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New Advances in Pediatric Ventilation:
Revolutionizing the Management of
Pediatric Intubation with Cuffed Tubes
Distinguished Panelists
Gavin F. Fine, MBBCh – Program Chair
Lynne G. Maxwell, MD, FAAP
Andreas C. Gerber, MD
Pediatric Microcuff
Endotracheal Tube
2006
Kühn Tube with Stylet
1899–1911
Sponsored by
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Foreword
It is my pleasure to present you with this special publication regarding the
new advances that have been made in pediatric ventilation.
Traditionally, it has been taught that only uncuffed endotracheal tubes (ETTs)
should be used for intubation in children under 8 years of age. Recent
advances to the design of ETTs have fostered a debate on the use of uncuffed
versus cuffed ETTs. This educational supplement features a history of
pediatric intubation, issues and “work arounds” to current practices, and
clinical experiences using a new cuffed endotracheal tube.
Increased knowledge about the advances discussed in this supplement will
hopefully help us to improve patient management in the future.
Department of Anesthesiology
Cook Children’s Health Care
Fort Worth, Texas
Gavin F. Fine, MBBCh
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Table of Contents
Lynne G. Maxwell, MD, FAAP
Endotracheal Tube Use in Children: History as Pretext for Current Teaching . . . 1
Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Gavin F. Fine, MBBCh
Problems with Endotracheal Tubes, Cuffed vs. Uncuffed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Department of Anesthesiology
Cook Children’s Health Care
Fort Worth, Texas
Microcuff Pediatric Tube: Now Anesthesiologists Can Use Cuffed
Endotracheal Tubes in Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Andreas C. Gerber, MD
Department of Anesthesia
University Childrens’ Hospital
Zürich, Switzerland
This Supplement is funded through an educational grant from Kimberly-Clark Health Care
© 2008 Kimberly-Clark Healthcare, Adair Greene McCann
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Endotracheal Tube Use in Children:
History as Pretext for Current Teaching
Lynne G. Maxwell, MD, FAAP
The first endotracheal tube for anesthesia in the
present-day sense was devised and used in 1878 by the
surgeon, Sir William MacEwan.1 He recommended
insertion of tracheal tubes by mouth instead of tracheostomy and in so doing performed the first oral
intubation. His flexible metal endotracheal tubes
developed to deliver anesthesia via orotracheal intubation were the first tubes used for the maintenance of
spontaneous ventilation in adults.
INTRODUCTION
Endotracheal Tube for Anesthesia
Endotracheal intubation has a long, rich history
(see fig. 1), having even been described in the Bible.
However, early experimentation with endotracheal
tubes really began with Vesalius’s and Hooke’s work
with animals in the 16th and 17th centuries.1 Vesalius
demonstrated his technique of sustaining life in dogs
and pigs by rhythmically inflating the lungs. In 1667,
Robert Hooke, the great experimentalist, further
expanded this practice by performing a tracheostomy
on a dog and preserving its life by breathing for it with
the use of a bellows.1 These experiments illustrate that,
by the 17th century, a mechanical means of ventilation
had firmly been established, and by 1796, endotracheal
tubes were beginning to be used for resuscitation purposes in humans.1
Developments in Pediatric Intubation During the
Late 19th and 20th Centuries
Having firmly laid the foundation for administering
anesthesia to adults via endotracheal intubation, anesthesiologists then actively sought to find ways to
resuscitate children in the operating room. To that end,
in 1888, they turned to an American pediatrician, Dr.
Joseph O’Dwyer. He, along with surgeon, Dr. George
Fell, developed a pediatric-sized tube for artificial ventilation of anesthetized pediatric patients.2 The FellO’Dwyer apparatus, as it came to be known, was made
with different size tips and was also available for adult
patients. Although first developed to rescue children
whose airways were obstructed because of diphtheria,
it was soon adapted to rescue children with asphyxia
due to anesthetic overdose in the operating room. Its
purpose was not to provide long-term ventilation but
rather facilitate acute resuscitation in children in the
operating room (see fig. 2).
TRACHEOSTOMY FOR ANESTHESIA
In 1869, German surgeon Friedrich Trendelenburg
accomplished the first application of tracheostomy for
administering anesthesia in humans.1 The tracheostomy tube had an inflatable cuff on it. The purpose of the
cuff was to provide a seal between the tube and the tracheal wall to prevent passage of pharyngeal contents
into the trachea, and to ensure that no gas leaks passed
the cuff during positive pressure ventilation.
Anesthesia was administered via the insertion of a funnel covered with flannel.1
Metal Tubes
Herholdt+Rafn
resuscitation
1543
1928 1929
1871 1880
1667
1899–1911
1796
1st cuffed tube
Trendelenburg
(tracheostomy)
MacEwen
manual intubation
Fig.1. Timeline showing major events in endotracheal intubation.
Standardization
of ETT materials
(PVC, IT)
Manual application
of rubber cuffs
Woodbridge
flexible metal
O’Dwyer
1888
Robert Hooke
Vesalius: reed into
aspera arteria
Eisenmenger
tube 1893 (cuff )
Franz Kuhn:
peroral intubation:
flexible metal tubes
Mm diameter,
Fr, Magill 00-10
1940s 1945
early
1950s
1932
Flagg
metal
tubes
Guedel+Waters
inflatable cuff
1960
Cole tube
for infants
Anode Hargrave
flexible wire coated
with rubber or silk
Integrated
cuff
(Murphy)
ASA: American Standards
standardization of mmID
and markings
1
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Fig.2. The Fell-O’Dwyer apparatus for artificial ventilation of anesthetized patients. Adapted from Brandt L. Illustrierte
Geschichte der Anästhesie. Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. 1997.
Dr. Eisenmenger’s endotracheal tube soon followed.
His device, developed in 1893, consisted of a metal
tube that had a cuff applied to it and had all the features of a modern cuffed endotracheal tube.1 It had a
pilot balloon as well as an additional balloon to inflate
the cuff to seal the lower airways against air leakage
and aspiration of secretions (see fig. 3).
Early in the 20th century, Franz Kühn, a German surgeon, modified endotracheal tubes for easier intubation.1 His patient-oriented studies led to vast improvements in patient safety.1 Kühn’s device was a flexible
metal tube used to keep the respiratory tract clear during narcosis and featured 3 important benefits. The
first was an oral airway to prevent the patient from biting the tube, the second was a small attachment on the
side of the tube that helped hold the tube to the
patient’s face, and the third was a stylet to help the
tube maintain its rigidity during placement.1 Kühn’s
tubes were inserted via manual intubation (see fig. 4.)
