th e m o d e rn
re a d e r, for it w a s th e tex tb o o k o f in stru c tio n fo r th e h u n d r e d s
of fanatically z e alo u s in q u isito rs w h o ro a m e d th e c o u n try sid e s
in te n t o n cle a n sin g th e w o rld for th e ir love of G od.
All th is w a s s u p p o rte d b y d ire c t q u o ta tio n s fro m th e Bible,
p ro o f of th e rig h te o u sn e s s of th e p e rse c u tio n s. E v e n tu ally th e
State jo in e d th e C h u rc h in th e w itch h u n ts a n d e x e cu tio n s, a n d
e v e n su ch a brillian t in te lle c tu a l as th e ju ris t Jean B odin
(1530-1596) w a s a co n firm e d b e lie v er in th e p re se n c e of
w itch es. T o le ra n t th o u g h h e w a s in m a n y w a y s, h e w ro te a
legal tre a tise o n th e su b ject w h ic h in its w a y w a s as p e rsu a siv e
as The Malleus Maleficarum. H e w a s a n e x am p le of th e m a n y
e d u c a te d p ro fe ssio n a ls of th e d a y w h o b e lie v ed th a t th e
h a n d lin g of w itch e s w a s n o t a m edical m a tte r, a n d th a t d o c to rs
s h o u ld n o t m e d d le w ith th e p ro b le m . It w a s a legal, theological
m atter.
T h u s th e victim s a c cu se d of so rcery w e re fe n c e d in left a n d
right. If y o u w e re a c cu se d of w itch c raft y o u w e re g u ilty u n til
y o u p ro v e d y o u rse lf in n o c e n t. O n ce a c c u se d a n d trie d , e v e n
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
9
th o u g h a c q u itte d —a ra re o c c u rre n c e —th e v ictim 's life w as
s h a tte re d fo re v e r after, o fte n b e in g d e p riv e d of all p ro p e rty a n d
tu rn e d o u t in to a w o rld a lo n e , s h u n n e d a n d d e stitu te . A s th e
s tro n g e s t d iss e n tin g voice of th e d a y w ro te , h u m a n b lo o d a n d
th e s te n c h of b u r n in g flesh s p re a d like a pall o v er E u ro p e; th e
w o o d , h e said , u s e d for th e flam es w o u ld h a v e b e e n b e tte r
s p e n t w a rm in g th e d ism a l h o m e s of th e h e lp le ssly tra p p e d
v ictim s in th is w ic k e d tim e.
J o h a n n W e y er (1515-1588) w a s b o rn in to a fam ily of m o d e st
m e a n s in th e sm all city of G rav e, in B rab an t (The N e th e rlan d s).
A s a child h e w a s s tu d io u s , q u ie t, g rav e, a n d religious,
characteristics of all h is la te r life. In h is late te e n s h e lived for
tw o y e a rs in th e h o m e o f h is te a c h e r a n d p re c e p to r, C o rn eliu s
A g rip p a (1486-1535), a b rillian t b u t erratic scholar, ph y sician ,
fre e -th in k e r, a n d a m o d e l w h o se t a lastin g exam ple for th e
y o u n g W ey er b y h is h u m a n e a ttitu d e to w a rd th e sick a n d
u n fo rtu n a te . It is p a rtic u la rly im p o rta n t to n o te th a t A g rip p a,
d e fy in g th e p re v a ilin g social a ttitu d e s c o n c ern in g th e in ferio r­
ity of th e fem in in e sex, w ro te a tre a tise to tally o u t of k e e p in g
w ith th e era: O n the Nobility and Pre-eminince of the Feminine Sex.
T he h u m a n e if s to rm y n a tu re of h is te a c h e r so d e e p ly im ­
p re s s e d th e y o u n g s tu d e n t th a t th e s e view s w e re reflected later
in h is first a n d m o st im p o rta n t bo o k . L eav in g A g rip p a, W eyer
s tu d ie d m ed ic in e a t O rle a n s a n d th e U n iv e rsity of P aris, w h e re
h e receiv ed h is d o c to r's d e g re e in 1537, a t th e age of 22. In th e
n e x t sev eral y e a rs of g e n e ra l p ractice h e cam e face to face w ith
th e h o rro rs of th e w itch h u n ts a n d w a s o u tra g e d a t th e
p re te n tio n s of th e In q u isitio n a n d its g u id e bo o k , The Malleus
Maleficarum. H e ra ile d in w ritin g a n d o p e n sp e e c h ag a in st th e
rev o ltin g d isc u ssio n s in th a t b o o k of th e erotic p e rv e rsio n s of
th e dev il w ith w o m e n , of th e fan tastic claim s c o n c ern in g th e
p o w e rs of th e in cu b i a n d su ccu b i, a n d of th e m u rd e ro u s
p e rs e c u tio n s of "silly old w o m e n " b y C h u rc h a n d S tate. H is
b lu n tly s ta te d criticism s fo rced h im to seek p ro te c tio n as
p h y sic ia n to D u k e W illiam V of Jü lich-C leve-B erg, a n d h e sp e n t
m o st of th e re s t of h is life w ith th is in te llig en t, k in d , a n d
h u m a n e m a n . A fter th e D u k e 's d e a th , h o w e v e r, W eyer w as
10
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
forced to tu r n e lse w h e re , a n d
h e liv ed th e re m a in in g few
y e a rs of h is life u n d e r th e p ro ­
tec tio n of C o u n te ss A n n a of
T ech len b erg . H e d ie d th e re in
1588 a n d w a s b u rie d in th e local
c h u rc h y a rd , b u t h is g rav e site is
now unknow n.
