Groundwater in Asia Groundwater
in Asia
‐ challenges and opportunities ‐
Yatsuka Kataoka
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)
Pre‐workshop
Pre
workshop of APWF Regional Knowledghub
of APWF Regional Knowledghub for for
Groundwater Management
1 June 2011
What is IGES?
What is IGES?
 A strategic policy research institute established in March 1998, with the support of the Japanese Government
 Headquarters: Hayama, Kanagawa Japan
 3 branch offices in Japan (Tokyo, Kobe, and Kitakyusyu)
 2 branch offices outside of Japan: Bangkok and Beijing
(
g
 Staff number: about 100 (including administrative staff)
2
Our Mission
Our Mission
• The mission of IGES is to propose policies p p
p
and institutional frameworks that aim to create a new type of environmentally sound and socially equitable society. • SScope of work: f
k
Sustainable development issues in the Asia Pacific a region experiencing
in the Asia‐Pacific, a region experiencing rapid growth in industrial activity and p p
population, with serious implications for ,
p
the future global environment. 3
Research Groups
Adaptation
Forest Conservation
Freshwater
Business and Environment
Climate Policy
Market Mechanism
(CDM)
Sustainable Consumption and Production
Cross‐cutting Issues (Project M
Management Office)
Offi )
Economy & Environment
Economy & Environment Governance & Capacity
Capacity 4
IGES Groundwater Study
1. Sustainable Water Management Policy Study (SWMP)
• Started in 2005
Started in 2005
1st phase (April 2005 – March 2007), focus on quantity
2nd phase (April 2007 –
phase (April 2007 – March 2010), focus on quality
March 2010) focus on quality
• Geographical focus: urban areas, Asia
• Methodology: Case studies on overall groundwater Methodology: Case studies on overall groundwater
management issues (6 cities in 5 countries* & Japanese cases)
* China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam
2. Quick Study of Water Resources Management in Mewat District, India (2010) ,
(
)
3. Field study of arsenic contamination in Cambodia (2010)
Research Network of IGES for Groundwater Studies (example of SWMP study)
(example of SWMP study)
Asia Pacific Water Knowledge Hub on Groundwater
Asia‐Pacific Water Knowledge Hub on Groundwater
IGES is a member of the Water Knowledge Hub Network for Asia‐Pacific Water Forum (APWF), being in charge of groundwater management. Extensive comparative studies on groundwater management would start under
Extensive comparative studies on groundwater management would start under the hub in the near future. Water Knowledge Hub Network:
‐ Officially launched in June 2008
‐ Network of hub
Network of hub‐organisations
organisations on specific areas on specific areas
such as flood management, water quality, basin management, etc.
e ubs s a co abo ate to ge e ate a d s a e
‐ The hubs shall collaborate to generate and share knowledge and develop capacity.
‐ Each hub‐organisation is expected to be a center of p
g
y
excellence committed to improving water security in the Asia‐Pacific region by promoting knowledge sharing and championing feasible solutions for its priority water topic. Approved knowledge‐hub organizations
Today’ss Contents
Today
Contents
• Overview of Groundwater Use in the world
Overview of Groundwater Use in the world
• Characteristics
Characteristics of Groundwater
of Groundwater
‐ general characteristics of groundwater
‐ the importance of groundwater for the development
p
g
p
• Groundwater Use and Management in Japan
g
p
(Osaka’s case)
• Groundwater Use and Management in Asian Cities
• Future challenges and action areas
Water is Finite Resources
Water is Finite Resources
Freshwater
3%
 We depend on less than 3 % of global freshwater.
p
g
 Water demand has been rapidly increased since mid‐
1950s in the world, especially in Asia. Salt Water
97%
Rivers/Lakes
(
(0.3%)
)
Groundwater
(29.9%)
Glaciers and Permanent Ice Cap
(69.8%)
UNEP Vital Water Graphics (http://www.unep.org/dewa/vitalwater/article42.html) 9
General characteristics of groundwater
g
 Convenient to use
Convenient to use
‐ high accessibility
‐ lower cost of development ‐ good and stable quality
d d bl
li
‐ stability of temperature
bili
f
‐ slow speed of recharge (more reliable resource in drought)
 The share of groundwater in world water use is about 20%. Th h
The share is increasing especially i i
i
i ll
in dry areas. (World Development Report 3)
 Groundwater in urban context
GW is used from the beginning of urban development
urban development. Correlation between regional GDP (RGDP) and Estimated Groundwater use in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (source: IGES 2007)
10
Groundwater ‐ for irrigation
g
(Source: UN World Water Development Report 3)
Globally, groundwater provides about 17 % of water use in irrigation (World Water Development Report 3).
