PROCESSING AND PRODUCTS
Texture and Microstructure Properties of Frozen Chicken Breasts
Pretreated with Salt and Phosphate Solutions1
K. S. Yoon2
Department of Human Ecology, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, Princess Anne, Maryland 21853
ABSTRACT This study investigated the effects of 10%
NaCl, trisodium phosphate (TSP), sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), and tetrapotassium pyrophosphate (TKPP)
treatments on textural and microstructural properties of
chicken breasts during 10 mo of frozen storage at −20 C.
Fresh chicken breasts were treated for 10 min with 10%
NaCl and various phosphate solutions, including TSP,
STPP, and TKPP, and stored in a −20 C freezer for 10 mo.
Frozen chicken breasts were completely thawed at 4 C
and oven-baked at 177 C for 20 min. Shear force, drip
loss, and cooking loss were measured. In addition, ice
crystal formation and structure changes of frozen chicken
breasts during storage were evaluated using transmission
electron microscopy (TEM). Treating chicken breasts with
10% TSP and STPP solution significantly reduced drip
and cooking losses as well as minimized ice crystal formation and freeze-induced shrinkage of myofibrils. No significant texture toughening was observed in frozen
chicken breasts regardless of treatments. These results
suggest that the perceived quality losses of frozen chicken
breast were not associated with texture toughening. The
water-binding ability of chicken meat was the most important factor in maintaining the quality of chicken breast
during extended frozen storage, which can be accomplished by treating chicken breasts with 10% TSP and
STPP solutions before frozen storage.
(Key words: texture, microstructure, water-binding ability, phosphates, frozen chicken breast)
2002 Poultry Science 81:1910–1915
INTRODUCTION
Freezing has been widely used as the safest and most
economical preservation method for red meat, poultry,
and fish. Despite its well-known positive effects, such as
preventing microbial spoilage and minimizing the rate of
biochemical reaction in muscle, the quality changes of frozen poultry meat, namely, texture toughening, bone darkening, and off-flavors (Addis, 1986) become a significant
barrier for the U.S. poultry industry that competes in foreign markets. As freezing poultry products becomes a common storage practice in today’s poultry market, the poultry
industry faces a new challenge to maintain quality and
safety of poultry products for extended frozen storage.
Freezing is used in the household as a common storage
practice for raw poultry between purchasing and cooking
as well as for precooked and ready-to-eat frozen chicken
dinner packages. However, undesirable quality changes
do occur during frozen storage, making chicken less tender
and juicy.
2002 Poultry Science Association, Inc.
Received for publication October 12, 2001.
Accepted for publication June 22, 2002.
1
Published in 2001 IFT Annual Meeting Book of Abstracts, Number
97-7.
2
To whom correspondence should be addressed: ksyoon@
mail.umes.edu.
Phosphate has been used in poultry products for many
years to improve the quality of finished poultry products
and to provide greater processing flexibility. It not only
improves water binding, texture, color, and flavor
(Steinhauer, 1983), but controls microbial contamination
and growth (Tompkin, 1983). In frozen fish and fish products, it minimizes freezing damage and protein denaturation (Buttkus, 1970; Park and Lanier, 1987; Yoon, 1990).
In 1992, the USDA approved the use of trisodium phosphate (TSP) as a post-chill antimicrobial treatment of raw
poultry to control Salmonella and to reduce total microbial
contamination during poultry processing (Giese, 1993).
Along with the superior antimicrobial effect of TSP on
chicken carcasses (Bender and Brotsky, 1991; Kim et al.,
1994; Li et al., 1997; Wang et al., 1997), an increase in
consumer acceptability of raw carcasses treated with TSP
over untreated carcasses has also been reported (Hollender
et al., 1993; Hathcox et al., 1995). In addition, sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) has been used to treat fresh poultry
meat to improve the quality, including color, cooking loss,
and texture (Lyon and Hamm, 1986; Young and Lyon,
1997; Young et al., 1996, 1999). However, no study has
been published on the effects of phosphate on changes in
Abbreviation Key: HMP = hexameta phosphate; PO = propylene
oxide; PP = pyrophosphate; STPP = sodium tripolyphosphate; TEM =
transmission electron microscopy; TKPP = tetrapotassium pyrophosphate; TPP = tripolyphosphate; TSP = trisodium phosphate.