D u rin g h is b u s y , y e t q u iet,
life J o h a n n W ey er w a s e v e r th e
a s tu te o b se rv e r o f th e w o rld
a ro u n d h im , w h ic h s e e m e d to
h im m o re like a h u g e clinic filled
w ith sick p e o p le . H e p u b lis h e d
a n u m b e r of w o rk s o n g e n e ra l
m ed ical to p ics, p e rh a p s th e
m o st n o tab le of w h ic h w a s h is
Portrait of Johann Weyer
tre a tise o n scu rv y . B ut h is g re a t­
(1515-1588)
e st w o rk , h is first p u b lic a tio n ,
w as th e b o o k d e s tin e d to leave a la stin g effect o n th e d e v e lo p ­
m e n t of p sy ch iatry : De Praestigiis Daemonum, et Incantationibus,
ac Veneficiis Libri V (Basle, 1563). A se co n d , la rg e r e d itio n w a s
p u b lis h e d th e fo llo w in g y e a r, for th e b o o k w a s w id e ly re a d ,
th o u g h its m e ssa g e w a s little re s p e c te d o r fo llo w ed b y th e
c o n te m p o ra ry m ed ical w o rld . In 1566 a th ird e d itio n w a s
p u b lish e d , a g a in e n la rg e d , a n d a y e a r la te r W e y e r's tra n s la tio n
w as p u b lis h e d in th e v e rn a c u la r, still larg er. O th e r e d itio n s
follow ed in 1568, 1577, a n d 1583, a n Opera Omnia h a v in g
a p p e a re d in 1660. T h o u g h a p o p u la r b o o k , th e re w a s w id e
o p p o sitio n to it. T he C h u rc h p ro m p tly p u t it o n th e Index
Librorum Prohibitorum. S ig m u n d F re u d sa id th a t W e y e r's b o o k
w as o n e of th e te n g re a te st b o o k s e v e r p u b lis h e d , a s ta te m e n t
w h ich is n o t e n tirely p re ju d ic e d h y p e rb o le .
W ey er's life w a s s p e n t in clinical o b se rv a tio n . H e th o u g h t in
term s of th e in d iv id u a l p a tie n t a n d h is special co n cern s. In
h o rro r h e w o n d e re d a t th e atro cities c o m m itte d a ro u n d h im in
th e n a m e of th e M o th e r C h u rc h a n d G od. H e k n e w first h a n d
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
11
of th e to rtu re s , th e filth, d ise a se , a n d d e a th in th e d u n g e o n s
a n d jails w h e re " w itc h e s " w e re h e ld for lo n g p re-trial p e rio d s.
H e w a s re p u ls e d b y th e fan atical m e th o d s of execution: b u r n ­
in g a t th e stak e, d ro w n in g , h a n g in g , b e h e a d in g , p ro lo n g e d
b e a tin g , o r te a rin g th e b o d y to pieces o n th e rack. H o w , h e
w o n d e re d , c o u ld all th is be d o n e in th e n a m e of a lo v in g G od?
H e , to o , w a s m o re o r less a p rac tic in g C atholic, a n d h e b eliev ed
th a t w itc h e s a n d d e m o n p o s s e s s io n c o u ld exist, b u t h e d e n ie d
th e s u p p o s e d p o w e r of th e D evil in th e w re tc h e d lives of m o st
of th e a c cu se d , for h e sa w a b o u t h im w o m e n called accom plices
in evil, b u t w h o w e re so frig h te n e d , so ig n o ra n t, so d e stro y e d
m e n ta lly b y th e ir h a llu c in a tio n s arisin g o u t of th e ir m iserable
lives, th a t th e y w e re u n a b le to s u s ta in a n y d e n ia l of th e charges
a g a in st th e m . B elievable a n d tru s te d w itn e s s e s w e re rarely to
b e h a d . M a n y su c h w o m e n , as w ell as tro u b le -m ak in g , m alin ­
g e rin g , o r d e lu sio n a l c h ild re n , u su a lly girls, h e s tu d ie d in d i­
v id u ally , o fte n ta k in g th e m in to h is o w n h o m e w h e re h e a n d
h is w ife ca re d for th e m , closely o b se rv e d th e m , co u n selled
th e m , a n d b ro u g h t th e m b ack to m e n ta l a n d p h y sical norm alcy.