In Asia and the Pacific, groundwater also serves as a major source of irrigation water: ‐ 60% of the total agricultural water use in India (World Bank)
‐ 70% of total agriculture water supply Hebei provinces, China
11
Groundwater ‐ for drinking water
g
(UN World Water Development Report 3)
 A
According to an estimation, globally groundwater provides 50% of current di
i
i
l b ll
d
id 50% f
potable water supplies. (IWMI 2007. Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management is available)
 In Asia and the Pacific, groundwater provides drinking water to nearly 32% of population.
 53% of Cambodian households drink from groundwater sources in the dry 53% of Cambodian households drink from groundwater sources in the dry
season (Presentation of Dr. Mao Saray, Ministry of Rural Development, Cambodia)
12
Management Difficulties of Groundwater
Management Difficulties of Groundwater
‐ Groundwater
Groundwater is an open access resource in many is an open access resource in many
areas in the region (tragedy of commons?)
‐ People (users) cannot see the resource and therefore it is difficult for them to know the status h f
i i diffi l f h
k
h
of the resources
‐ Groundwater use is decentrlised in general (individual use) G
Groundwater use and management in Japan
d t
d
ti J
3/year
• A
Annual Groundwater Use (2006): 12.32 billion m
lG
d t U (2006) 12 32 billi
/
• 25% of total urban water use (domestic + industrial use)
(
)
Aquaculture
10%
Construction
5%
Industry
30%
Agriculture
27%
Domestic
28%
Usage of Groundwater (2006)
(d t
(data source: “Nippon no Mizu Shigen H.21)
“Ni
Mi Shi
H 21)
G
Groundwater Management in Japan (1)
d t M
ti J
(1)
 No comprehensive laws on groundwater
N
h i l
d t
 No statutory statement of groundwater property/user rights. N
f
d
/
i h
Generally, groundwater is recognised
G
ll
d t i
i d as the private domain.
th
i t d
i
However, it is widely recognised that groundwater users should use the resource without harming others’ benefits
should use the resource without harming others’ benefits. G
Groundwater Management in Japan (2)
d t M
ti J
(2)
 Regulations
Regulations of groundwater abstraction started as a measure to mitigate land of groundwater abstraction started as a measure to mitigate land
subsidence that was observed in Japan during 1950 – 70s. National Laws related to groundwater use = Restriction of groundwater abstraction (by large users such as industry) in d i
designated areas in which severe land subsidence is (was) observed. d
i hi h
l d b id
i (
) b
d
 Industrial Water Law Industrial Water Law
 Building Water Law
 Environmental standard of groundwater quality was established in 1997, which aims to protect human health from human‐induced pollution. hi h i t
t th
h lth f
h
i d d ll ti
G
Groundwater Management –
d t M
t Osaka City’s case
O k Cit ’
Most of the city is on lowlands on the Osaka Plain located on an alluvial Most
of the city is on lowlands on the Osaka Plain located on an alluvial
formation with rather soft ground, consisting of cohesive soil and sandy soil. Surface water is the main source of drinking water, and groundwater was used mainly as the source of as sed mainl as the so rce of
industrial water since the early 1890s. (IGES 2007)
Land subsidence was observed in Land
subsidence was observed in
the early 1890s and intensified in the 1950s Industrial
the 1950s. Industrial development at that time was supported by groundwater supply
supported by groundwater supply. cu
umulative ssubsidencce depth (m
m)*2
IIn the late 1950s, 65% of 30 th l t 1950 65% f 30
industries located in costal area depends on groundwater
depends on groundwater. ind
dustrial ou
utput valuee (trillion yyen)*1
Groundwater Management –
g
Osaka City’s case
y
subsidence
depth
industrial
output value
1925 30 35
40
45
50
55
60
65
*1. price by value of 1965
Nishi 4 (Torishima,
(Torishima Konohana-ku)
Konohana ku)
*22. at Nishi-4
(IGES 2007)
L d b id
Land subsidence impacts in Osaka
i
t i O k
‐ More wider areas began to be affected by floods since the height of id
b
b ff
d b fl d i
h h i h f
dikes became lower as the land base sank. About 2.5 billion USD (in 2000 price) between 1955 and 1969 to reinforce dykes, raise bridges, and develop a drainage system. y ,
g ,
p
g y
‐ Floods forced industries to stop their operation sometimes. They needed to invest more to development of dykes to protect themselves.  Tangible evidence of damage caused by the land subsidence raised public awareness of the problem and urged city government
raised public awareness of the problem and urged city government to take practical measures to mitigate the problem. Measures taken in the city
Measures taken in the city
Intensive survey on groundwater use was conducted for Intensive
survey on groundwater use was conducted for
industries and commercial complex and a large‐size apartments. ( g
(cf. ground level has been monitored since the early 1990s when y
land subsidence was suspected by scientists, and therefore there are accumulation of data on subsidence. ))
Intensive groundwater abstraction mainly by industries was identified as the cause of land subsidence. A committee on land subsidence mitigation was formulated with the initiative of local governments. Private sector (industries) joined the committee. Measures taken in the city
Measures taken in the city
1.