1910
TEXTURE OF FROZEN CHICKEN BREAST PRETREATED WITH SALT AND PHOSPHATES
microstructure during frozen storage and the relationship
between those microstructure changes and the texture of
chicken breast meat.
The objective of the present study was to investigate the
effects of 10% (wt/vol) NaCl, TSP, STPP, and tetrapotassium pyrophosphate (TKPP) on textural and microstructure properties of chicken breasts during 10 mo of frozen
storage at −20 C.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Food-grade TSP, STPP, and TKPP were obtained from
the FMC Corporation.3 Salt was purchased from a local
supermarket.4 Fresh, boneless chicken breasts were purchased from a local poultry processing plant 5 on the day
of slaughter. Chicken breasts were placed in sample bags
in a cooler containing crushed ice for transport to the food
preparation laboratory in the Department of Human Ecology at the University of Maryland Eastern Shore.
Treatment with NaCl
and Phosphate Solutions
At levels of 10% (wt/vol), NaCl, TSP, STPP, and TKPP
were prepared by adding 1,000 g of each chemical to 10
L water in each plastic tank and stored in a walk-in refrigerator (4 C) until used. The pH values of NaCl, TSP, STPP,
and TKPP solutions were 7.32, 13.11, 10.36, and 10.53, respectively. Control samples received the same treatment
except that plain water was used instead of phosphate
solution. Fresh chicken breasts were dipped into each solution (4 C) for 10 min at 100 rpm using a heavy duty stirrer6
before frozen storage. Chicken breasts were removed from
each solution and allowed to drain on a stainless steel wire
mesh screen for 15 min. Chicken breasts were placed in
moisture-impermeable, plastic-sealed bags; stored at a constant temperature (−20 C); and tested at 0 (unfrozen), 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10 mo of frozen storage for texture and at
0 (unfrozen), 3, 6, and 10 mo for microstructure properties.
Evaluation of Texture
To measure the firmness of chicken breasts after frozen
storage, chicken breasts were completely thawed at 4 C
overnight, oven-baked to an internal temperature of 74 C
in a conventional oven set at 177 C for 20 min, and cooled
to room temperature (22 C) for 1 h in storage plastic bags
before measuring the weight of the cooked chicken breast.
The differences in weight of the chicken breast (n = 3)
before and after frozen storage or cooking were calculated
3
Philadelphia, PA.
Food Lion, Princess Anne, MD.
5
Perdue Farms Inc., Milford, DE.
6
VWR Scientific Inc., Bridgeport, NJ.
7
Stable Micro System, Surrey, UK.
8
IQ Scientific Instruments Inc., San Diego, CA.
4
1911
as drip loss or cooking loss, respectively. Shear force was
measured using a TA.XT2 texture analyzer7 by shearing
the sample across the muscle fibers with a standard knife
blade (TA-42) (68 mm wide × 72 mm long × 3 mm thick).
Three chicken breasts per treatment were sheared. Three
shear force values were recorded for each breast. All tests
were carried out after samples were equilibrated to 22 C,
room temperature. Texture Expert for the WINDOWS
Operation System was used to analyze the data. Moisture
was determined by drying samples in an oven at 110 C
for 18 h.
