Het tweetalige kind - O criança bilíngüe - - Το δίγλωσσο αιδί El niño bilingüe
Not Speaking Their
Language?
Providing Appropriate
Services to Bilingual Students
ASHA Conference, Chicago 2008
Saturday, November 22, 1:00pm - 3:00pm Session 2570
Sofía Carías, M.S. CCCCCC-SLP
Nate Cornish, M.S. CCCCCC-SLP
Двуязычный ребенок - Das zweisprachige Kind - L'enfant bilingue - Linguistic Diversity in the United
States
n
Latest Census Figures:
– 18% (47 million) individuals in the U.S. Speak a
language that is not English or in addition to English
– Approximately 60% of those,
(28.2 million) speak Spanish
– These figures are from the 2000 census, percentages
have likely increased in 8+ years
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2003)
Linguistic Diversity in the United
States
Percent of People in U.S. Who Speak English and
Non-English Languages at Home
Language
Other Than
English at
Home
18%
English Only
at Home
82%
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2003)
Linguistic Diversity in the United
States
Percent of Languages Other Than
English Spoken in U.S. Homes
French Creole
Japanese
1% Greek
1%
Portuguese
1% Hindi
Arabic 1%
1%
1%
Polish
Other
1%
12%
Russian
2%
Korean
2%
Italian
2%
Vietnamese
2%
Tagalog
3% German
3%
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2003)
Spanish
60%
French
4% Chinese
4%
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in
ASHA
n
In 2007:
– 7.2% of ASHA members identified themselves
as “non“non-white”
– 3.1% of ASHA members identified themselves
as “Hispanic/Latino”
(ASHA 2007)
n
In 2002:
– Only 6% of ASHA members identified
themselves as bilingual or multilingual
(ASHA 2002)
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in
ASHA
n
“Assessment and intervention of speech and language
disorders of limited English proficient speakers should be
conducted in the client's primary language.”
(ASHA 1985)
n
“Each local educational agency shall ensure thatthat-”
– “(A) assessments and other evaluation materials used to assess
a child under this sectionsection§ “(i) are selected and administered so as not to be
discriminatory on a racial or cultural basis;
§ “(ii) are provided and administered in the language and form
most likely to yield accurate information on what the child
knows and can do academically, developmentally, and
functionally, unless it is not feasible to so provide or
administer;
(Public Law 108108-446)
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in
ASHA
So how can the
94% of monolingual
ASHA members
provide appropriate
services?
n How should the 6%
of bilingual/
multilingual ASHA
members approach
languages in which
they are not fluent?
n
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in
ASHA
n
“Individuals shall engage in only those aspects of the
profession that are within the scope of their competence,
considering their level of education, training, and
experience.”
(ASHA Principles of Ethics II, Rule B)
n
“Individuals shall not discriminate in the delivery of
professional services”
(ASHA Principles of Ethics I, Rule C)
n
“…this ethical principle essentially mandates that clinicians
continue in lifelong learning to develop those knowledge
and skills required to provide culturally and linguistically
appropriate services, rather than interpret Principles of
Ethics II, Rule B as a reason not to provide the services.”
(ASHA, 2004)
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in
ASHA
n
Clinician without native or nearnear-native
proficiency in the language(s)/dialect(s) spoken
or signed by the client/patient.
– Knowledge and skills related to:
§ Obtaining information on the features and
developmental characteristics of the
language(s)/dialect(s) spoken or signed by the
client/patient.
§ Obtaining information on the sociolinguistic features
of the client's/patient's significant cultural and
linguistic influences.
§ Developing appropriate collaborative relationships
with translators/interpreters
(ASHA, 2004)
Agenda
n
Bilingual Language Acquisition
n
Use of an Interpreter
n
Appropriate Assessment
n
Interpreting Results
n
Intervention
n
Summary and Do’s and Don’ts
Bilingual Language Acquisition
Three Distinct Language Groups
Monolingual English
Monolingual NonNon-English
Bilingual
Bilingual Language Acquisition
n
“Holistic” View of Bilingualism
(Grosjean, 1989)
– Like monolinguals, bilinguals have an innate capacity
to communicate.
§ (Approximately 1/2 the world’s population is bilingual.)
– Bilinguals are competent, but distinct communicators.
– Bilinguals develop a competence in each language to
the extent required by the environment.
– Bilinguals will likely restructure language various
times throughout their lifetime based on needs. Their
language is a “dynamic” process rather than a “static”
end.
Bilingual Language Acquisition
n
Some language features have been
observed to develop in bilinguals at both
accelerated and decelerated rates when
compared to monolingual peers.
(Goldstein, 2008)
Bilingual Language Acquisition
Comparison of Acquisition of Grammatical Features
(Langdon & Cheng, 1992)
n
Monolingual Spanish
(In Mexico and the U.S.)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Active
Gender: Noun Adjective
Short Plural
Long Plural
Regular Preterit
Irregular Preterit
Optative Subjunctive
Purposive Subjunctive
Gender: Direct Object Pronoun
Number in Verb Phrase
Conditional
Passive
Indirect Object
Other Conditional Forms
n
English-Spanish
Bilingual English(In the U.S.)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Number in Verb Phrase
Active
Short Plural
Long Plural
Regular Preterit
Gender: Direct Object Pronoun
Irregular Preterit
Gender: Noun Adjective
Conditional
Optative Subjunctive
Passive
Purposive Subjunctive
Indirect Object
Other Conditional Forms
Bilingual Language Acquisition
n
Unitary Systems Model
– Process of acquiring two languages with a single
language system that combines the words and the
grammatical rules from their dual language input.
Languages differentiate over time.
(Volterra & Taeschner, 1978)
Bilingual Language Acquisition
n
(Interactional) Dual Language Systems Model
– Assumes that children exposed to two languages from
birth establish two separate linguistic systems from
the outset of acquisition. Separation for some
features, interaction for others.