Strict abstraction control to major groundwater users , that are industries and large buildings (by laws)
and large buildings. (by laws)
2.
Provision of alternative water sources for industries:
= Construction of Industry Water Supply Works (IWSW), C
t ti
fI d t W t S
l W k (IWSW)
which supplies water at cheaper price than the municipal water supply scheme. In Osaka’s case, the source of IWSW is surface water. Tax exemption for the equipment to introduce IWSW water. Subsidies from national government to local government for construction.
(IGES 2007)
Measures taken in the city
Measures taken in the city
3 Encouragement of water saving efforts at industries and large 3.
Encouragement of water saving efforts at industries and large
buildings:
= Tax exemption and loan for introduction of water saving p
g
technologies.
*Introduction of wastewater treatment fee for water quality *Introduction
of wastewater treatment fee for water quality
conservation is one of the incentives of water saving in industrial p
production
4.
Intensive data collection of causes and effects
cf groundwater use (such as abstraction volume and purpose of
cf. groundwater use (such as abstraction volume and purpose of use), subsidence level)
5.
Information disclosure to the public on the issues
(though mass media to raise public awareness )
Industrial Water Supply Works as the pp y
alternative water source
modest use
(no stress)
intensifying abstraction as population and
economic growth
increasing stress &
identification of problems
reduction of
abstraction
introduction
of control
measures
stable abstraction with
control measures
reducing stress, abatement of
problems,
rehabilitation of aquifers
strict control could
cause new problems?
(e g too much increase of
(e.g.
groundwater level)
(IGES 2007)
Why the city could reduce abstraction volume in a few years?
volume in a few years?
Others,
11.5
Flushing,
16.2
Cooling, 65.1
Ai h
Air
heating,
ti
7.2
Purpose of groundwater in large buildings in 1965 (percentage)
Others, 5
In case of Osaka City, it was relatively easy to reduce or phase out groundwater abstraction because of the purpose of use. e.g. Cooling water = easy to reduce by the efforts of water saving Also easy to change the
saving. Also easy to change the source of water. Washing, 20
Cooling, 43
Raw Material,
3
Processing,
29
Purpose of groundwater in industries in 1965 (percentage)
(IGES 2007)
IIn other words, there were less h
d h
l
negative impacts if appropriate financial and technical supports were provided to users. D l
Delay of response in other cities
f
i th
iti
The Higashi‐Osaka city which shared the groundwater basin with Osaka city suffered from land subsidence impacts even after Osaka City mitigate land subsidence problems.  Basin approach is necessary. (IGES 2007)
E
Emerging issues
i i
Since water saving efforts, there are less water demand of IWSW water, which causes financial difficulties in operation and maintenance of IWSW. In the area where groundwater abstraction control is weak (e.g. areas not controlled by national law), groundwater use became an promising option of the reduction of water cost especially for f h
d
f
ll f
the large commercial complex, hospital, and fitness center. In some cases, it caused the reduction of revenue of the municipal it
d th
d ti
f
f th
i i l
water supply scheme.  Comprehensive or integrated management is necessary in water planning. Groundwater Management in Asian Cities
• Research on Sustainable Water Management Policy (SWMP), conducted by IGES