The pH of cooked chicken breasts was measured at each
sampling interval using an IQ 240 pH meter with nonglass probe.8
Evaluation of Structure
The effects of 10% NaCl, TSP, STPP, and TKPP solution
on microstructure of chicken breasts during frozen storage
were evaluated using transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) after freeze-substitution technique (Martino and
Zaritzky, 1986; Yoon et al., 1991). To eliminate the positional effects, six blocks of tissue, each measuring 2 × 2 ×
1 mm, were cut from the subsurface (depth < 5 mm) of
the anterior end of the frozen muscle, which had been
previously treated with water, 10% NaCl, TSP, STPP, or
TKPP solutions and stored in a −20 C freezer. Specimens
were immediately immersed in 5 mL cold freeze substitution fluid (methanol containing 1% OsO4 and 0.05% glutaraldehyde) and fixed at −20 C for 2 d. Specimens were then
transferred into 100% methanol (−20 C), kept 6 h in a freezer
(−20 C), stored overnight in a refrigerator, and transferred
to room temperature (22 C) for 2 h. Fixed specimens were
washed twice for 15 min each, consecutively in two changes
each of methanol and propylene oxide (PO). To prepare
control specimens, an unfrozen chicken breast was cut into
pieces (2 mm × 2 mm × 1 mm) and fixed in 1% OsO4 and
0.05% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M cacodylate buffer for 2 h at
22 C. The fixed specimens were washed three times with
0.1 M cacodylate buffer for 1 h and dehydrated by immersion in increased concentrations (35, 50, 70, and 95%) of
ethanol for 20 min each. This was followed by washing
for 15 min each, consecutively in two changes each of 100%
ethanol and 50%:50% ethanol:PO and 100% PO. All steps
in the preparation of control specimens were at room temperature (22 C).
Both fresh and frozen specimens were then transferred
into a vial containing PO:Epon 812 (50%:50%) and agitated
in a rotator overnight. The solution was then replaced
with PO:Epon 812 (25%:75%) and again agitated overnight.
Steps following PO were at room temperature (22 C). Resulting specimens were transferred into 100% Epon 812 in
an embedding dish and held at 60 C for 24 h.
Ultrathin microtome sections were mounted on grids
and stained with 8% uranyl acetate at 60 C for 20 min.
They were then stained with lead citrate for 5 min at room
temperature and rinsed with carbonated free 0.02 N NaOH
and distilled water. Specimens were examined with a Joel
1912
YOON
TABLE 1. Effects of NaCl and phosphate treatments1 on the drip loss
of the chicken breasts2 during frozen storage
Drip loss 10%
Storage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
Water
7.82
8.69
8.4
7.6
8.39
7.15
9.11
10.57
10.88
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
10% NaCl
a
0.90
0.39a
0.42a
0.84a
0.25a
1.11a
0.29a
1.04a
0.49a
0.24
0.42
0.53
0.23
0.26
0.26
1.05
1.05
1.84
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
10% TSP
c
0.06
0.16b
0.14b
0.03d
0.02d
0.02d
0.41b
0.33c
0.34d
0.19
0.46
0.48
0.2
0.18
0.2
0.46
0.3
0.48
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
10% STPP
c
0.04
0.04b
0.17b
0.01d
0.01e
0.08d
0.18e
0.16d
0.15e
0.3
0.42
0.27
0.58
0.58
0.61
0.79
1.16
2.34
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
10% TKPP
c
0.02
0.21b
0.07b
0.10c
0.02c
0.14c
0.47c
0.64c
0.08c
1.3
0.36
0.19
1.12
0.72
0.95
0.51
1.59
2.41
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.03b
0.12c
0.01b
0.34b
0.13b
0.11b
0.09d
0.23b
0.11b
Means ± SEM in the same row with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.001).
TSP = trisodium phosphate, STPP = sodium tripolyphosphate, and TKPP = tetrapotassium pyrophosphate.
2
Each value represents a mean of three replicates.
a–e
1
100CX II TEM operated at 80Kv.9 Photomicrographs were
taken at magnification of 10,000×.
Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA using SAS,
version 8.10 When the ANOVA indicated a significant effect
of treatment (P < 0.05), means were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effects of NaCl and Phosphate Treatment
on Water-Binding Ability
Phosphates, including pyrophosphate (PP), tripolyphosphate (TPP), and hexametaphosphate (HMP) have been
used in marinade solution to improve cooking yields and
sensory properties of poultry meat (Froning and Sackett,
1985; Xiong and Kupski, 1999). Previous studies also reported that soaking or injecting carcasses with salt and
phosphate improved water-binding ability (Lyon and
Hamm, 1986; Young and Lyon, 1997; Xiong and Kupski,
1999). In the present study, soaking the chicken breasts in
10% NaCl, TSP, STPP, or TKPP solutions reduced drip loss
when compared with the control (water) during all 10
mo of frozen storage (P < 0.001) (Table 1). In addition, a
significant increase in drip loss was observed in the control
after 6 mo of storage. These results indicate that washing
chicken breast with water did not improve water-binding
ability of frozen chicken breast during long-term storage.
Treating chicken breasts with 10% NaCl, TSP, STPP, or
TKPP solutions reduced cooking loss before and during
frozen storage (P < 0.001) (Table 2). The amounts of cooking
loss in chicken breasts treated with NaCl, TSP, STPP, or
TKPP did not change throughout 10 mo of frozen storage,
but cooking loss of the control significantly increased at 1
mo of storage, but did not increase further. No significant
9
JOEL Inc., Peabody, MA.
SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC.
10
differences in the amounts of cooking loss were noticed
among chicken breasts treated with NaCl, TSP, STPP, or
TKPP. Overall, superior moisture-binding properties of
treated chicken breasts with NaCl and various phosphate
solutions have been demonstrated in the present study.
These data clearly indicate that 10-min treatment before
storage improved the water-binding ability of chicken
breast meat. Offer and Trinick (1983) explained that increased moisture retention ability by NaCl and phosphates
is due to muscle fiber expansion (swelling) caused by electrostatic repulsion, which allows more water to be immobilized in the myofibril lattices.
Effects of NaCl and Phosphates
on Textural Properties of Frozen
Chicken Breasts
Table 3 shows the effects of 10% NaCl and phosphate
solutions on the shear force of the cooked chicken breasts
during frozen storage, which were baked at 177 C for 20
min. There were no significant differences in the shear
forces among all samples tested at 0 d. As the frozen storage
was extended from 0 to 2 mo, shear forces of cooked
chicken breasts treated with phosphates increased significantly (TSP, 56% increase; STPP, 33% increase; TKPP, 47%
increase) compared with those treated with water or NaCl
(water, 24% increase; NaCl, 10% increase). After 2 mo of
storage, shear forces of chicken breasts treated with TSP,
STPP, or TKPP did not increase further, but shear forces
of chicken breasts treated with water or NaCl gradually
increased. After 10 mo of storage, the shear force of chicken
breast treated with NaCl was significantly lower than that
of chicken breasts treated with water or phosphates (P <
0.05). However, no differences were observed in shear
forces between water and phosphate treatment, suggesting
that treating chicken breasts with TSP, STPP, or TKPP did
not significantly affect the shear force of the frozen chicken
breast. Overall, no significant texture toughening, in terms
of shear force, was noticed in frozen chicken breasts regardless of treatments after 10 mo of storage, indicating that
toughening is not a determining factor that decreases the
quality of chicken breast during long-term frozen storage.