(Paradis, 2001)
Bilingual Language Acquisition
“…the process of first and second
language acquisition are interrelated but
may be expressed in different ways by
bilingual children as compared with
monolingual children in either language”
(Goldstein, 2004)
Bilingual Language Acquisition
“Interaction”
“…the systematic influence of the grammar of
one language on the grammar of the other
language during acquisition, causing
differences in a bilingual’s patterns and rates
of development in comparison with a
monolingual’s”
(Paradis & Genesee, 1996, p. 3 in Goldstein, 2008)
Bilingual Language Acquisition
n
The available literature suggests that
bilingualism does not appear to be
disadvantageous to:
– Typically developing children:
§ “Simultaneous exposure to and use of more than one
language does not cause harm or constitute a tootoodemanding cognitive task for the childchild- if the language
learning occurs in an environment where there is support for
the development of two languages.”
– (Genesee, 2003 in Langdon 2008 p.27)
– Non
Non--typically developing children:
§ Bilingual children with SLI showed difficulty with tensetensemarkers to the same extent as their monolingual peers
– (Paradis et al., 2003)
§ Similar language profiles observed for monolingual and
bilingual children with Down Syndrome
– (Kay
(Kay--Raining Bird et al., 2006)
Bilingual Language Acquisition
n
Practitioners should be aware that:
– Language development for simultaneous
bilinguals is similar but not identical to
monolinguals.
§ (Genesee et al., 2004 in Goldstein, 2008)
– Language development for sequential
bilinguals is similar but not identical to
monolinguals over time.
§ (Paradis, 2007 in Goldstein, 2008)
Bilingual Language Acquisition
n
Bilinguals may have distinct language
advantages over time (Examples):
– Wider set of associations for vocabulary
– HighlyHighly-developed pragmatic/metapragmatic/meta-linguistic
skills (e.g., recognizing language needs of
conversation partner.)
§ (Kayser, 1998)
Bilingual Language Acquisition
Classifying Bilinguals
n
Ambilingual, equilingual, semilingual,
passive/receptive, active expressive, incipient,
academic, natural
n
Sequential vs. simultaneous
n
Balanced vs. NonNon-Balanced Bilinguals
n
Additive vs. Subtractive
Classifying Bilinguals
(Kohnert, 2004; McLaughlin, 1978)
n
Sequential Bilingual
– L2 is acquired after L1
n
Early Sequential Bilingual
– Child acquires single L1 since birth and L2 throughout
childhood (typically 22-12 years)
n
Simultaneous Bilingual
– Child who acquires two languages from birth
n
Simultaneous vs. Sequential
– There is some debate as to what age simultaneous vs.
sequential language acquisition takes placeplace- some say
introduction of L2 before age 3 is “simultaneous.”
Classifying Bilinguals
(Hamayan & Damico, 1991)
n
Balanced
– Equal proficiency attained in both languages
n
Non--Balanced
Non
– Higher level of proficiency in one language
than another
Classifying Bilinguals
(Hamayan & Damico, 1991)
n
Additive Bilingualism
– Both L2 and L1 are developed; learning one
does not interfere with the other
n
Subtractive Bilingualism
– L2 replaces L1; learning L2 interferes with L1
Bilingual Language Acquisition
“The [recent] data support the view that
notions such as proficiency and dominance
are moving targets altered with
differences in tasks, topics and demands.”
(Goldstein, 2004)
Remember…
Classifying Bilinguals
(Valdés
(Vald
és & Figueroa, 1994)
n
Foci for classifying bilinguals
–
–
–
–
–
–
Age of Acquisition
Functional Ability
Relationship between the languages
Context of acquisition
Stages in the lives of bilinguals
Circumstances leading to bilingualism
Bilingual Language Acquisition
(Cummins, 1979 & 1984)
Cummins
Frame-Theoretical Frame
work and Concepts
BICS/CALPS
Common Underlying
Language Proficiency
Task Difficulty:
Context & cognitive
demand
BICSBICS- Basic Interpersonal
Communication Skills
2 years to master oral skills
n Use of language to carry on basic
conversations
n
– basic vocabulary, simple speech
acts, conversational language
CALPS
CALPS--Cognitive
Academic Language Proficiency
5-7 years to master academic language
n Use of language to learn academic
information
n
– advanced language, abstract
concepts, classroom questionquestionanswer routines, literacy, formal
writing and testing
Common Underlying
Language Proficiency
Theory that acquisition of L1 and L2 assist
one another
n Experience with L1 aids in L2; experience
with L2 will aid in L1
n Anyone can acquire two languages with
adequate exposure
n
Cognitive and Context Demands
n
2 Continuums;
– Context Embedded/Context Reduced
– Cognitively Demanding/Cognitively LessLessDemanding
n
Instruction (and language development)
should move accordingly across the two
continuums
Cognitive and Context Demands
Less difficult
Context Embedded
Cognitively less
demanding
More difficult
Context Reduced
Cognitively
demanding
Cognitive and Context Demands
n
Factors that contribute to contextual
demand
– Experience!
– Practice, direct training, accurate feedback
– Naturalistic
– Logical, follows expectations
– Materials used
– MultiMulti-sensory, engaging
Cognitive and Context Demands
n
Factors that contribute to cognitive
demand
– Developmental appropriateness
– Language abilities/language chosen for
intervention activity
– Automaticity of processing
– Skills in memory and perception
Cognitive and Context Demands
n
The type of information you get may depend on
the type of interaction you use
– If the child is struggling with language complexity,
you probably won’t see the language skills you are
trying to observe
n
Be prepared to modify the complexity in the
moment! Ask, “Am I asking the child to”:
–
–
–
–
Talk
Talk
Talk
Talk
about
about
about
about
present or past events?
own experiences or those of another?
concrete objects or abstract?
a real situation or hypothetical?