Rubber tubes were first developed in the 1940s and
1950s. The Cole tracheal tube, developed in 1945, was
initially designed for emergency use in pediatric anesthesia (see fig. 5).1 The Cole tube was made of rubber
and had no connectors on it. This form of endotracheal
tube had a wide proximal portion with a sloping
shoulder leading to a narrow distal tip to prevent the
tube from being advanced too far in the trachea.1 Other
uncuffed endotracheal tubes at the time were of uniform diameter along the entire axis.1 The tube was
thought to be an improvement over the uniform diameter tubes, due to lower resistance to airflow in the
wider lumen. However, there were several adverse
outcomes that directly resulted from the tube’s shoulder, such as impingement on the vocal cords which
could cause laryngeal dilation and postoperative
Fig.3. The Eisenmenger tube with pilot balloons. Adapted
from Gillespie NA. Endotracheal Anaesthesia, Third Edition.
University of Wisconsin Press. 1963.
Rubber Tubes
2
Fig.4. Kühn tube with stylet. Adapted from Brandt L.
Illustrierte Geschichte der Anästhesie. Wissenschaftliche
Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. 1997.
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Fig.5. The Cole tube. Theoretically, it
had a lower resistance to airflow than
uniform diameter tubes. Adapted
from Gillespie NA. Endotracheal
Anaesthesia, Third Edition. University
of Wisconsin Press. 1963.
croup.3 Interestingly, the modern Cole tube with the
same configuration is still popular for intubation of
veterinary patients and still has the narrowing.
In the 1950s, a wide range of uncuffed and cuffed
tubes was available, but all lacked metal connectors
that required attachments.1 Connectors, either straight
or curved, had to be attached, depending on their
intended use. There were two types of connectors, the
Ayres Y-piece and the Ayres T-piece, which used connectors with rubber tubes. They were connected to a
source of oxygen flow and allowed expiratory gas to
escape. There were numerous problems with the connectors, however, such as frequent kinking at the joint
between the connector and the tube, resulting in
obstruction of the tube. As a solution, various devices
were invented to join the connector to the tube without
narrowing the orifice of the tube.
By the 1940s and 1950s, anesthesiologists finally
began to realize the advantages of cuffed tubes and
attempted to add cuffs to existing tubes by hand.
Manual devices with large clamps and other accessories that were inserted into the cuffs to stretch them
were developed. See figure 6 for the Waters cuff apparatus, an extremely complicated example of the
devices of this period.1
Connectors Come Into Practice
To address the difficulty of manually adding cuffs to
existing tubes, the Murphy tube was developed in the
1940s by FJ Murphy.1 His tube came complete with its
own manufactured cuff, a pilot balloon and the infamous Murphy eye. The eye was a side vent between
the cuff and the tip of the endotracheal tube to prevent
tube obstruction if the beveled end of the tube became
blocked by mucus or sealed by contact with the tracheal wall.1 Often, the bevel of the tube was in line with
the curve of the tube and could abut the tracheal wall.
The eye on the tube surface opposite the end hole
allowed ventilation to occur despite occlusion of the
end of the tube. It was also believed that if there was
inadvertent mainstem intubation, the Murphy eye
would allow ventilation of the other side, or in situations of deliberate intubation of the right mainstem
bronchus, allow ventilation of the right upper lobe.1
The Murphy Tube
Manufactured cuffed rubber tubes were developed
in the 1950s and are still in existence.1 They are currently used primarily in laser surgery after wrapping with
metal foil or other non-flammable materials, although
their use has declined in the last decade because of
increasing concern about the prevalence of latex allergy.4,5 These very small tubes came with exceptionally
long cuffs, which made it impossible for them to be
used in infants, in whom it was unlikely to get the
entire cuff below the vocal cords without having a
mainstem intubation.
In 1962, Dr. Brandstater wrote the first description of
the use of plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) endotracheal tubes in the routine intubation of small children.6
Dr. Brandstater felt there needed to be a satisfactory
alternative to the hazards of tracheostomy, which was
the standard of care of patients of that time, but which
was also unfortunately associated with significant
morbidity and mortality in small children. These plastic tubes were developed in 1959 through the work of
David Sheridan, an engineer, and their introduction
helped advance pediatric anesthesiology and critical
care.7 This technique allowed prolonged mechanical
ventilation in children, since the tubes softened at body
temperature and were much less likely to cause subglottic stenosis than their metal or rubber counterparts.
With the development of so many tubes, standardization was imperative. As such, guidelines for endotracheal tube selection in children were published by
Smith in 1959 in Anesthesia for Infants and Children.3
The guidelines recommended using plain Magill
tubes, which lacked the Murphy eye, for children up to
6 years of age. An uncuffed tube was thought to be
more suitable for children ages 8 and younger, because
the narrowest part of the airway of children of that age
was thought to be the subglottic area at the level of the
cricoid ring.
Prior to standardization, there were major discrepancies in tube measurements with tube dimensions
being expressed in either French sizes or inner diameter in millimeters. Finally, in 1960, the American
Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) advocated that
there should be standards for endotracheal tube sizes,
making millimeters the universal unit for internal
Plastic Tubes
3
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Fig. 7. The adult larynx is a cylinder with equal dimensions
at cords and cricoid. The child < 8yo has a conical larynx
with the narrowest portion at the cricoid. The cricoid is a
complete ring.
Adapted from Berry FA. Anesthetic Management of Difficult
and Routine Pediatric Patients, Second Edition. Churchill
Livingstone, New York. 1990.
Fig.6. The Waters cuff application apparatus. Adapted from
Gillespie NA. Endotracheal Anaesthesia, Third Edition.
University of Wisconsin Press. 1963.
diameter. This was codified with the development of
the American Standards Specifications for Anesthetic
Equipment: Endotracheal Tubes in collaboration with
the American Standards Association.1 Further ASA
guidelines stipulated that the tubes should have graduation markings placed from the tip to indicate the
depth of intubation, radiopaque lines throughout the
length of the tube to allow radiographic assessment of
the exact location of the tube, and a standard 15-millimeter connector added to ensure compatibility with
circuit connectors.1
Anatomical dissection of cadavers of children, initiated with Bayeux in 1897 and subsequently spread by
others in the 1950s and 1960s, concluded that the adult
larynx resembles a cylinder with equal dimensions at
the cords and the cricoid.8 They found that children
under the age of 8, however, had a cone-shaped larynx
with the narrowest portion at the cricoid ring. This differs from adults, in whom the vocal cords form the nar-
ADULT LARYNX VS CHILD LARYNX
4
rowest portion of the larynx and trachea, and are the
limiting dimension for determination of appropriate
tube size.9
In 1951, Dr. Eckenhoff advanced Bayeux’s theory by
stating that the tube should be sized according to the
dimensions of the cricoid, since it was the area of vulnerability being the only complete cartilage ring of the
airway (trachea).6 A study based on MRI dimensions of
the airway from cords to the cricoid in sedated, unparalyzed children, by Litman in 2003 found that the narrowest part of the airway, especially in the transverse
diameter, is actually at the cords and subglottis (see fig.