TEXTURE OF FROZEN CHICKEN BREAST PRETREATED WITH SALT AND PHOSPHATES
1913
1
TABLE 2. Effects of NaCl and phosphate treatments on the cooking loss
of the chicken breasts2 during frozen storage
Cooking loss 10%
Storage
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
d
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
Water
15.05
18.59
23.16
23.66
23.46
21.69
19.55
24.47
21.57
18.3
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
10% NaCl
a
0.60
10.15a
1.30a
1.96a
0.42a
0.54a
0.36a
2.96a
2.87a
0.61a
14.03
8.47
11.49
12.37
12.78
9.09
12.99
14.68
14.13
12.88
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
10% TSP
a
0.45
0.95b
0.11b
0.64b
0.56c
1.07e
0.63b
1.71b
1.94b
0.17ab
8.83
9.69
10.33
10.4
10.68
11.1
11.44
14.32
12.70
13.25
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
10% STPP
c
0.98
0.36b
0.33d
1.00b
0.87cd
0.65b
0.69d
1.97b
0.69b
0.76ab
11.86
7.33
9.63
10.23
15.21
9.49
11.09
11.37
10.27
11.63
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
10% TKPP
b
0.75
0.45b
1.32e
1.19b
1.20b
1.02d
0.39e
1.04b
1.11b
2.34b
9.97
7.07
10.49
10.34
9.88
10.35
12.02
15.73
11.53
8.74
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.36c
0.43b
0.44c
0.30b
0.48d
0.58c
0.89c
1.74b
1.09b
0.43b
Means ± SEM in the same row with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.001).
TSP = trisodium phosphate, STPP = sodium tripolyphosphate, and TKPP = tetrapotassium pyrophosphate.
2
Each value represents a mean of three replicates.
a–e
1
Young and Lyon (1997) studied the effect of STPP on
textural properties of the breast meat after various postchill aging periods and found that immediately after chilling STPP-treated meat had 60% higher shear values than
control meat. One possible explanation for this toughening
effect was the pH-elevating effect of STPP. Those researchers suggested that the toughness problem with phosphate
treatment could be avoided by aging the chicken at least
2 h post-chill before treating with polyphosphates. On the
other hand, polyphosphate treatment did not show any
significant effect on shear values (Young et al., 1996; Young
and Buhr, 2000). These contrary results in previous studies
indicate that the ultimate quality of poultry meat products
is affected by interactions between polyphosphates and
processing parameters, such as stunning time, electrical
stimulation, and time post-mortem at which the polyphosphates were applied. Chicken breasts in the present study
were in a post-rigor state. No significant differences in
shear forces among all samples tested were noticed in the
present study (Table 3). Slightly higher pH values of the
cooked chicken breasts washed with TSP (7.48), STPP
(6.75), or TKPP (7.66) were observed when compared with
breasts washed with water (6.22) or NaCl (6.2). However,
no significant impact of different pH values on the shear
forces of chicken breasts was noticed in this study.
Structure Observation by TEM
In Figure 1a, the ultrastructure of the fresh chicken breast
shows the intact myofibril units (sarcomeres) including A
and I bands and M and Z lines. The structure changes of
chicken breasts treated with water, NaCl, TSP, STPP, or
TKPP after 10 mo of frozen storage were compared in
Figures 1b through f. In the control (Figure 1b), large ice
crystals distorted the structure of myofibrils of breast meat
with sarcomere units shrunk, but M and Z lines were still
visible. These observations suggest that ice crystal formation in muscle did play a role in the quality changes in the
frozen chicken breast. Figure 1c shows the ultrastructure
of frozen chicken breast that was treated with 10% NaCl
solution after 10 mo. Salt did not prevent ice crystal formation and freeze-induced shrinkage of myofibrils. Despite
greater reduction in both width and length of sarcomere
unit in frozen chicken breast treated with NaCl, A and I
bands and Z lines were still visible. However, this TEM
TABLE 3. Effects of NaCl and phosphate treatments1 on the shear force
of the cooked chicken breasts2 during frozen storage
Shear force (kg)
Storage
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
d
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
mo
Water
4.23
4.27
5.23
6.81
5.63
5.43
5.74
7.45
4.85
6.40
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.29ab
0.62c
0.42d
0.11b
0.73abc
0.36ab
0.47ab
0.26a
0.12b
0.12a
10% NaCl
4.32
5.95
4.76
5.13
5.35
4.93
5.35
3.64
4.66
3.86
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.1ab
0.18b
0.23e
0.11c
0.15bc
0.13b
0.36b
0.35e
0.25b
0.14b
10% TSP
4.80
7.04
7.49
7.40
7.20
5.94
7.26
6.68
6.74
6.48
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.17a
0.43a
0.4a
0.36a
0.35a
0.3ab
0.35a
0.28c
0.63a
0.12a
10% STPP
4.77
7.43
7.17
6.29
4.74
5.02
6.40
6.14
6.04
6.13
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.19a
0.52a
0.16c
0.6b
0.31c
0.45b
0.47ab
0.30d
0.06ab
0.11a
10% TKPP
4.02
8.34
7.42
7.00
6.70
6.55
6.34
7.34
5.07
6.87
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.1b
0.1a
0.65b
1.27b
0.24ab
0.98a
0.7ab
0.14b
0.21b
0.19a
Means ± SEM in the same row with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05).