Bilingual Language Acquisition
“The concept of a ‘dominant’ language is
losing favor as there is more evidence that
proficiency in two languages occur on a
continuum, with individuals being able to
understand or express some concepts
better in one language and others in
another language.”
(Brice, 2002; Peña, Bedore, & ZlaticZlatic-Giunta, 2002)
Definitions: Dominance
vs. Proficiency
n
Dominance - Dominance in the literature has not
been precisely defined other than stronger and
dominance are synonymous
(Vald
(Valdéés & Figueroa, 1994)
n
Dominance is obtained by measuring the
individual's performance across a narrow variety
of tasks in each of the two languages and then
comparing the two languages.
(Kayser, 2001)
Definitions: Dominance
vs. Proficiency
n
Language proficiency measurement is not as
concerned as to which language is stronger or
dominant, but rather its goal is to provide a
description of the language development of the
child in listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
(Kayser, 2001)
n
The purpose is to document students' progress
over time and determine whether learning
standards are being attained through support
services or language programs.
(Gottlieb, 1999)
Five Stages of Second Language
Acquisition (SLA)
n
Stage I: The Silent/Receptive or Preproduction
Stage
n
Stage II: The Early Production Stage
n
Stage III: The Speech Emergence State
n
Stage IV: The Intermediate Language
Proficiency
n
Stage V: The Advanced Language Proficiency
Stage
Five Stages of Second Language
Acquisition (SLA)
n
Stage 1: The silent/receptive or prepreproduction stage
– A stage with minimal comprehension, no
verbal production (silent period)
– Behaviors to look for:
§ Increased distractibility
§ Little to no verbal production/concomitant increase
of gestural communication
§ Could present in a level of social isolation
Five Stages of Second Language
Acquisition (SLA)
n
Stage 2: Early Production Stage
– Limited comprehension; one/twoone/two-word
responses
– Behaviors to look for:
§ Emerging participation (may develop more readily
at individual level and small groups)
§ Increased use of rote phrases, increased
participation especially for routine activities
§ Grammatical and lexical overover-extensions
Five Stages of Second Language
Acquisition (SLA)
n
Stage 3: Speech Emergence Stage
– Increased comprehension, simple sentences,
some errors in speech
– Behaviors to look for:
§ Conversing in complete sentences
§ As sentences become more complex, may see
increase in errors (especially syntax)
§ Beginning to use English to learn (instead of just
learning English)
§ See increase use of compensatory strategies in
speech vs. gestures
§ Habitual speech errors; often influenced by first
language
Five Stages of Second Language
Acquisition (SLA)
n
Stage 4: Intermediate Fluency Stage
– Very good comprehension; more complex
sentences; complex errors in speech
– Behaviors to look for:
§ Near
Near--native fluency
§ Complex sentences, increased accuracy
§ Still developing cognitive competencies (increased
processing time necessary)
§ Errors at level of embedded text and prosody
§ Typically increased literacy abilities (depending on
context of learning)
Five Stages of Second Language
Acquisition (SLA)
n
Stage 5: The Advanced Language
Proficiency Stage
– Advanced, native
native--like fluency
– Behaviors to look for:
§ Still some difficulty with high levels of academic
language and literacy
§ Typically mainstreamed completely into English
classroom
§ May experience more advanced language
proficiency in the second language than the first
4 Stages of Preschool SLA
(Tabors & Snow, 1994)
n
Stage I: Home language Use (first
language)
n
Stage II: Nonverbal Stage of Learning
n
Stage III: Formulaic Language
n
Stage IV: Productive Use of the Second
Language
4 Stages of Preschool SLA
n
Stage 1: Home Language Use
– Some children continue to use home language
in an English, academic setting
– Some quickly adapt to the language of
academic setting
4-7 typically recognize language
– Children 4difference (between home and school) much
sooner than preschool children
4 Stages of Preschool SLA
n
Stage 2: Nonverbal Stage of Learning the
Second Language
– Children may pass through a silent period in
L2; communicating through gestures, not
words
– May last up to 8 wks
– Negative effects may include: social isolation
and treated as if younger by peers
4 Stages of Preschool SLA
n
Stage 3: Formulaic Language
– First verbal utterances by L2 preschool
children are typically telegraphic and
formulaic.
– Telegraphic – content words in the utterance
without function words or morphologic
markers (‘eat candy’; ‘play horsy’)
– Formulaic – involves the use of unanalyzed
chunks of phrases (i.e., ‘Look‘Look-it’! ‘Good
Morning/Buenos Dias’ ‘Dámelo’
‘Dámelo’))
4 Stages of Preschool SLA
n
Stage 4: Productive Use of the Second
Language
– Break down (separation of the language
systems)
– L2 learners make comparisons of syntax
– Become productive users of L2
Phenomena in SLA
Interference
n Fossilization
n Silent Period
n Language Loss
n
Code Switching/Code
Mixing
n Linguistic Borrowing
n Loan Words
n
Phenomena in SLA
n
Interference
– Behavior from L1 carries over into L2. Can
happen at any language level (syntax,
morphology, phonology, etc.)
n
Fossilization
– L2 “errors” that remain despite higher level of
proficiency. Can be specific to an individual
or common within a community
Phenomena in SLA
n
Silent Period
– Much listening and observing; little output
– May last 3 to 6 months
– May be mistaken for language delay/disorder
Phenomena in SLA
n
Language Loss
– L1 may be lost as L2 acquired
– Features of L1 may be lost as proficiency
gained in L2
L2-- may
– If L1 loss occurs while still acquiring L2
be appear as “low“low-functioning” in both
languages
§ This presents a challenge for assessment
Phenomena in SLA
n
Code Switching
– Alternating between L1 and L2
– Complex, rulerule-governed phenomenon.
Requires linguistic competence in more than
one language.
– May occur at:
§ Word level
§ Sentence level
§ Phrase level
Phenomena in SLA
n
Code Switching
– Types of Code Switches:
§ Intersentential Code Switching: consists
of shifting languages at sentence boundaries.