●
Ti ji
Tianjin
●
Osaka
• Comparative study on groundwater in Asian cities. ●
Bangkok
●
Colombo and Kandy
●
Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC)
Report of SWMP: http://www.iges.or.jp/en/fw/report.html
● Bandung
27
Groundwater Use in Case Study Cities
City
Year
GW Use
(m3/day)
Total Water Use
(m3/day)
Dependency
(%)
Tianjin
2004
386,301 846,575 46 Bangkok*
1996
476,438 6,471,973 7 HCMC
2005
226 000
226,000 ‐‐
Bandung
2000
394,013 670,501 59 Colombo
2001
234,000 625,399 37 Kandy
2000
41,000 83,225 49 ‐‐
*Chao Phraya and Tha Chin River Basin
*Chao Phraya and Tha Chin River Basin
28
Groundwater Use in Case Study Cities (1)
(%)
0
25
50
75
100
天津
52
Tianjin
バンコク
Groundwater is an G
d
i
important water resource in the cities
28
Bangkok
バンドン
Bandung
59
ホーチミン
ホ
チミン
HCM C
55
Ratio of groundwater use in total water use
（IGES 2006）
29
Groundwater Use in Case Study Cities (2)
0%
50%
100%
天津
Tianjin
バンコク
Bangkok
15
23
62
生活用水
工業用水
64.5
農業用水
1.5
34
Industry
Domestic
バ ド
バンドン
Agriculture
80
Bandung
20
ホーチミン
HCMC
57
43
Groundwater uses （IGES 2006）
30
Groundwater
management challenges (1)
Groundwater management challenges (1)

Depletion in groundwater table and land p
g
subsidence due to over extraction of groundwater
 In China, groundwater level has declined in 30% In China groundwater level has declined in 30%
194 key cities in regions monitored (WEPA, 2007)..
Land subsidence in Bandung
Land subsidence in HCMC
L d b id
i HCMC
Cumulative drop in water level and land subsidence in some Asian cities (IGES, 2007)
Negative Impacts of excessive abstraction practices
Negative Impacts of excessive abstraction practices
Land subsidence in Bangkok (1992‐2000)
In Bandung
（Geological Environment 2003)
Source: UNESCAP,
UNESCAP 2002
(by courtesy of Dr. Babel, AIT)
32
Measures taken in the case study cities
City
Regulations
R
l ti
(
(control
t l off
abstraction,
registration of
Measures
pumping)
◎
(only in designated
area)
Economic
Instrument
(Charge, taxes)
Technologies
(including provision of alternative
water resources)
Organisation in
charge
◎
(User Charge)
• Inter-basin transfer
• Purification of water with RO
Bangkok
◎
(stronger control to
more affected areas))
◎
(User Charge)
• Inter-basin transfer
• GW department,
• Expansion of municipal water
MONRE
supply systems (source: rivers)
• Promotion of conjunctive use
Bandung
◎
(stronger control to
affected areas)
◎
(GW Tax)
T )
• Development of surface water
• Expansion of municipal water
supply systems
• West Java EPA
• Local government
HCMC
△
(partly introduced)
◎
(GW Tax)
• Development of surface water
• Expansion of municipal water
supply system
• DONRE
• Other department
of MONRE and
more.
Tianjin
Tianjin City
33
Laws and regulations on groundwater
 Tianjin
Temporary Regulation on Groundwater Resource Management (1987)
Management (1987)
 Bandung
Act. No. 11/1974 and its amendment No.7/2004 on water resources; West Java Regulation No.16/2001, etc.
resources; West Java Regulation No.16/2001, etc.  Bangkok
g
Groundwater Act (1978, 2003 amendment)
 HCMC, Colombo/Kandy
No specific laws/regulations on groundwater
34
Contents of groundwater regulations
Contents of groundwater regulations
• Drilling license to ensure environmentally sound drilling.
Drilling license to ensure environmentally sound drilling.
• Designation
Designation of areas where intensive or more stringent of areas where intensive or more stringent
measures are necessary (groundwater protection areas).
• Designation of groundwater users to be regulated.