7).10 The transverse diameter of the cricoid was found
to be the widest. The discrepancy in the findings may
be because Litman’s subjects were alive; therefore he
was looking at dynamic dimensions of the airway, as
opposed to the cadaver studies, which were not
dynamic.
The origin of the ideal leak pressure was determined
by case reports using cuffed tubes, which stated that
inserting a ‘too large’ tube was associated with no leak,
especially if left in for an extended period of time,
increased the risk of subglottic injury.11,12 Both animal
and human studies supported this finding and the conclusion was that cuffed tubes with leak pressures > 30
cm of water reduced mucosal blood flow in adults
resulting in ischemia.13
IDEAL LEAK PRESSURE
In 1997, Khine et al published a study, which
observed the performance of cuffed tubes in children
under 8. The author concluded that leak pressure may
not be reproducible among observers, and that complications of long-term intubation occur with both cuffed
RECENT CASE STUDIES
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and uncuffed tubes.14 Koka found that postintubation
croup in children was associated with higher leak pressure.15 A recent study found that leak pressure greater
than 25 cm of water was associated with increased incidence of postoperative stridor.16 These, as well as earlier studies identifying complications of intubation in
children were all done with uncuffed tubes, or with
rubber tubes. On the contrary, recent studies and case
series have yet to find increased adverse events with
modern cuffed tubes.11
References
1. Gillespie NA. Endotracheal Anaesthesia. 3rd ed.
Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press;1963.
2. Brandt L. The history of endotracheal anesthesia, with
special regard to the development of the endotracheal
tube. Anaesthetist. 1986;35:523–530.
3. Smith’s Anesthesia for Infants and Children. 1st ed. 1959.
4. Sosis MB, Braverman B. Advantage of rubber over plastic endotracheal tubes for rapid extubation in a laser fire.
J Clin Laser Med Surg. 1996;14:93–95.
5. Kashima ML, Tunkel DE, Cummings CW. Latex allergy:
an update for the otolaryngologist. Arch Otolaryngol
Head Neck Surg. 2001;127:442–446.
6. Brandstater B. Prolonged intubation: an alternative to
tracheostomy in infants. Proceedings of the First
European Congress of Anesthesiology. Vienna; 1962.
Paper 106.
7. Berry FA, ed. Anesthetic Management of Difficult and
Routine Pediatric Patients. 2nd ed. New York, NY;
Churchill Livingstone:1990.
8. Bayeux. Tubage de larynx dans le croup. Presse Med.
1897;20:1.
9. Eckenhoff JE. Some anatomic considerations of the infant
larynx influencing endotracheal anesthesia.
Anesthesiology. 1951;12:401–410.
10.Litman RS, Weissend EE, Shibata D, Westesson PL.
Developmental changes of laryngeal dimensions in
unparalyzed, sedated children. Anesthesiology.
2003;98:41–45.
11. Hedden M, Ersoz CJ, Donnelly WH, Safar P.
Laryngotracheal damage after prolonged use of orotracheal tubes in adults. JAMA. 1969;207:703–708.
12.Bishop MJ, Weymuller EA, Fink BR. Laryngeal effects of
prolonged intubation. Anesth Analg. 1984;63:335–342.
13.Seegobin RD, van Hasselt GL. Endotracheal cuff pressure
and tracheal mucosal blood flow: endoscopic study of
effects of four large volume cuffs. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed).
1984;288:965–968.
14.Khine HH, Corddry DH, Kettrick RG, et al. Comparison
of cuffed and uncuffed endotracheal tubes in young children during general anesthesia. Anesthesiology.
1997;86:627–631.
15.Koka BV, Jeon IS, Andre JM, Smith RM. Postintubation
croup in children. Anesth Analg. 1977;56:501–505.
16.Suominen P, Taivainen T, Tuominen N, et al. Optimally
fitted tracheal tubes decrease the probability of postextubation adverse events in children undergoing general
anesthesia. Pediatr Anesth. 2006;16:641–647.
5
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Problems with Endotracheal Tubes,
Cuffed vs. Uncuffed
Gavin F. Fine, MBBCh
rior to the 1960s, most children who required prolonged intubation were given tracheotomies, which
was associated with significant morbidity and mortality. However, prolonged endotracheal intubation was
not without its own risks, and the first reports of ETT
blockage and subglottic stenosis started to appear in
the literature.1,2 Since 1966 it has been known that
there are a number of factors to consider when tracheal
intubation is needed in children. The first is the size of
the tube. According to Stocks’ important article published in the British Medical Journal in 1966, “Selection
of an appropriate size of tracheal tube is fundamental
to the success of prolonged nasal intubation in children.”3 This can not be overstated. Stocks knew that an
endotracheal tube (ETT) that was too small would
make intermittent positive pressure ventilation difficult because of gas leaks through the larynx, and one
that was too large could possibly cause subglottic
stenosis.
There are many indications for tracheal intubation
such as airway protection, maintenance of airway
patency, pulmonary toilet, application of positive-pressure ventilation, maintenance of adequate oxygenation, predictable FiO2 and positive end-expiratory
pressure.4 However, endotracheal intubation is not
without its risks.
P
As with many things in medicine, there are risks
associated with endotracheal intubation: Dental
injuries, which vary between 1 in 150 to 1 in 1000 cases,
are the most common; cervical or neck problems;
laryngotracheal trauma; corneal abrasion; uvular damage, vocal cord paralysis; or esophageal or bronchial
intubation. The most serious complication is subglottic
injury, which takes the form of stenosis or dilatation,
and is manifested through stridor. Studies have shown
that between 2–18% of patients will exhibit signs of
stridor post-anesthesia.5,6
RISKS OF INTUBATION
In order to prevent injury and to obtain appropriate
ventilation in an intubated child, a correctly sized ETT is
needed. Multiple age-based formulas have been used to
predict the appropriate size of the uncuffed ETT in the
pediatric population.7-9 For children less than 6 years of
age, Slater et al, recommended using the sum of 3.75 +
age divided by 4; and for children 6 and up, the sum of
4.5 + age divided by 4.7,8 These formulae have since
been simplified into: 4 + age divided by 4. It has been
suggested that for a tighter-fitting tube the base number should be 4.5 + age divided by 4 (see fig. 1).
SIZE OF THE TUBE
Formulas are not perfect. One problem is that ETTs
have different external diameters. Even a fraction of a
millimeter variation in external diameter size may be
consequential in smaller children with smaller diameter airways. A study conducted by King et al in 1993
concluded that in about 97.5% of patients, the agebased formula accurately predicted the correctly sized
ETT. However, the study also determined that the formulas do not take into account the natural variations
between patients and tend to be very inaccurate if the
age of the patient is unknown.9
FORMULAS FOR ENDOTRACHEAL TUBE SELECTION
The “appropriate” size of ETT has been defined as
that size of ETT which allowed an audible air leak
around the ETT occurring between 15 and 25 cm H2O
pressure. In a large retrospective study in 2953 pediatric patients over a 4 year period, Black et al found
that a slight leak around the tube with the application
of 25 cm of pressure to the airway resulted in a less
than 1% incidence of stridor requiring re-intubation.10
We now know that a leak at a pressure greater than 30
cm of water probably predisposes patients to subglottic injury, especially in prolonged intubation. A pressure of less than 15 cm H2O may result in inadequate
ventilation in patients with poor pulmonary compliance from intrinsic lung disease or to changes in chest
wall or abdominal compliance.