§ Intrasentential Code Switching: shifting
languages in the middle of a sentence, often
with no interruptions, hesitations, pauses, or
“other changes of major categorical shift”
(Lipski, 1985)
Phenomena in SLA
n
Code Switching
– External Factors
§ Situational Switches: Related to social role of speaker
§ Contextual Switches: Situation, topic, setting, etc. (e.g.
switch to English to talk about math)
In--group membership stressed, (e.g.
§ Identity Marker: In
“ese, órale, mami” used in English conversation regardless of
actual Spanish fluency.)
§ Quotations & Paraphrases: Contextual: related to
language used by the original speaker
Phenomena in SLA
n
Code Switching
– Internal Factors
§ Random Switches: Unpredictable, does not relate to topic,
situation, setting, or lang. dominance, occur only on word level.
§ Triggered Switches: Due to preceding or following.
§ Preformulations: Include linguistic routines and automatic speech
(e.g. “You know, Glad to meet you, No te molestes, ¿Q
¿Qu
ué hay de
nuevo?”).
§ Stylistic Switches: Obvious stylistic devices used for emphasis or
contrast. (e.g. “Me tomé
tomé toda la cafetera, the whole coffee pot.”)
pot.”)
§ Sequential Switches: Involve using the last language used by the
preceding speaker.
Phenomena in SLA
n
Code Mixing
– Different than “Code Switching”
– Occurs early in SLA
– Short insertions from one language to the other
§ Labels
§ Action words
§ Attribution/descriptor words
– More likely in younger children
– Seems to occur when children pressured to
communicate in their weaker language.
Phenomena in SLA
nLinguistic
Borrowing
–Linguistic process in which words are taken from
one language and transformed to meet
phonological/morphological standards of the other
language.
§E.g. “Puchar” from the English “to push” (empujar)
–Borrowing may occur in two ways (according to
speaker perception of language):
§ The ‘less prestigious language’ borrows from the ‘more
prestigious language’ (frequently what are perceived as
the ‘good’ things)
§ The ‘more prestigious language’ borrows from the
‘less prestigious language’ (often words with a negative
connotation).
Phenomena in SLA
n
Loan Words
– Words for which there is no morphemic substitution
§ E.g. taco, patio
n
Hybrid Loan Words
– Words in which only part of the phonemic shape of a
word is recorded
park--parquear
§ E.g. park
Phenomena in SLA
n
Loan Translations: Words used in one language
and translated completely in another.
– E.g. rasca cielos/skyscraper
n
Loan Shift: Semantic displacement to novel
cultural phenomenon.
– Words that are borrowed from those that come from
another country for which there is no word equivalent
in their own language or country.
– E.g. groceria/grocery store, which actually means
‘gross’ in Spanish.
– Used when there is no word and not due to a lack of
vocabulary
Phenomena in SLA
n
Integration:
– Developed loan words that have been
accepted and used by a whole community. It
has been integrated into the community.
– Makes it difficulty to use vocabulary tests as a
measuremeasure- not dependable because of constant
shifting.
– E.g. lonche (lunch) for almuerzo, parquear (to
park) for estacionarse.
Myths about Bilingualism
Myths that do have teeth…
Myths About Bilingualism
n
Bilingualism is equal knowledge of two languages.
n
CodeCode-switching is indicative of poor vocabulary skills in
both languages.
n
Learning a second language will negatively impact a
child’s cognitive development
“In many ways, the research
presented supports the view…that
bilinguals are not two monolingual
children in either language.”
(Grosjean, 1989)
“Take a holistic view of bilingualism;
bilingual individuals are an integrated
whole who cannot be easily
separated by his or her
components.”
(Goldstein, 2004)
Questions?
Using Interpreters & Translators in
SpeechSpeech-Language Pathology
Use of an Interpreter
LOST IN TRANSLATION - not just a
movie! How does it apply to us?
n Sometimes we could all use a little help…
n
Piglatin: Ethay anmay ashay away ellowyay athay
n Food labels: ferrous sulfate, thiamine mononitrate,
n
riboflavin flovic acid
n
Pragmatic: Honey, do these pants make me look fat?!
Definitions
(Langdon & Cheng, 1992)
n
Interpreter – conveys information from
one language to the other in the oral
modality
n
Translator – conveys information in the
written modality
Responsibilities of the Interpreter
n
n
n
n
n
High levels of proficiency in English and the nonnonEnglish language/oral and literate.
[at least] the minimal educational requirements
for interpretation in specified state.
Familiarity with the task; understanding of their
role within the task.
Familiarity with the client’s cultural, social
dialect.
Vocabulary specific for task.
Responsibilities of the SLP
n
n
n
n
n
Have an understanding of the appropriate
procedures for offering tests to ELLs.
Prepare the interpreter for the demands of the
task/their role.
Offer possible vocabulary for each activity.
Give plenty of time for translation before the
activity.
Utilize the interpreter as a cultural and social
liaison with the student and their family.
When do I need an Interpreter?
Assessment when the child speaks an L1 that is
not familiar.
n Assessment when the child speaks an L1 that is
familiar to you, but not the entire MD team.
n Intervention when the child speaks an L1 that is
not familiar.
n Intervention when the child speaks an L1 that is
familiar, but you are not of the linguistic
community.
n
“But I don’t speak _____!”
Refer to a qualified bilingual speechspeech-language
pathologist if possible!
n Locate a qualified interpreter
n Familiarize yourself with the L1
n
– ASHA articles
– References for working with CLD (Culturally and
Linguistically Diverse populations)
– Omniglot – writing systems and languages of the
world
§ http://www.omniglot.com/
– Google – ‘language name’ + ‘phonology’ or ‘grammar’
How can the Interpreter assist you?
Obtaining the case history
n Test administration
n Test interpretation
n Report Writing
n Offering therapy services
n
“Through the development of a
positive working relationship, services
can be maximized to foster a child’s
bilingual language development.”