• Registration of groundwater users (volume and purpose of use) use)
• IIntroduction of charging scheme
t d ti
f h i
h
(groundwater user charge or tax)
Charging System (Bangkok)
Charging System (Bangkok)
supply service user type
1. Domestic consumption
Area
with public water supply
service
8.50 Baht/m3
+ preservation charge
Area without public water
supply service
Exempt
2. Business
Business not using agricultural
products (proclaimed by minister)
as raw material
Business using agricultural
products (proclaimed by
Minister) as raw material
3. Agriculture
25 % discount
8.50 Baht/m3
+ preservation charge
70 % discount
17 Baht/m
17
Baht/m3 > 10 Baht/m
> 10 Baht/m3 public water supply
public water supply
Crop cultivation
Exempt
groundwater use
Animal farm with g
license not more than 50m3/d
Exempt
p
Animal farm with groundwater use
license greater than 50m3/d
8.50 Baht/m3
+ preservation charge
70 % discount for users of less
than 50 m3/day
36
(source) Babel and N. Donna (2006)
Groundwater charge can be an incentive to reduce groundwater abstraction.
Groundwater preservation charge is used for groundwater conservation related research and activities. ( MCM/日) User charge and preservation charge is decided in (MCM/day)
comparison with the price of municipal water supply 3.5
water.
water. 3
(B/m3)
(ﾊ
ﾞｰ ﾂ /m )
18
3.0
15
Preservation charge
2
2.5
12
地下水
保全料金
9
Municipal water MWA給水量
supply volume
supply volume
（ 販売量）
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
6
Groundwater abstraction
abstraction volume
地下水揚水量
3
GW charge
地下水料金
0.0
0
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
37
Groundwater charge system in Tianjin
Groundwater charge system in Tianjin
Unit: Yuan/m
U
it: Yua / 3
For Township
Enterprise
For Petroleum
and Chemical
Corporation
Other
Enterprises
1987
0.05
0.12
0.0968
1998
0 50
0.50
0 50
0.50
0 50
0.50
2002
Areas with Tap Water
Available
Areas without Tap Water
Supply
1.90
1.30
Tap water: 3.6 Yuan/m3
(source) Xu and Zhang(2006)
No charges to agricultural water, which is the major groundwater user in the city. 38
G
Groundwater abstraction in Bandung
d t
b t ti i B d
Crisis Economy hit
Indonesia
90
Grou
und Water Ab
bstraction (Miillion/Year)
揚水量
80
Act Number 18/1997 groundwater tax
70
60
West Java Governor
Decree Number
29/2003
50
40
30
Governor
Decree Number
181.1/SK.1624Bapp/82
20
Act Number 22/1999 on
Local Government
10
In 2001, West Java
Province Government
issued Province
Regulation Number
16/2001 on Ground
Water Management
19
00
19
10
19
20
19
30
19
40
19
50
19
60
19
70
19
76
19
85
19
88
19
90
19
92
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
0
1900
Year
2000
From SWMP report by the West Java EPA
39
Groundwater Tax in Bandung
Groundwater Tax in Bandung
 Tax scheme in Bandung is based on the sophisticated calculation which consists of three element below
calculation, which consists of three element below. ((1)) Natural component ratio (point of abstraction, water quality, p
(p
,
q
y,
with or without alternative water sources, type of aquifer
(2) Recovery and supplementary elements (Intake and Use)
(3) Price of raw water (decided by the regulation)
Pi
f
t (d id d b th
l ti )
Formula:
(1)×(2)×(3)＝Groundwater Tax
The formula of the groundwater tax in Bandung consider the value of groundwater to some extent.
consider the value of groundwater to some extent. 40
Other example of economic instrument introduction
Groundwater abstraction control by electricity charge
Groundwater abstraction control by electricity charge
• Too much decentrlised use and undefined (or unclear) property rights = direct management is not a option. • A trial to change groundwater user’s consuming behaviour g g
g
through the change in electricity pricing scheme in India.
Limited hours pumping = low GW pumping
Electricity rate based on meters = encouraged the savings of GW use
(IWMI study)
Groundwater management challenges (2)
h ll
( )
IIn Tianjin, groundwater Ti ji
d t
contains high concentration of fluoride and dental floursis
of fluoride and dental floursis rate is 41% in urban area (Xu et al. 2008).