LEAK AROUND TUBE
Formulas for Endotracheal Tube Selection
Under 6 years of age
3.75 + age / 4
Over 6 years of age OR for a
tighter-fitting tube
Fig.1. Formulas for Endotracheal Tube Selection
6
4.5 + age / 4
Simplified Formula
4 + age / 4
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In any case, the leak test is unreliable. In 1993,
Schwartz et al conducted a study of 242 patients using
standard conditions for the leak test, defined as 5 liters
of fresh gas flow in neutral head position and neuromuscular blockade. Thirty patients were excluded
because they did not have leaks at a pressure greater
than 50 cm of water. Among the results, a 38% variance
between observers was seen, especially at levels above
30 cm H2O.11
In 2000, Pettignano et al repeated the study to determine reproducibility of the leak test.12 Thirteen patients
were enrolled, personnel were trained for at least an
hour, and standard conditions for the leak test were
used. The study concluded that neither interobserver
nor intraobserver variability was statistically significant when a standardized method was used to determine the leak.12 However, because of the small population studied, the results seem to contradict other studies showing significant intraobserver variance in the
leak test.
RELIABILITY OF LEAK TEST
In addition to variance between observers, the leak
is not a constant and changes depending on patient
positioning and degree of paralysis or sedation.
Finholt’s study conducted in 1985 with 80 patients
between 2 weeks and 11 years of age, intubated with
uncuffed ETTs, found that a patient whose head was in
a neutral position had a smaller leak than if their head
was turned sideways. He also noted that the degree of
paralysis or sedation significantly affected the leak.
However, the leak was not affected by fresh gas flow or
endotracheal tube depth.5
CHANGES IN ENDOTRACHEAL TUBE LEAK
In 2006, Suominen et al, conducted a study in 234
pediatric patients ranging in age from newborn to 9
years, requiring tracheal intubation for elective or
emergency surgery. The tube size was calculated using
a modified Cole formula (age/4 + 4.5). An audible air
leak at 25 cm H2O or below was associated with a significantly lower incidence of stridor (9%) compared
with an absent air leak at the same pressure (19%). This
study concluded that 25 cm H2O is the threshold
where complications begin to arise.13 A separate study
by Mhanna et al, however, concluded that the air leak
test was age dependent as a predictor of stridor in children. The authors found that the test has a low sensitivity when used in children younger than 7, whereas
in children older than 7, the test may predict postextubation stridor.14
IMPORTANCE OF AIR LEAK
Multiple complications may arise if there is a large
leak. Inaccurate measurements of ventilation function,
calorimetry and indirect cardiac output are just a few.
Limiting patients’ and healthcare workers’ exposure to
environmental pollution is a consideration. Lower
COMPLICATIONS OF A LARGE LEAK
fresh gas flow results in less agent being used, which in
turn decreases the cost of drug used for the anesthetic.
It is known that the leak changes with regards to position, sedation and use of neuromuscular blockade and
this may affect the ability to ventilate.4,7
The next logical question is whether the complications can be altered by use of a cuff or uncuffed tracheal tube. It has been widely accepted that uncuffed
endotracheal tubes be used for the intubation of children younger than 8 to 10 years of age.4 The primary
reasoning being that uncuffed endotracheal tubes
allow for use of a tube of larger internal diameter,
which minimizes resistance to airflow and the work of
breathing in the spontaneous-breathing patient. This
advantage is not as valid for maintenance of anesthesia
in the 21st century, when very few patients are allowed
to breathe spontaneously under anesthesia for prolonged periods of time. In the intensive care, patients
often do breathe spontaneously, but with modern ventilators and modern ventilation techniques, the work
of breathing from smaller diameter ETTs can regularly
be overcome. As far back as 1977, a study by Battersby
et al concluded that there was no subglottic stenosis
from proper use of uncuffed endotracheal tubes for
long term intubation.15 Black et al confirmed this thinking in a 1990 study published in the British Journal of
Anaesthesia.10
Black et al’s study included 2953 pediatric intensive
care admissions over a 4-year period. The overall complication rate was 8%. Endotracheal tube blockage
occurred in about 2.6 % of the patients. Of note, 80% of
these occurred in patients who had an internal diameter less than 3.5. A study by Newth et al in 2004
showed that the incidence of ETT blockage is greater in
patients that go to the operating room when the internal diameter of the tube is less than 4 mm than in those
that stay in a unit with proper humidification of gases.
Stridor occurred in less than 1% of the patients, with 14
having had preexisting laryngeal pathology (leak test
less than 25 cm H20).16
Deakers et al studied 243 patients in a pediatric
intensive care unit during a 7-month period to compare cuffed and uncuffed endotracheal tube utilization
and outcome.17 Patients who were less than 1 year of
age, or who had tubes in place for less than 72 hours
were more likely to have had insertion of an uncuffed
endotracheal tube. Patients who were more than 5
years of age or for whom long term intubation was
expected, were more likely to have an insertion of a
cuffed ETT. Inflation pressures were kept to less than
25 cm of water. The overall incidence of postextubation
stridor was 14.9%, with no significant difference
between the 2 ETT groups even after controlling for
patient age, duration of intubation, trauma, leak
around ETT before extubation, and pediatric risk of
mortality score.