(Hammer, Miccio, Rodriguez, 2004)
Appropriate (“Dynamic”)
Assessment
Shift in Theory
Dynamic
Static
Appropriate (“Dynamic”)
Assessment
n
“The concept of a dominant language is losing favor as
there is more evidence that proficiency in two languages
occur on a continuum, with individuals being able to
understand or express some concepts better in one
language and others in another language.” –
– (Brice, 2002; Peña, Bedore, & ZlaticZlatic-Giunta, 2002)
n
“The process of first and second language acquisition
are interrelated but may be expressed in different ways
by bilingual children as compared with monolingual
children in either language.”
– (Goldstein, 2004)
Definitions
n
Assessment is the process of gathering information to
define a person’s strengths and weaknesses, to make
informed decisions for developing appropriate goals and
objectives, teaching strategies, and program placements.
n
Testing is the use of formal measures, mostly for
qualification purposes. Testing helps to determine
whether a child is eligible for services and assists to
define whether the child presents with a problem and
how deviant the problem.
I.D.E.A.
n
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act - originally
known as Education for the Handicapped Act, 1975
n
Emerged from changes in educational and civil law;
political and social climate changes
n
Provides federal funding to states and local school
districts; originally (1975) stated the federal government
would give 40% of funds for children with special needs
- currently at 20%
I.D.E.A.: Language of Evaluation
n
300.304 (c)(8)
– Determining the language of assessment shall
involve a thorough review of the child’s
language history
– When appropriate and feasible, the child
should be evaluated in his or her native
language by qualified bilingual personnel
and/or with the assistance of professional
interpreters who have received special
training for this purpose.
I.D.E.A.: Diagnostic Procedures
n
612 (a) (6) (B) Additional Procedural Safeguards:
– “Such [testing and evaluation] materials or procedures shall be
provided and administered in the child’s native language or
mode of communication”
n
614 (b) (3) (A) (i) Additional Requirements:
– “[assessments and other evaluation materials] are elected so as
not to be discriminatory on a racial or cultural bias”
n
614 (b) (3) (A) (ii) Additional Requirements:
– “[assessments and other evaluation materials] are provided and
administered in the language and form most likely to yield
accurate information on what the child knows and can do
academically, developmentally, and functionally.”
I.D.E.A.: Eligibility
IDEA 300.534
Determination of eligibility
n (b) A child may not be determined to be
eligible under this part if
n
– (1) The determinant factor for that eligibility
determination is
§ (i) Lack of instruction in reading or math;
§ (ii) Limited English proficiency;
Misdiagnosis
n
Leads to Misrepresentation of ELL’s in
Special Education Programs
1) “More minority children continue to be served
in special education than would be expected
from the percentage of minority students in the
general school population.”
n 2) “Documented discrepancies in the levels of
referral and placement of limited English
proficient children in special education."
n
(Public Law 108108-446)
Performance-Based Assessment
PerformanceMeasures
Language
Sampling
Phonological
Awareness
Narrative
Sampling
Dynamic
Assessment
Language
Processing
Tasks
Standardized
Testing
Issues with NormNorm-Referenced &
Standardized Tests
n
Validity –
– Does the test measure what it is designed to measure
and does it do so accurately?
– The use of invalid test on culturally and linguistically
children may only compound the problems and
increase the risk of mis (over) diagnosis.
n
Normative Sample –
- Does this test compare the child’s performance with
his/her age and language – matched peers?
n
Reliability Test--retest reliability
Test
Standardization on Bilingual Students in
the United States
n
It’s true!!
– Some tests do use a normative sample of bilingual
children in the U.S.
– Some tests do account for morphologic, syntactic and
pragmatic makemake-up (particularly in Spanish)
n
However,
– There is still speculation on any standardized test
being completely adequate for the ‘cultural and
linguistic community’ of a student.
– ‘A single test administration does not provide you
with sufficient information to diagnose a language
disorder’
– (CELF(CELF- 4, Spanish Manual)
Standardized Tests Given in NonNonStandardized Ways
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
Explain the reasons for testing
Reword Instructions
Record all comments
Add practice items
Provide additional time for response
Have the student explain his/her answer
Accept culturally appropriate responses
Make note of nonverbal communication skills
Test beyond the ceiling
Language Sampling
n
Elicit in all languages utilized by the participant; depends
on what type of information you want to obtain
– Language development is dependent upon experiences
n
Sampling in various contexts, various conversational
partners
– It is recommended to obtain 22-3 different samples
– Samples do not have to be LONG!!!
n
Sampling that reflects the child’s linguistic use
–
–
–
–
n
ChildChild-Child interactions
ChildChild-Adult interactions
Increased structure
Decreased structure
Use a variety of elicitation techniques
-
Description, probe, narration, interpretation, explication, rolerole-playing
Language Sampling
n
Advantages to language sampling
– A representation of spontaneous language that is not
achievable via individual test items
(Gutié
(Gutiérrez
rrez--Clellen, 2004)
– Integrates the various components often tested
individually using a standardized instrument
– Expressive language abilities and difficulties can be
identified within a language sample
– Less
Less--biased sample of child’s true speech and
language abilities
Analyzing Language Samples
MLU,T-Unit
Morphology/Syntax = MLU,T– Look for patterns of error
§ Can they be described by SLA
§ Are they consistent?
§ Do they change over time?
n
Semantic Development = TNW/NDW, TypeType-Token
Ratio
– Things to consider
§ Context
§ Variable vocabulary activities
§ CodeCode-switching
Narrative Assessment
n
“Narratives should be elicited in the two languages and
then the languages should be compared to establish the
child’s true narrative skills”
(Gutié
(Gutiérrez
rrez--Clellen, 2004)
n
Bilingual children typically have similar errors as
compared to children who speak English with SLI (in
narratives)
– Temporal, causal, referential, spatial, limited syntax skills
n
There is evidence in research teaching basics of
narrative development will carrycarry-over from one language
to the next when the characteristic is shared in both
languages
Narrative Qualities
1.