Fluoride contamination in Confined Aquifer III Source: Report on the Distribution Law and Formation Mechanisms of the Major Pollutants in Tianjin Groundwater
42 42
G
Groundwater quality in Bandung
d t
lit i B d
% of samples eexceeding WHO guideline fo
or Drinkiing
Shallow Aquifer
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
No
Data
No
Data
No
Data
No
Data
No
Data
(S
(Source: IGES SWMP Study）
IGES SWMP St d ）
Pollutants
43
43
Coliform in surface water and groundwater in HCMC
Coliform in surface water and groundwater in HCMC
Co
oliform Co
oncentration
(MPN//100ml)
1.0E+08
8
1.0x10
1.0E+06
1.0E
6
1.0x10
1
0 1006
4
1.0E+04
1.0x10
Groundwater
Quality
Standard for
Drinking
1.0E+02
1.0x102
0
1.0E+00
1.0x10
0
0.5Surface
1
Dong Nai
River
Water 1.5
Saigon
River
2
2.5
Pleistocen
Aquifer
(20-50m)
3
3.5
4
Groundwater
Upper
Pliocen
Aquifer
(50-100m)
4.5
5
Lower
Pliocen
Aquifer
(100-140m)
Potential Capacity
(m3/day)
6,000,000
940,000
796,000
952,000
753,000
Current Water Use
(m3/day)
847 000
847,000
303 000
303,000
284 700
284,700
323 300
323,300
2 960
2,960
44
Pi
Price of tapped water and bottle water
ft
d t
d b ttl
t
(USD/m3) City
Tapped Water
Bottle Water
Tianjin
0.49
60.93‐76.17
Bangkok
0.25‐0.42
??
HCMC
0.17‐0.49
61.29‐67.42
Bandung
0.28‐1.00
??
45
Outline of groundwater quality management Tianjin
Law
//Regulation
g
Name
Content
N
Groundwater Name
quality standard
categories, Parameter
Bandung
Ho Chi Min City
L
Law of the People’s f h P
l ’
E h
Enhancement and d
G
Government regulation l i
Republic of China on Conservation of National No82/2001 on water Prevention and Control of Environment; Quality quality management and Water Pollution
Act,1992
water pollution control
Law on Environment Protection, 2005
Pollution control for groundwater
Conservation of public
Conservation of public water resources including groundwater
Water quality
Water quality management and pollution control
Groundwater environment protection
Quality standard for groundwater
d
(GB/T 14848‐9)
Groundwater Quality Standard(Groundwater Standard(Groundwater
Quality Standard for Drinking purpose)
Water quality standard (f
(for public water bli
including groundwater)
Groundwater Quality S d d
Standard
(TCVN5944‐1995)
5 categories, 39 parameters
38 parameters
4 categories, 41 parameters
22 parameters
Department of Groundwater Resources
West Java Mining and Energy Agency
Department of Natural Resources and Environment
Implementing Tianjin Water Conservancy Department
agency
Monitoring
Bangkok
Number of sampling points
unknown
117 (304 wells)
36
40 (86 wells)
Frequency
unknown
1‐3 time/year
unknown
1‐4 time/year
Parameter
unknown
14
unknown
16
46
St t
Status of groundwater quality monitoring
f
d t
lit
it i
Number of Indicators
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Standard
Tianjin
13/39 (33%)
Monitoring
Standard
Bangkok
14/55 (25%)
Monitoring
Standard
Ho Chi
Minh City
16/22 (73%)
Monitoring
Osaka/Tokyo
Standard
26/26 (100%)
Monitoring
Others
Pesticides
VOCs
Heavy Metal
Bacterial
Chemical
Physical
Difference between number of indicators designated in the groundwater quality standard and those actually tested. t d d d th
t ll t t d
47
Treatment for Naturally Occurring Contamination
Treatment for Naturally Occurring Contamination
Tianjin: Tianjin:
(1) Water Improvement and Defluorination Projects in Tianjin Rural Area
a j
u a ea
・construction of 58 defluorination water‐supply stations in 2006‐2010
・safe water will be available for 225,300 people
( ) Rural Safe Drinking Water Project in Jin Nan District
(2)
l f
k
(88.9 million yuan (13 million USD))
・construction of groundwater treatment plants (46 sites)
t ti
f
d t t t
t l t (46 it )
・installation of canned defluoridation devices (47 sites)
,
p p
・safe water will be available for 103,596 people
HCMC :
(1) Rural water supply program (UNICEF/EU)
・construction of 5, 221 boreholes for domestic use
・installation of 500 iron removal system
・installation of 500 iron removal system
48
P
Provision
i i off ttreated
t d groundwater
d t tto community
it (Ti
(Tianjin)
ji )
Photo by Mr. T. Kuyama, IGES
49 49
Sand Filtration of Community Groundwater Supply
System in HCMC
Photo by Mr. T. Kuyama, IGES
50 50
Treatment at individual household level
In HCMC
↓
↑
In Bandung
In Bandung
Photo by Mr. T. Kuyama, IGES
51
Groundwater Issues identified by case studies y
 Because
Because of excessive groundwater abstraction (more than of excessive groundwater abstraction (more than
recharging capacity), groundwater has been depleted.  As a result of overexploitation, land subsidence
As a result of overexploitation land subsidence became serious. became serious
 Arsenic and fluoride pollution became a very serious problem which
which affects people
affects people’ss health.