Newth et al studied 597 patients (210, cuffed; 387
7
CUFFED OR UNCUFFED ENDOTRACHEAL TUBES
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uncuffed) in the first 5 years of life using an age-based
formula. They found no difference in clinically detected subglottic edema between the 2 groups. The authors
even went as far to state that cuffed tubes should be the
first-line choice in critically ill patients. In the anesthesia literature, there are no reports of subglottic stenosis
from short-term intubation irrespective of tube size or
cuff pressure, and the incidence of stridor seems to be
similar among cuff and uncuffed tubes.16
There have been several studies done to determine
the need for changing from an uncuffed endotracheal
tube to a cuffed one in the pediatric population. Most
studies seem to conclude that there are more advantages associated with the use of cuffed tubes as
opposed to uncuffed ones. In a 488-patient study conducted by Khine et al, they determined that cuffed
tubes provided both an environmental benefit—
decreasing operating room contamination, as well as
an economic one—requiring lower fresh gas flow over
uncuffed endotracheal tubes in children between the
ages of 2 weeks to 8 years.18 In addition, Murat’s study
supports this significant drop in operating room pollution with the simple change to cuffed endotracheal
tubes.19
Fine et al studied 20 patients in 3 age groups and
found there was less chance at reintubation and laryngoscopy with cuffed tubes. By decreasing the number
of laryngoscopies, one directly decreases the chance of
causing trauma to the upper airway. It was also concluded that there was less incidence of hypoventilation
if 200 mL per minute per kilo of fresh gas flow was
used.20
Silver et al conducted a multicenter study in burn
units and determined that in these large pediatric burn
centers there was a preference for cuffed endotracheal
tubes. With significant burns, more patients were likely to be changed from uncuffed to cuffed ETT especially if there was lung injury.21
In an aspiration study, Browning and Graves compared cuffed to uncuffed tubes in 22 children (9 cuffed;
13 uncuffed). Their study showed that 11% of cuffed
patients exhibited dye positive tracheal aspirates not
affected by PEEP, compared to 70% of uncuffed
patients.22 Goitein et al with 50 infants using uncuffed
endotracheal tubes found an 8% incidence of clinically
significant aspirations.23
There are several case reports of retrograde leak of
ventilating gases, especially oxygen, during electrocautery in tonsillectomies where the polyvinyl tubes
have caught fire. All of these case reports were in
uncuffed endotracheal tubes.24-26
In conclusion, the literature suggests that the benefits of cuffed tubes include: decreased attempts at intubation; less OR contamination anesthetic gases; less
ICU contamination (from droplet spread of
pathogens); less chance of hypoventilation; better
patient ventilatory management with more accurate
ADVANTAGES OF CUFFED TUBES
8
•
•
•
•
Decreased attempts at intubation
Less OR and ICU contamination
Less risk of hypoventilation
Better patient management and changes in
pulmonary compliance
• Decreased incidence of aspiration
• Less risk of airway fires
• More accurate ETCO2 monitoring
Advantages of Cuffed Tubes
Fig.2. Advantages of cuffed endotracheal tubes
end tidal CO2 monitoring especially in patients with
changes in pulmonary compliance; decreased risk of
aspiration and decreased incidence of airway fires (see
fig. 2). These factors speak for themselves as to the
advantages of cuffed over uncuffed ETTs.
Endotracheal tube length, like size, is dependent on
the age and size of the individual child. There are formulas that confirm successful placement, but mostly
this applies to children older than 2 years of age.
Auscultation is always a method for correct endotracheal depth placement. However, in a study conducted
by Verghese et al, where they did 153 intubations in the
cardiac catheterization lab, auscultation did not detect
proper placement in 11.8% of the patients who had a
right mainstem intubation. In 19% of the patients, they
were within one centimeter of the carina. All of these
patients were less than 5 years of age, and they attributed this to the Murphy’s eye, which reduces the reliability of chest auscultation in detecting endobronchial
intubation.27
To establish correct depth, the only 100% certain
method is via radiologic confirmation, but that would
expose children to unnecessary radiation. Similarly,
Hsieh et al showed that the Murphy’s eye could cause
confusion during ultrasounds of the diaphragm.28
Palpitation of the endotracheal tip above the sternal
notch was advocated in 1975 by Bednarek et al,29 but I
find that most children have thick necks, making palpitation difficult.
ENDOTRACHEAL DEPTH PLACEMENT
As anesthesiologists, we very rarely let children
breathe under anesthesia spontaneously for prolonged
periods of time. In fact, a study by Bock et al in Chest,
showed that new mechanical ventilators are so good
they can overcome the work of resistance irrespective
of endotracheal tube internal diameter.30
WORK OF BREATHING
There are exciting product developments currently
being studied that will facilitate endotracheal intubation. These include an ultrathin-walled endotracheal
THE FUTURE OF ENDOTRACHEAL TUBES
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tube as described by Okhuysen, a no-pressure seal
design used by Reali-Forster, and the thinner, more
distensible cuffed tube, Microcuff, which was specifically designed for the pediatric anatomy.31,32 This tube
employs a short cylindrical microthin polyurethane
cuff that helps secure placement in the lower trachea
(not the pressure-sensitive larynx), depth markings to
ensure a cuff-free subglottic zone, and four pre-glottic
placement markings. Having been developed and
thoroughly studied by Dullenkopf, Gerber, and Weiss,
this tube may very well represent a new standard for
pediatric airway management.
1. McDonald IH, Stocks JG. Prolonged endotracheal intubation: a review of its development in a paediatric hospital. Br J Anaesth. 1965;37:161–173.
2. Allen TH, Steven IM. Prolonged endotracheal intubation
in infants and children. Br J Anaesth. 1965;37:566–573.
3. Stocks JG. Prolonged intubation and subglottic stenosis.
BMJ. 1996;2:1199–1200.
4. Fine GF, Borland LM. The future of the cuffed endotracheal tube. Paediatr Anaesth. 2004;14:38–42.
5. Finholt DA, Henry DB, Raphaely RC. Factors affecting
leak around tracheal tubes in children. Can Aneasth Soc
J. 1985;32:326–329.
6. Wiel E, Vilette B, Darras JA, Scherpereel P, Leclerc F.
Laryngotracheal stenosis in children after intubation.
Report of five cases. Paediatr Anaesth. 1997;7:415-419.
7. Slater HM, Sheridan CA, Ferguson RH. Endotracheal
tube sizes for infants and children. Anesthesiology.
1955;16:950–952.
8. Cole F. Pediatric formulas for the anaesthesiologists. Am
J Dis Child. 1957;94: 672–673.
9. King BR, Baker MD, Braitman LE, Seidl-Friedman J,
Schreiner MS. Endotracheal tube selection in children: a
comparison of four methods. Ann Emerg Med.
1993;22:530–534.
10.Black AE, Hatch DJ, Nauth-Misir N. Complications of
nasotracheal intubation in neonates, infants and children:
a review of 4 years’ experience in a children’s hospital.
Br J Anaesth. 1990;65:461–467.
11. Schwartz RE, Stayer SA, Pasquariello CA. Tracheal tube
leak test-is there inter-observer agreement? Can J
Anaesth. 1993;40:1049–1052.
12.Pettignano R, Holloway SE, Hyman D, Labuz M. Is the
leak test reproducible? South Med J. 2000;93:683–685.
13.Suominen P, Taivainen T, Tuominen N et al. Optimally
fitted endotracheal tubes decrease the probability of postextubation adverse events in children undergoing general anesthesia. Pediatr Anesth. 2006;16:641–647.
14.Mhanna MJ, Zamel YB, Tichy CM, Super DM. The air
leak test around the endotracheal tube, as a predictor of
postextubation stridor, is age dependent in children. Crit
Care Med. 2002;30:2639–2643.
15.Battersby EF, Hatch DJ, Towey RM. The effects of prolonged naso-endotracheal intubation in children. A study
in infants and young children after cardiopulmonary
bypass. Anaesthesia. 1977;32:154–157.