Narrative plot (background, goal directed actions,
conflict resolution, ending)
2.
Clarity (chronology of events with specific connectives)
3.
Cohesion (appropriate use of reference to
introduce/re--introduce characters)
introduce/re
4.
Specificity (use of specific and relevant language and
descriptions)
5.
Memorable feature (use of reported speech, figurative
language, overall charm)
Types of Narratives
n
Recounts -> Series of events (e.g. Talk about the weekend)
n
Accounts -> Begun before 2 years; adults request further
information (e.g. Talk about the weekend with an adult adding
information and requesting specific events)
n
Event Casts -> Begun with preverbal children (parallel talk)
n
Fictional Stories -> Stories about books, movies, completely
imaginary
n
Story NarrativesNarratives-> Such as story retell; using wordless books
(preferably) or movies
Narrative Complexity
n
Early narration is similar for Spanish speakers as
with other EnglishEnglish-speaking children
– 6 years= only focus on sequences of actions; changes
of physical state
– 7 years = increase in use of causal markers
– 8-12 years = greater use of mental state, goals, and
character relationships
Narrative Complexity
n
Dependent upon
– Coherence and cohesion (think about the multiple
linguistic processes occurring simultaneously –
production, syntax/lexical, sequencing, causal
relationships, context, etc)
– Use of mental states or motivations
– Description of causal relationships
– Increased use of subordinate clauses, (…el niño que
queríía llorar)
quer
– Precision in linking events, introducing events
Narratives and Language Disorders
Correlation between “low achieving”
readers and those with decreased
narrative abilities
n Consider the demands of language in
conjunction with processing
comprehension and production of the
story
n
Dynamic Assessment
n
n
n
n
n
Dynamic assessment can help distinguish between
language difference and language disorder
Dynamic assessment and mediated teaching are
process
process--oriented approaches to assessment and
intervention
Dynamic assessment and mediated instruction are
interactive procedures
Dynamic assessment and mediated instruction
emphasize teaching effort and student responsiveness to
teaching
Dynamic assessment guides intervention
Dynamic Assessment
n
ProcessProcess-Dependent (“Dynamic”)
Assessment
Process--Dependent
– Experience
Experience--Dependent vs. Process
§ Experience
Experience--Dependent
– What skills do they already have?
§ Process
Process--Dependent
– What is their ability to acquire new skills?
Dynamic Assessment
Experience--Dependent
– Experience
§ Basis:
– Look at what the child brings to the assessment: What
skills do they already possess?
– Often compares children to samesame-age peers
§ Examples:
– NormNorm-referenced tests
– Various language sample
analyses
Dynamic Assessment
n
ExperienceExperience-Dependent
– Strengths
§ Typically more timetime-effective to administer
§ Better
Better--understood by other professionals
§ Often required to receive public funding for services
– Limitations among bilinguals
non-English tests available in the U.S. are translations;
§ Many nondon’t appropriately test those languages’ constructs
§ Few tests/normative data available for bilingual populations
§ It is difficult to obtain normative data for bilinguals, due to
wide variation in “bilingualism”
§ Wide variation in bilingual children’s exposure to educational
or languagelanguage-building experiences.
Dynamic Assessment
n
ProcessProcess-Dependent
– Basis
§ Look at the child’s ability to learn information
– Examples of “Dynamic Assessment”
-(Guti
(Gutiérrez
érrez & Peña, 2001)
§ Testing the Limits
– Provide feedback, elicit metalinguistic skills during testing
§ Graduated Prompting
– Use hierarchy of predetermined prompts
§ TestTest-Teach
Teach--Retest (a.k.a. “Response to Intervention”)
– Identify where skills are deficient, provide specific intervention
to remediate, reevaluate skills to determine modifiability
Dynamic Assessment
n
ProcessProcess-Dependent
– Strengths
§
§
§
§
Allows for differences in educational/linguistic exposure
Does not rely on normative data (which may be scarce)
Gives insight into the course of future interventions
Corresponds with Response to Intervention being
implemented by many school districts
– Limitations Among Bilinguals
§ Evaluators must be careful when determining measures of
modifiability (How does the child show they have learned?)
§ SLP may need to be prepared to defend decisions that are
not backed by a test score
§ Districts should be careful to allow for cases where
immediate services are appropriate
Dynamic Assessment
n
Response to Intervention
– What is it?
– Strengths
– Concerns with implementation
Dynamic Assessment
Pretest * Teach * Retest
n
n
Based on the work of Vygotsky (1978) and ZPD
3 factors of modifiability - change through mediation
(Peña, 1996)
– Child responsiveness (response to and use of new information)
– Examiner effort (how much is necessary)
– Transfer (generalization of new skills)
n
Goals of Dynamic Assessment:
(Lidz, 1991)
–
–
–
–
Profile learner’s abilities
Observe learner’s modifiability
Induce active, selfself-regulated learning
Inform intervention
Dynamic Assessment
n
Pretest
– Assess current performance
n
Teach
– Use a “Mediated Learning Experience” (MLE)
– Help the child develop strategies
– Observe the child’s modifiabilitymodifiability- how much support
do they need?
– Post Test
– Compare posttest and pretest
– Assess transfer of strategiesstrategies- do they generalize the
skill to other areas?
(Peña,
(Peña, 2007)
Dynamic Assessment
Intentionality- help child understand
Intentionalitygoal/purpose of the MLE
n MeaningMeaning- help child:
n
– Understand why task is important
– Focus on important aspects of the task
Transcendence- help the child generalize
Transcendenceto other situations
n Competence
Competence-- help the child be a more
independent learner
n
– (Peña,
(Peña, 2007)
Language
Language--Processing Link:
Application to Assessment
Consider how the student processes other kinds of
information:
1. Working memory skills
2. Perceptual and attention skills
3. Automaticity of language output
4. Overall communicative functioning
Interpreting Results
“Matthews“Matthews- We’re
getting another
one of those
strange ‘aw blah
es spanyol’
sounds!”