H e sa w m e n ta l illn ess w h e re th e C h u rc h a n d State saw
crim inality, a n d h e w a s th e first p h y sic ia n b o ld ly to co n fro n t
th e In q u isitio n a n d d e n y its rig h t to carry o n in th e n a m e of
C h ristian ity . H e sa w th e in d iv id u a l, n o t th e m ass m an ia of
w itch craft, as th e p o in t to w h ic h h e m u s t d ire c t h is efforts for
re fo rm , a n d h e c o u ld o n ly b e th is d e fia n t b e c au se of h is royal
p ro te c tio n . T he le n g th y a rg u m e n ts a n d tw iste d logic of The
Malleus Maleficarum as to w h y c o n fe ssio n u n d e r to rtu re w as
v alid (th e v ictim w a s finally b ro u g h t to h e r se n se s th ro u g h th e
in te rc e ssio n of O u r L ord) p a rticu la rly fire d h is scorn. In w ritin g
De Praestigiis Daemonum h e m u s t h a v e h a d b efo re h im a co p y of
The M alleus M aleficarum, fo r h is b o o k is a lm o st a se n te n c e by
s e n te n c e re fu ta tio n of The Malleus Maleficarum. H is d e risio n of
th e to rtu o u s a n d lu d ic ro u s "lo g ic" o f th e b o o k w a s a c o n su m ­
in g p a s sio n w ith him .
J o h a n n W ey er, b e in g first of all a n a s tu te clinical ob serv er,
d id h is o b se rv in g a n d re p o rtin g b y a " h a n d s o n " m e th o d , ju st
as, for e x a m p le, V esalius, H a rv e y , a n d M o rg a g n i b ro k e g ro u n d
12
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
b y u s in g th e sam e m e th o d of in d e p e n d e n t o b se rv a tio n . H e
d e m o n s tra te d clearly, case a fte r case, th a t m e n ta l illn ess w a s a
com pletely se p a ra te e n tity fro m th e ig n o ra n c e , su p e rs titio n ,
a n d h allu c in a tio n s w h ic h to g e th e r m a d e " w itc h e s " o u t of
in n o ce n t p e o p le . H e in siste d a n d co n clu siv ely s h o w e d th a t
m en ta l illness, like a n y o th e r h u m a n illn ess, s h o u ld b e tre a te d
by p h y sic ia n s, a n d n o t b y th e C h u rc h o r S tate. H is critical
analysis of th e sco u rg e of w itch craft, h is scientific, d e scrip tiv e,
o b serv atio n al a p p ro a c h to th e p ro b le m , a re th e v e ry ro o ts of
m o d e rn p sy c h ia try , for h is w a s th e first s ta te m e n t clearly to
d e m o n s tra te p s y c h o p a th o lo g y as so m e th in g c o m p le te ly a p a rt
from th e w o rk of th e D evil a n d s o m e th in g w h ic h c o u ld be
successfully tre a te d . H e w a s th e first to o u tlin e su c h tre a tm e n t.
" T h e re in lies th e g re a te st h isto rical significance of J o h a n n
W eyer, for h e w a s th e first m a n to in sist th a t n o rm a l a n d
p ath ological m e n ta l p ro c e sse s differ in d e g re e a n d fo rm b u t n o t
in su b sta n c e , a n d th a t h u m a n w ill h a s n o th in g to d o w ith
m e n ta l illn e s s " .5 T he effects of th is m a n , so rem a rk a b le for h is
era, w e re n o t im m ed ia te ly e v id e n t, b u t w e re reflec ted la te r in
th e h u m a n e refo rm s s ta rte d b y P inel, E squirol, C h ia ru g i, th e
g rea t n in e te e n th c e n tu ry G e rm a n n e u ro p s y c h ia tris ts , F re u d ,
a n d m a n y o th e rs. It w a s a lo n g p ro ce ss, fro m W ey er to th e
m o d e rn practice of p sy c h ia try , a n d it w a s n o t u n til w ith in
living m em o ry th a t p sy c h ia try b ecam e a c c e p te d as a re s p e c t­
able m e m b e r of th e m ed ical w o rld .
J o h a n n W ey er left a q u ie t m e ssa g e for all of u s. H e left p ro o f
th a t all h u m a n b e in g s a re v u ln e ra b le to th e su ffe rin g s of m e n ta l
illness, a n d th a t sa n ity is a v e ry fragile th in g .
5Gregory Zilboorg, The Medical Man and the Witch During the Renaissance
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1935), pp. 204-205.
http://ir.uiowa.edu/bai/vol59/iss1
13