References
16.Newth CJ, Rachman B, Patel N, Hammer J. The use of
cuffed versus uncuffed endotracheal tubes in pediatric
intensive care. J Pediatr. 2004;144:333–337.
17.Deakers TW, Reynolds G, Stretton M, Newth CJ. Cuffed
endotracheal tubes in pediatric intensive care. J Pediatr.
1994;125:57–62.
18.Khine HH, Corddry DH, Kettrick RG et al. Comparison
of cuffed and uncuffed endotracheal tubes in young children during general anesthesia. Anesthesiology.
1997;86:627–631.
19.Murat I. Cuffed tubes in children: a 3-year experience in
a single institution. Paediatr Anaesth. 2001;11:748–749.
20.Fine GF, Fertal K, Motoyama EK. The effectiveness of
controlled ventilation using cuffed versus uncuffed ETT
in infants. Anesthesiology. 2000;A-1251.
21.Silver GM, Freiburg C, Halerz M, Tojong J, Supple K,
Gamelli RL. A survey of airway and ventilator management strategies in north American pediatric burn units. J
Burn Care Rehabil. 2004;25:435-440.
22.Browning DH, Graves SA. Incidence of aspiration with
endotracheal tubes in children. J Pediatr.
1983;102:582–584.
23.Goitein KJ, Rein AJ, Gornstein A. Incidence of aspiration
in endotracheally intubated infants and children. Crit
Care Med. 1984;12:19–21.
24.Kaddoum RN, Chidiac EJ, Zestos MM, Ahnmed Z.
Electrocautery-induced fire during adenotonsillectomy:
report of two cases. J Clin Anesth. 2006;18:129-131.
25.Keller C, Elliott W, Hubbell RN. Endotracheal tube safety
during electrodissection tonsillectomy. Arch Otolaryngol
Head Neck Surg. 1992;118:643-645.
26.Aly A, McIlwain M, Duncavage JA. Electrosurgeryinduced endotracheal tube ignition during tracheotomy.
Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1991;100:31-33.
27.Verghese ST, Raafat SH, Slack MC, Cross RR, Patel KM.
Auscultation of bilateral breath sounds does not rule out
endobronchial intubation in children. Anesth Analg.
2004;99:56–58.
28.Hsieh KS, Lee CL, Lin CC et al. Secondary confirmation
of endotracheal tube position by ultrasound image. Crit
Care Med. 2004;32:S374–S377.
29.Bednarek FJ, Kuhns LR. Endotracheal tube placement in
infants determined by suprasternal palpation: a new
technique. Pediatrics. 1975;56:224–229.
30.Bock KR, Silver P, Rom M, Sagy M. Reduction in tracheal
lumen due to endotracheal intubation and its calculated
clinical significance. Chest. 2000;118:468–472.
31.Okhuysen RS, Bristow F, Burkhead S, Kolobow T, Lally
KP. Evaluation of a new thin-walled endotracheal tube
for use in children. Chest. 1996;109:1335–1338.
32.Reali-Forster C, Kolobow T, Giacomini M, Hayashi T,
Horiba K, Ferrans VJ. New ultrathin-walled endotracheal
tube with a novel laryngeal seal design. Long-term evaluation in sheep. Anesthesiology. 1996;84:162–172.
9
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Microcuff Pediatric Tube:
Now Anesthesiologists Can Use Cuffed
Endotracheal Tubes in Children
Andreas C. Gerber, MD
ncuffed endotracheal tubes have been the norm in
the pediatric population for 50 years and are still widely used today.1 As a result pediatric anesthesiologists
are accustomed to this means of intubating and ventilating children.2 Switching to cuffed endotracheal
tubes may not seem like a necessary choice considering
the success and widespread use of uncuffed ones,
however, as this article will point out, there’s much to
be gained from using cuffed endotracheal tubes.
U
The endotracheal tube is the link between our most
expensive and our most sophisticated object, our anesthesia machine, and our most delicate and most precious
subject, our pediatric patients. This vital link should
fulfill 2 requirements: 1) it should be precise, consistent
and reliable, and 2) it should be leak proof and never
damage the airway.1 The leak proof aspect of the endotracheal tube is necessary in order to efficiently
exchange gases and vapors, to transmit precise pressures, to monitor respiratory and anesthetic gases, and
to protect against the aspiration of fluids.2 While
achieving these things, the tube must simultaneously
not obstruct mucosal perfusion or cause direct mechanical trauma to the airway. The traditional method of
obtaining such acceptable leak tightness in uncuffed
endotracheal tubes is through cricoidal sealing.1
VITAL LINK
The key to securing acceptable sealing with
uncuffed tubes is by matching the diameter of the
endotracheal tube to the diameter of the cricoid ring.1
Getting this right, of course, is the challenge. If a tube
is too small, unreliable ventilation, unreliable monitoring, and risk of aspiration are high. If a tube is too
large, mucosal compression and mechanical trauma
will occur.1 Having a very small, mandatory leak that
does not interfere with precise ventilation may, to a
certain extent, guarantee that the tube is not too big. As
is evident, selection of the right tube size is paramount,
but it is not an easy task in cricoidal sealing. Despite
formulas that help calculate the size of uncuffed endotracheal tubes, up to 30% of the tubes have to be
exchanged due to incorrect size.3-5
MRI dimensions of the airway from cords to the cricoid
in sedated, unparalyzed children provided new insight
into the structure and size of the larynx in children.6
Litman’s findings produced evidence that this region
in children is not funnel-shaped or circular, but rather
an ellipsoidal structure. This explains why matching
the circular structure of the tube to the non-circular
portion of the larynx is difficult to accomplish with
uncuffed endotracheal tubes.1 The more accurate and
logical approach is to employ tracheal sealing, via a
cuff, which can accommodate different sizes and
shapes. This allows the pressure that is exerted by the
cuff on the tracheal wall, which is slightly distensible,
to be measured and adjusted as needed. Through tracheal sealing, a properly sealed airway is achieved,
permitting precise ventilation and monitoring, and
protection against aspiration1 (see figures 1&2).
Not surprisingly, along with the gains cuffed endotracheal tubes offer, some also have flaws and/or
shortcomings. Many commercially available pediatric
cuffed endotracheal tubes are poorly designed and
have limitations with the outer diameter, cuff position,
SHORTCOMINGS OF THE CUFFED TUBE
CRICOIDAL SEALING WITH UNCUFFED TUBES
The lack of success in calculating the size of the
uncuffed endotracheal tube is directly attributed to
anatomy. A study in 2003, by Ronald Litman, based on
10
TRACHEAL SEALING WITH CUFFED TUBES
Fig.1. Cricoidal sealing with an uncuffed tube
Fig.2. Tracheal sealing with a cuffed tube. Airway sealing
characteristics of cuffed and uncuffed tubes. As this illustration shows, when properly placed, cuffed tubes do not
interfere with the cricoid or glottis and form a controllable
sealed airway.