-Gary Larson
Interpreting Results
n
What’s in a score?
– Compares the child to a given population
§ Not a valid comparison if:
– The child does not belong to that population
§ Cultural/linguistic differences
§ Exposure
– The test was not administered in a standardized way
– The data was not analyzed correctly
– The test was does not written to reflect appropriate
developmental norms (e.g., translations)
– Compares the child’s performance to given criteria
§ Not always a valid comparison if:
– Relying strictly on an ‘age of acquisition’ model
Interpreting Results
n
What’s in a score?
– Know when (and when not) to report scores
§ “Assessment does not equal tests scores”
(CELF(CELF-4 Spanish Manual)
§ This may require some advocacy on your part
– Districts, other professionals, lawyers like scores because
they are static and are easier to interpret
– If you do not report scores, be sure to make your
findings accessible and comprehensible to others
Interpreting Results
n
What’s in a score?
– Don’t fear the sanctity of standardization!
§ You can get great information (sometimes better
information) by administering a test in a nonnon-standardized
way
§ Some tests will encourage you to do this, and even give you
suggestions!
§ You can administer the test in the standardized way, and
then go back to get more info
§ Use an Item Analysis to look for patterns!
§ Provide ranges using the terms superior, high average,
average, low average, mild, moderate, severe, and profound.
Make sure to include a description of what the child did and
the basis for the conclusion.
Interpreting Results
n
Standardized Tests Given in NonNon-Standardized
Ways
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Explain the reasons for testing
Reword Instructions
Record all comments
Add practice items
Provide additional time for response
Have the student explain his/her answer
Accept culturally appropriate responses
Make note of nonverbal communication skills
Test beyond the ceiling
Interpreting Results
n
Limitations of Informal Assessments
– Paucity of normative data for nonnon-English
languages
– Differences in administration/interpretation
from English model, for example:
inflected§ Romance languages are highly inflecteddifferences exist on how to determine complexity.
“Me fui”
fui” (“I left” in Spanish) can be judged to have
as many as 6, as little as 2 morphological markers
(MLU, MLUMLU-w, MLTU, MLU
MLU--m, NETU)
§ Many differences exist across cultures and
languages for narrative, expository, conversational
discourse structures.
Interpreting Results
Informal Measures
n 4 Areas to Describe
(Goldstein, 2008)
– Patterns common in typically developing children across
languages (Examples):
§ Consonant clusters
§ Syntactic complexity
– Patterns uncommon in typically developing children across
languages (Examples):
§ Vowel errors
§ Principally at “labeling” stage (few descriptors or actions) after a
certain age
– Cross
Cross--linguistic effect
§ Is L1 influencing L2?
§ Is L2 influencing L1? (Interpreter should be sensitive to this)
§ Bear in mind this may occur at all language levels: phonological,
semantic, morphological, syntactic, pragmatic
– Consider variation of dialect
Interpreting Results
n
Independent Analysis
(Goldstein, 2008)
– Do not compare to adult forms
§ Collect information about what the child is doing:
–
–
–
–
Phonological structure
Phonemic Inventory
Level of Semantic Development
Morphological Structures employed
§ Identify patterns
n
Relational Analysis
(Goldstein, 2008)
– Do compare to adult forms
§ Look for error types
§ Look for phonological processes
§ Gauge stimulability
Interpreting Results
n
Use your resources to find out what is “typical” and “not
typical.” (Examples):
– ASHA web site maintains phonemic inventories, and phonological
information for several languages at:
http://www.asha.org/about/leadership-http://www.asha.org/about/leadership
projects/multicultural/Phono.htm
– Ask family, friends specific questions about what is typical and
behaviors: (Examples):
§ ‘Does the child sound like siblings/friends of same age?’ ‘What is
similar/different?’
§ ‘Does the child produce sounds front of mouth, back of mouth,
etc.?’
§ ‘What specific strategies does the child use to meet needs? Are
they similar to what other children in the community use?’
– Use a reliable, trained cultural broker to comment on what other
children in the community may do
Interpreting Results
n
Be sensitive to:
– Phenomena in SecondSecond-Language Acquisition
§ Language Loss
§ CodeCode-Switching
– Interaction between English and nonnon-English
language
– Dynamic nature of language proficiency
§ Skill set seen today may not be true over time
§ Some skills may exist in one language and not
another
– E.g., Vocabulary may be as ample as a monolingual, but
not evident because totality exist across both languages
Interpreting Results
n
Dynamic Assessment
– Determine:
§ What gains did the child make through the
Mediated Learning Experience (MLE)?
§ How much, and what type of support was needed
for the child to make gains?
§ Was the child able to generalize skills to other
situations?
Appropriate Intervention
Intervention
n
ASHA Guidelines
Position Statement
American Speech
Speech--Language Hearing Association. (1985). Clinical management
of communicatively handicapped minority language populations.
“[For clients who] are proficient in their native language but not in
English, assessment and intervention of speech and language
disorders of limited English proficient speakers should be conducted
in the client’s primary language”
“[For clients who] are possessing limited communicative competence in
both languages…speech and language should be assessed in both
languages to determine language dominance….The most
appropriate language for intervention would be determined from
this assessment.”
Language of Intervention?
n
Recent shift from therapy in only L1 or L2 with definite
distinction between the use of each
– difficult to separate the two
– not always naturalistic and congruent with previous
language experiences
n
Language use may be theme dependent; may influence
the quality of input
n
Remember: most adults (with exposure to more than
one language) implement codecode-switching to some extent
Please consider…
n
The student’s and family’s proficiency levels in L1 and L2
n
The nature and severity of the communication
impairment
n
The age of the student
n
The availability of professionals who can deliver
specialized services
n
Research has not, yet, given us a definite answer to this
complex question, therefore, we need to consider each
case individually.