health
 Salinization became serious especially in coastal areas of the region
in coastal areas of the region.  Groundwater pollution in shallow aquifer by coliform is a common aquifer by coliform
is a common
problem in many areas of the region. Inadequate toxic substance (including
 Inadequate toxic substance (including hazardous solid wastes) contaminated groundwater. Land subsidence in HCMC
Land subsidence in HCMC
52
Status of Groundwater Management
Status of Groundwater Management <Outline of Groundwater Management>
g
The laws and standards on groundwater quantity and quality protection already exist, however implementation (the enforcement and the monitoring) is weak.
it i ) i
k
<Rule making and charging system for quantity management>
T
To control of groundwater abstraction, laws and regulations are t l f
d t
b t ti
l
d
l ti
introduced in case study cities. In many cases, charge to groundwater is g g y
p
p
introduced. How effective the charging system works depends on the price of other water sources. <Provision of Alternative Water>
Provision of alternative water source is also a measure to reduce groundwater use. Switching to alternative water resource which satisfy th
the quality as a drinking source is also a promising option for human lit
d i ki
i l
ii
ti f h
health safety. St t
Status of Groundwater Management (2)
fG
d t M
t (2)
<Sanitation and Groundwater>
<Sanitation
and Groundwater>
The improvement of sanitary condition can contribute to mitigate p g
g
,
anthropogenic contamination of groundwater. However, immediate improvement of current sanitary condition is difficult due to the low affordability of a proper sanitation facility. <Countermeasures at Individual Households>
Public sectors in each city try to mitigate groundwater contamination. However they are facing difficulties in implementation To protect
However, they are facing difficulties in implementation. To protect themselves from the risk of groundwater contamination, households have already taken their own countermeasures, such as installation of purification systems, adding of the chemicals for disinfection, and purchase of bottled water. 54
Groundwater management challenges
 Lack
Lack of clear policies on groundwater management and weak of clear policies on groundwater management and weak
enforcement of groundwater laws and regulations.
Undefined water rights issue is also a problem in some cases. 
Lack of coordination between organizations responsible for groundwater management and overlapping of responsibilities.

Lack of human resources with adequate knowledge on groundwater resources management.
 Less awareness of groundwater users on potential problems and risks

L k f
Lack of groundwater database and monitoring system.
d
d b
d
i i
 Less recognision of future climate change impacts.
To use groundwater in a sustainable way, groundwater management should be introduced or strengthened further.
E
Emerging
i and
d ffuture
t
iissue
 Climate change and its impacts on groundwater resources
 Shift in precipitation ultimately shift in water balance of aquifer by increase or decrease of recharge.
q
y
g
 Shift in precipitation also make surface water more unreliable which may force to development of groundwater resources.  Sea level rise is expected due to melting of ice S l l i i
t dd t
lti
fi
sheets and glaciers as a result of global temperature rise. Rise in sea level would allow saltwater to penetrate farther inland and upstream in low lying river deltas (IPCC, 1998).
Source: IPCC Technical Paper VI
Action areas needed to promote
sustainable groundwater management
 IImproving assessment of groundwater resources condition (monitoring and i
f
d
di i (
i i
d
modeling)
 Formulating or re‐designing policy options (regulatory or direct and economic measures) to manage groundwater resources (mostly in urban context)
 Reforming or creating new institutions responsible for groundwater management in integrated manner
 Focus on land management and groundwater management linkages
 Involvement of stakeholders in planning and implementation of groundwater control.  How groundwater should be managed in integrated water resource management. Photos by IGES