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Fig.3. Not every cuffed tube is good. A wide variety of cuffed ID 5.0 mm and uncuffed ID 5.5 mm tubes are shown. The line
indicates how far these tubes should be introduced into the larynx. It is obvious that many of these tubes won’t fit well. They
will either sit on the carina or the main bronchus if inserted according to the depth marks or they will occupy the whole
larynx and exert pressure in the cricoid ring because they are too long.
Adapted from Weiss et al. Shortcomings of cuffed paediatric tracheal tubes. British Journal of Anaesthesia. 2004.
cuff diameter and depth markings.7 Since endotracheal
tubes are chosen according to internal diameter, the
differences in outer tube diameters, more often than
not, go unnoticed. This may lead to the use of oversized, ill-fitting tubes, which can cause damage to the
subglottis.7 In addition many endotracheal tube cuffs
require inflation to a high pressure for sealing.
Presently, there is no data about cuff pressure limits in
children; in adults acceptable cuff pressure is 25–30 cm
H2O.8 Accordingly cuff pressures in children should be
≤ 20 cm H2O In many cuffed tubes, the upper border
of the cuff corresponds to the upper border of the
depth marking of the next larger sized uncuffed endotracheal tube. The reduced margin of safety with
regard to endobronchial intubation of cuffed endotracheal tubes, even with the cuff placed within the larynx, is a serious problem with current cuffed tubes.
Not all cuffed tubes have depth markings, and in the
ones that do have them, the distances from depth
markings to tube tip are greater than the age-related
minimal tracheal length9 (see fig. 3). A satisfactory
cuffed tube size in children depends on the size of both
the outer tube and cuff diameter with sealing pressure
at less than 20 cm H2O.10
Ideally a cuffed pediatric tracheal tube should be
designed to accommodate a high-volume low-pressure
cuff with a short cuff length. It should have the following attributes:
• The cuff should be located below the cricoid ring,
at the level of the tracheal cartilages, which are able
to expand.7
• The tube must not be intra-laryngeal, which can
cause vocal cord palsy; the length of the cuff and
the presence of a Murphy eye are important determinants of final upper cuff position in cuffed pediatric tracheal tubes.7
• Adequate depth markings are needed to guarantee
a cuff position below the cricoid and a tip far
enough above the tracheal carina.7
• Importantly, a good tube has correct depth marking.
• Verified recommendations for using the correct tube.
IDEAL PEDIATRIC CUFFED TRACHEAL TUBES
Reliable depth markings are a must to position a
tube correctly.9 If it is placed according to the depth
mark, then the tip of this tube must lie somewhere in
the middle part of the trachea, such that there is a wide
enough margin of safety. For example, if the head is
extended, the tip of the tube will move cranially, but
the cuff should still be below the larynx. The tube will
travel caudally when the head is flexed, but nonetheless
the tip should not reach the carina.
Recently, our group assisted the development of a
new cuffed pediatric tube, the Microcuff pediatric tube.
This tube employs a patented cuff capable of sealing at
very low pressures.10
A CORRECTLY SIZED TUBE ELIMINATES THE NEED
FOR FORMULAS
In our institution our goals were to have a sealed
airway at low cuff pressures, a low tube exchange rate,
and to move away from the various sizing formulas,
which really only represent a best guess.9 In reviewing
the literature, my colleague, Markus Weiss considered
the available radiological and anatomical data about
the pediatric airway and carefully calculated the age
specific dimensions for an ideal cuffed pediatric tube.
We used a modified version of the Cole formula as our
basis for the tube size selection.7 In our experience, the
3.5 mm tube can fit children as young as eight months.7
(See figure 4).
Fig.4. Illustration of the calculated tube dimensions in case
of a 1 year old child (ID 3.5 mm). The shortest tracheal
length in this age group is 43 mm corresponding to 100 %.
The tip of a tube inserted 27mm into the trachea would be
at 63% of tracheal length.
11
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We feel strongly that there is no need for a Murphy
eye, as it makes the tracheal part of the tube unnecessarily long. Using a correct depth mark will ensure that
the tube will not encroach on the carina.10 That is better
than hoping that a Murphy eye will still allow bilateral ventilation if the tube is too deep.9
Correct insertion depth is critical for cuffed tubes, so
we ensured that Microcuff employ a clear mark. This
mark must be situated between the vocal cords and the
4 “alerting bars”, helps ensure correct positioning
when a perfect view of the glottis cannot be obtained,
or when a tube is initially inserted too deep.9
Instead of various formulas for tube selection, we
decided on explicate size recommendations. This sizing chart is provided with all Microcuff packages.
MICROCUFF DEPTH AND SIZE RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommended Size Selecton
Fig.4 continued: In all age groups, there must be a cuff-free
subglottic zone (blue bars). The burgundy bars represent
the region of the cuff. The end of the yellow bar is the tip of
the tube in neutral head position. The tip will move downward towards the carina with flexion of the head, but
should not go further than the green bars. The dark uppermost columns represent the margin of safety so the tube is
never situated on the carina or in the main bronchus.
Tube Size
I.D.
3.0 mm
3.5 mm
Age/Weight
Years/kg
term/≥ 3kg – 8 months
4.0 mm
4.5 mm
5.0 mm
5.5 mm
8 months – 2 years
2 – 4 years
4 – 6 years
6 – 8 years
8 –10 years
6.0 mm
10 – 12 years
7.0 mm
14 – 16 years
6.5 mm
Fig.6. Microcuff Sizing Chart
12 – 14 years
To ensure that the Microcuff tube fulfills our expectations, we have so far conducted 7 studies with over
1000 patients and have confirmed that Microcuff fits
and performs well.
The most important study was published in Acta
Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica and included 500
patients from neonates up to 16 years of age. In almost
all patients (98.4 %), Microcuff fit well.10 We also found
that the depth marks and dimensions were correct. The
tube was too large in only 8 out of 500 patients and was
never found to be too small.10 This was expected since
a cuffed tube can accommodate various sizes and
shapes of the airway. When the tubes were inserted
according to the depths markings on the tube, all the
tubes were within a safe tracheal range, and the cuff
was situated safely below the cricoid with flexion and
extension of the head.9 This was confirmed with endoscopic and radiological studies. We found the tube tips
STUDIES WITH MICROCUFF PEDIATRIC TUBE
Fig.5. Photograph depicting the clear depth marks on the
Pediatric Microcuff Endotracheal Tube to ensure correct
positioning.
12
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were correctly placed in the middle of
the trachea, between the vocal cords and
the carina and that there was an adequate margin of safety when the head is
flexed or extended. No tube became
located endobronchially and there was
no accidental extubation with head
extension.