A Bilingual Approach
n
Children learn from comprehensible input
– (Krashen, 1994)
n
The process of learning a L1 and a L2 are interrelated or
interdependent
– (interpreted from Cummins, 1979)
n
L2 learning can be facilitated when children have access
to a social, linguistic and cognitive support system
1991.)-> Relative to Krashen’s ‘affective filter’.
– (Wong Fillmore, 1991.)-
n
n
Consider the layers of language proficiency; the
‘complex, multifaceted, global construct that is measured
relative to age and linguistic experience’. Sld 54.
A [bilingual model where content is addressed in both
languages] stresses the transfer of knowledge and skills
between languages and emphasizes that both languages
are valued and valuable
– (Kohnert & Derr, 2004)
Delivery Methods
n
n
n
n
Bilingual support model: Monolingual speechspeech-language
pathologist using an assistant or technician
Coordinated service model: Monolingual and bilingual
speech
speech--language pathologists work together to provide
services
Integrated bilingual model: The bilingual speechspeechlanguage pathologist provides all services
Combination of bilingual support and coordinated model:
The monolingual speechspeech-language pathologist and
bilingual assistant provide services with the support of
the bilingual speechspeech-language pathologist
Whole – Parts - Whole
n
Student is given the “big picture,” and then
learns how the component parts relate to the
whole. Students are taught within meaningful
contexts in which language serves a
communicative function.
n
Thematic units
n
Daily opportunities to talktalk-listenlisten-write
write--read
Scaffolding
n
Technique in which the professional gives a
student temporary support that is consistent
with the student’s current ability level. The
professional gradually withdraws support until
the student can function independently.
n
Relate info to previously acquired knowledge; let
the student take control of a task; use a
multimodal approach; learn from mistakes
Vocabulary
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
Create a Story
Category Buckets
Guess the Picture
Which One Doesn’t Belong?
Memory Games
Describe it in Detail
Follow the Directions
Rhyming Words
Word Match
Expressive Language
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
Write stories/journals in their primary language
Bilingual books
Create captions
Write or dictate a letter
Create family trees
Review newspapers or magazines for ads
Hide objects
Songs!
Phonological Awareness
n
n
n
n
n
n
Count words in a sentence
Count syllables in a word
Count sounds in a word
Identify rhyming words
Sound blending
Identify the first or last sound in a word
Do’s and Don’ts
n
Don’t Panic!
Do’s and Don’ts
n
Do Not:
– Qualify a child based on one form of
assessment
– Use EnglishEnglish-language tests inappropriately
with bilingual children
– Rely solely (or too much) on test scores
Do’s and Don’ts
n
Do:
– Become familiar with ASHA guidelines
– Use available resources
– View language as fluid/dynamic
– View every student as an individual
– Be aware of your own biases and perspectives
– Advocate for bilingual children and their
families!
¡Gracias!
A special thanks to:
Carrie Slaymaker, M.A. CCCCCC-SLP &
Sandra Márquez,
Márquez, M.A. CCC
CCC--SLP
for the role they played in the development
of this presentation.
Resources
n
We would like to thank Joy Coulis, M.S. CCCCCC-SLP who provided the
following resources after the presentation!
– Office of Multicultural Affairs, IDEA Brief on CLD students:
§ http://www.asha.org/NR/rdonlyres/2230A259http://www.asha.org/NR/rdonlyres/2230A259-AE74
AE74--4C5A4C5A-9FBE
9FBE-C143FE9E58BA/0/CLDStudentsBrief.pdf
CCC--SLP describes how "Your state
– In this article, Cate Crowley, J.D., CCC
and district cannot require procedures that result in unreliable, invalid,
or biased evaluations."
§ Crowley, C., Ouellette, P. Deviations from the Norm: What IDEA 2004 Says
Speech-Language Pathologists &
About Assessments. ADVANCE for SpeechAudiologists. June 5, 2006.
– In this second article, Dr. Crowley responds to a question posted from a
SLP who works in a hospital setting and says her supervisor informed
her IDEA 2004 does not apply to them and that Medicaid requires
standardized scores to qualify children for speechspeech-language services.
Dr. Crowley states that the SLP has been misinformed, explains why,
and gives recommendations on how to approach her supervisor.
§ Crowley, C. Deviations from the Norm: Columnists Respond to Reader's
Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists.
Questions. ADVANCE for SpeechOctober 23, 2006.
References
n
n
American SpeechSpeech-Language
Language--Hearing Association. Table 5: Demographic
Profile of ASHA Constituents January 1 Through December 31, 2007 (2007.)
Available online at: http://www.asha.org/NR/rdonlyres/5613E0AF
http://www.asha.org/NR/rdonlyres/5613E0AF--88A6
88A6-4C514C51-965A965A-BC5B5BF6D56F/0/07memcountsTbl5.pdf
American Speech
Speech--Language
Language--Hearing Association. (2004). Knowledge and
Skills Needed by SpeechSpeech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists to Provide
Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services [Knowledge and Skills].
n
Available from www.asha.org/policy
www.asha.org/policy..
American Speech
Speech--Language
Language--Hearing Association. (2003). Code of Ethics
[Ethics]. Available from www.asha.org/policy
www.asha.org/policy..
American SpeechSpeech-LanguageLanguage-Hearing Association. Communication
n
http
http://www.asha.org/about/leadership
://www.asha.org/about/leadership-projects/multicultural/readings/OMA_fact_sheets.htm..
projects/multicultural/readings/OMA_fact_sheets.htm
American SpeechSpeech-LanguageLanguage-Hearing Association. (1985). Clinical
n
n
development and disorders in multicultural populations: Readings and
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Brice, A. E. (2002) The Hispanic child: Speech, language culture and
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