TSP = trisodium phosphate, STPP = sodium tripolyphosphate, and TKPP = tetrapotassium pyrophosphate.
2
Samples were baked at 177 C for 20 min; each value represents a mean of four replicates.
a–e
1
1914
YOON
FIGURE 1. Electron micrographs of a longitudinal section of skeletal muscle of chicken breasts pretreated with NaCl and phosphates after 10
mo of frozen storage at −20 C. a = unfrozen, b = control (washed with water, frozen), c = NaCl, d = trisodium phosphate, e = sodium tripolyphosphate,
f = tetrapotassium pyrophosphate. Bar = 500 nm. A = A band, H = H band, I = I band, Z = Z line, M = M line, and S = Sarcomere.
TEXTURE OF FROZEN CHICKEN BREAST PRETREATED WITH SALT AND PHOSPHATES
could not explain the texture softening of chicken breast
as treated with NaCl and frozen for 10 mo (Table 3).
The structural changes in the frozen chicken breast
treated with TSP, STPP, or TKPP are compared in Figures
1d, e, and f, respectively. Although NaCl and all phosphate
treatments significantly reduced drip and cooking losses
after 10 mo of frozen storage, only TSP and STPP prevented
the ice crystal formation (Figures 1d and e). Well-preserved
sarcomeres were shown in both frozen chicken breasts
washed with TSP and STPP, which suggests that stabilizing
the myofibrillar protein organization without ice crystal
formation during frozen storage is a key to maintaining
the quality of frozen chicken breast after extended frozen
storage. The present study clearly shows that this result
can be accomplished by treating chicken breast with TSP
or STPP before storage. Although no significant differences
in shear force, drip, and cooking losses were noticed among
the tested phosphates after 10 mo frozen storage (Table 3),
TKPP did not stabilize the myofibrillar protein, thus leading to freeze-induced shrinkage of myofibrils with ice crystal formation (Figure 1f).
In frozen fish products, the development of texture
toughening appears to be related to the freeze-induced
shrinkage of the sarcomeres (Yoon et al., 1991). King et al.
(1986) also suggested that lower water-binding ability of
frozen cooked patties could be explained as a structure
change of myofibrillar proteins of turkey muscle. In the
present study, texture toughening of frozen chicken breast
was not always related to the freeze-induced shrinkage
of myofibrils of muscle, which did not decrease waterbinding ability.
In conclusion, no significant texture toughening was observed in frozen chicken breasts after 10 mo storage at −20
C regardless of treatments, suggesting that toughening is
not a determinant factor in the quality loss of frozen chicken
breast. Instead, improving water-binding ability of chicken
meat without the ice crystal formation during frozen storage is most important for preserving the eating quality of
frozen chicken breast. This result can be accomplished by
treating chicken breast with 10% TSP or STPP solutions
before frozen storage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was supported by the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station (Contribution number MDX-FS100). The author thanks Sawsan A. Ahmed and Candace N.
Burnette for their technical assistance. In addition, special
thanks are offered to Dr. Chong M. Lee and Dr. George
Heath for their critical review of the manuscript. Thanks
are also extended to FMC for providing phosphates.
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