The Microcuff seal is clearly exceptional. Made of ultra thin polyurethane,
the cuff fills the gap between tube and
tracheal wall without folds and channels.10 It virtually drapes and clings to
the wet mucosa similar to the way household plastic wrap clings to meat. This
attribute results in better sealing at lower Fig.8. Adapted from Dullenkopf A, Gerber AC, Weiss M. Fit and seal characpressures compared to PVC.10 In addi- teristics of a new paediatric tracheal tube with high volume-low pressure
tion, leaking does not occur between the polyurethane cuff. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2005.
cuff and the wall, as one would imagine,
Another cause is multiple intubations. Comparing the
but through the cuff itself, as illustrated when the
cuffed tube is inserted into a glass tube (see fig. 7).
incidence of postintubation croup is difficult because
We also confirmed this excellent sealing in vivo. In
of variable definitions. As such, we measured postintufigure 8 we see the cuff pressures required in our 500bation stridor, a clinical surrogate symptom for early
patient study. The mean pressure was around 10 cm of
airway damage.
water.10
In our studies, we have found postintubation striIn figure 9 we have in vivo cuff pressures of various
dor
in 1.8% of patients, with 2 patients needing epiwell-known endotracheal tubes. Again the Microcuff
nephrine inhalation.10 This incidence is comparable to
sealed at a mean pressure of 10 cm of water, whereas
the work of Khine, who in 1997 found an incidence of
the other tubes required mean cuff pressures of 20 and
35 cm of water.11
2.4% with cuffed tubes and 2.9% for uncuffed tubes.3 In
an older, large retrospective study (n=7875) from Koka
WITH MICROCUFF PEDIATRIC TUBE THERE IS A LOW
conducted in 1977, the overall incidence of postintubaINCIDENCE OF STRIDOR
tion croup was 1%; the incidence in patients 1 to 4
The main concern is for the cuffed tube not to cause
years of age was 5%.12 And in a separate study by
airway damage, and we found that Microcuff had a
Newth in 2004 on intensive care patients with longer
low incidence of stridor.10 We know that severe subduration of intubation, an incidence of 4.8 % with
glottic swelling results either from inadequate perfucuffed and 6.9% with uncuffed tubes was found.13
sion or mechanical trauma by tubes that are too large.
THE MICROCUFF SEAL
Fig.7. As these CT scans illustrate, contrast dye leaks through the unnamed cuff through folds
and cracks. There is no leaking through the Microcuff because there are no such folds.
13
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Sealing Characteristics
in infants and children. Likewise, Dr.
Golden of the Society for Pediatric
Anesthesia (SPA) has also stated in an
SPA newsletter that cuffed tubes are
suitable as an alternative from size 4.0
mm on, and that they are actually
preferred in patients at risk for
pulmonary aspiration, those with low
lung compliance (including laparoscopy, thoracoscopy, cardio-pulmonary
bypass) and in whom precise ventilation and CO2 control is important.
Using uncuffed tubes in children
up to 8 years of age has been the paradigm for the last 50 years. With
uncuffed tubes a sealed airway can
only be obtained with an oversized
Fig.9. Adapted from Dullenkopf A, Schmitz A, Gerber AC, Weiss M. Tracheal
tube. The recommendation to use a
sealing characteristics of pediatric cuffed tracheal tube. Pediatr Anesth. 2004.
tube which fits snugly through the
In our department, we’ve been using cuffed tubes in
cricoid ring with a slight air leak at 20 cm of inflation
children regularly for 5 years, which comes to over
pressure allows acceptable ventilation and monitoring.
15,000 patients. We have not seen any long term morHowever, a high tube exchange rate is unavoidable
bidity in our patients. This was confirmed by Prof.
due to variations of size and shape of the airway and
Isabelle Murat from Paris who has even more experidue to the fact that a circular tube does not fit ideally
ence with cuffed tubes.14
into the ellipsoidal cricoid cartilage. Tracheal sealing
with a cuffed tube is a much more logical way of
MONITORING CUFF PRESSURE MUST BECOME ROUTINE
obtaining a leak proof link between the anesthesia
The results we have obtained with cuffed tubes are
machine and the patient. The gap between a delibervery reassuring, but there is one very important point.
ately smaller tube and the trachea is filled by a cuff
Cuffed tubes should only be used in children if the
inflated to a cuff pressure ≤ 20 cm H2O. The new
commitment is made to control cuff pressure. As anesMicrocuff pediatric tube has been designed and tested
thesiologists, we spend more time than we care to
to fit the dimensions of the pediatric airway, to seal at
think about measuring. We measure blood pressure,
cuff pressures below 20 cm H2O and to allow precise
central venous pressure, atrial and pulmonary prespositioning due to clear and correct depth markings.
sure, gas pressure, and cerebral perfusion pressure.
With such an endotracheal tube pediatric anesthesioloNow, we just have to include cuff pressure into our
gists can safely switch to cuffed tubes in infants and
pressure routine. Cuff pressure can be measured and
small children.
controlled with a simple manometer or with an elecReferences
tronic cuff regulator, which is what we use on all our
1. Weiss M, Gerber AC. Cuffed tracheal tubes in children –
anesthesia machines.10
CONCLUSION
MICROCUFF — A NEW ERA IN PEDIATRIC AIRWAY
MANAGEMENT
For more definitive proof, Microcuff pediatric endotracheal tube is currently undergoing a large, prospective, randomized, controlled study in 24 European centers. The goal is to enroll 5000 pediatric patients, from
neonates up to 5 years of age, corresponding to tubes
from ID 3.0 to 4.5 mm. The study should be completed in 2007. However, for cuffed tubes to be routinely
used not only is a large prospective study needed, clinical standards and textbook recommendations must
also change. Such a change has already begun.
The American Heart Association (AHA) and the
International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation
(ILCOR) state in their guidelines for pediatric resuscitations that the use of cuffed tubes in infants and children is now an accepted alternative to uncuffed tubes
14
things have changed. Pediatr Anesth. 2006;16:1005–1007.
2. Fine GF, Borland LM. The future of the cuffed endotracheal tube. Pediatr Anesth. 2004;14:38–42.
3. Khine HH, Corddry DH, Kettrick RG, et al. Comparison
of cuffed and uncuffed endotracheal tubes in young children during general anesthesia. Anesthesiology.
1997;86:627-631.
4. Mukubo Y, Iwai S, Suzuki G. Practical method for the
selection of optimal endotracheal tube size in pediatric
anesthesia. Kobe J Med Sci. 1978;24:77-85.
5. Mostafa SM. Variation in subglottic size in children. Proc
R Soc Med. 1976;69:793-795.
6. Litman RS, Weissend EE, Shibata D, Westesson PL.
Developmental changes of laryngeal dimensions in
unparalyzed, sedated children. Anesthesiology.
2003;98:41-45.
7. Weiss M, Dullenkopf C, Gysin C, Dillier CM, Gerber AC.
Shortcomings of cuffed paediatric tracheal tubes. Br J
Anaesth. 2004;92:78-88.
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8. Seegobin RD, van Hasselt GL. Endotracheal cuff pressure
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