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t h e c a m b r i d g e h i sto ry o f c h r i st i a n i ty
R E F O R M A N D E X PA N S I O N 1 5 0 0 – 1 6 6 0
This authoritative volume presents the history of Christianity from
the eve of the Protestant Reformation to the height of Catholic
Reform. In addition to in-depth coverage of the politics and theology of various reform movements in the sixteenth century, this
book discusses at length the impact of the permanent schism on
Latin Christendom, the Catholic responses to it, and the influence on the development of the Orthodox churches. This comprehensive and comparative overview covers the history of society,
politics, theology, liturgy, religious orders, and art in the lands
of Latin Christianity. In thirty chapters written by an international team of contributors the volume expands the boundaries of
inquiry to the relationship between Christianity and non-Christian
religions – Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism – both in Europe and
in the non-European world.
r . p o - c h i a h s i a is Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of History and
Religious Studies at Pennsylvania State University. His many publications include The World of Catholic Renewal 1 5 40–1 770, 2nd Edition
(2005).
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1500-1660
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t h e c a m b r i d g e h i sto ry o f
CHRISTIANITY
The Cambridge History of Christianity offers a comprehensive
chronological account of the development of Christianity in all its
aspects – theological, intellectual, social, political, regional, global –
from its beginnings to the present day. Each volume makes a substantial contribution in its own right to the scholarship of its period
and the complete History constitutes a major work of academic
reference. Far from being merely a history of Western European
Christianity and its offshoots, the History aims to provide a global
perspective. Eastern and Coptic Christianity are given full consideration from the early period onwards, and later, African, Far Eastern,
New World, South Asian and other non-European developments
in Christianity receive proper coverage. The volumes cover popular piety and non-formal expressions of Christian faith and treat the
sociology of Christian formation, worship and devotion in a broad
cultural context. The question of relations between Christianity
and other major faiths is also kept in sight throughout. The History
will provide an invaluable resource for scholars and students alike.
List of volumes:
Origins to Constantine
e d i t e d b y m a rga r et m . m i tc h e l l a n d
f r a n c e s m . yo u n g
Constantine to c. 600
e d i t e d b y au g u st i n e c a s i day a n d
f r e d e r i c k w. n o r r i s
Early Medieval Christianity c. 600–c. 1 1 00
edited by thomas noble and julia smith
Christianity in Western Europe c. 1 1 00–c. 1 5 00
e d i t e d b y m i r i ru b i n a n d wa lt e r s i m on
Eastern Christianity
edited by michael angold
Reform and Expansion 1 5 00–1 660
e d i t e d b y ron n i e p o - c h i a h s i a
Enlightenment, Reawakening and Revolution 1 660–1 81 5
e d i t e d b y st e wa rt j. b ro w n a n d t i m ot h y tac k ett
World Christianities c. 1 81 5 –1 91 4
e d i t e d b y b r i a n sta n l ey a n d s h e r i da n g i l l ey
World Christianities c. 1 91 4 to c. 2000
edited by hugh mcleod
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1500-1660
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THE CAMBRIDGE
H I S TO RY O F
CHRISTIANITY
*
vo lu m e 6
Reform and Expansion 1500–1660
*
Edited by
R. PO-CHIA HSIA
© Cambridge University Press
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1500-1660
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c a m b r i d g e u n i v e r s i ty p r e s s
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521811620
C Cambridge University Press 2007
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2007
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
isbn 978-0-521-81162-0 hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external
or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any
content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
© Cambridge University Press
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978-0-521-81162-0 - Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 6: Reform and Expansion
1500-1660
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Contents
List of illustrations xi
List of contributors xii
Editor’s preface xv
Chronology xvii
pa rt i
LU T H E R A N D T H E H O LY R O M A N E M P I R E
1 · Martin Luther, reformer
s cott h e n d r i x
3
2 · Emergence and consolidation of Protestantism in the Holy Roman
Empire to 1600 20
t h o m a s a . b r a dy
3 · The radical Reformation 37
r . e m m et m c lau g h l i n
4 · Lutheranism in the seventeenth century
h a rt m ut l e h m a n n
56
pa rt i i
T H E S E C O N D R E F O R M AT I O N
5 · Communal Reformation: Zwingli, Luther, and the south of the Holy
Roman Empire 75
pet e r b l i c k l e
vii
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Contents
6 · The Calvinist Reformation in Geneva
ro b e rt m . k i n g d on
90
7 · The theology and liturgy of Reformed Christianity
mark greengrass
8 · The second wave of Protestant expansion
ph i l i p b e n e d i c t
1 04
1 25
pa rt i i i
C AT H O L I C R E N E WA L
9 · Redefining Catholicism: Trent and beyond
ro b e rt b i r e l ey, s j
1 45
10 · New religious orders for men 1 62
j o h n pat r i c k d on n e l ly, s j
11 · Female sanctity, 1500–1660
ga b r i e l la za r r i
1 80
12 · Tridentine worship and the cult of saints
s i m on d i tc h f i e l d
201
pa rt i v
R E S O LV I N G C O N F E S S I O NA L C O N F L I C T S
13 · Peace without concord: religious toleration in theory and practice
n i co l ett e m o ut
14 · Imposing church and social discipline
ut e lot z - h e u m a n n
15 · Persecutions and martyrdom
b r a d g r e g o ry
227
244
261
16 · The Mediterranean Inquisitions of early modern Europe
w i l l i a m m on t e r
283
viii
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17 · Religious colloquies and toleration
o l i v i e r c h r i st i n
302
18 · Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy
m i k h a i l v. d m i t r i e v
321
pa rt v
R E L I G I O N, S O C I E T Y, A N D C U LT U R E
19 · The Reformation and the visual arts
l e e pa l m e r wa n d e l
345
20 · Ritual in early modern Christianity
s u s a n c. k a r a n t - nu n n
371
21 · Music and religious change
a l e x a n d e r j. f i s h e r
386
22 · Demonology, 1500–1660 406
wo l f ga n g b e h r i n g e r
23 · Science and religion
a n n b la i r
425
24 · The new clergies 444
lu i s e s c h o r n - s c h ü tt e
25 · Women and religious change
m e r ry w i e s n e r - h a n k s
465
pa rt v i
C H R I S T I A N I T Y A N D O T H E R FA I T H S
26 · Christianity and Judaism
miriam bodiam
485
27 · The naturalization of Andean Christianities
k e n n et h m i l ls
5 04
ix
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Contents
28 · Between Islam and Orthodoxy: Protestants and Catholics
in south-eastern Europe 5 36
i st v á n g. t ó t h
29 · Christianity shaped by the Chinese
n i co la s sta n da e rt
558
30 · Reception of Hinduism and Buddhism 5 77
i n e s g. ž u pa n ov a n d r . p o - c h i a h s i a
Bibliography 5 98
Index 71 3
x
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Illustrations
1 Lucas Cranach the Elder, Passional Christi und Antichristi (1521)
2 Lucas Cranach the Elder, Reformation Altar, Wittenberg (1547)
3 Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn, Saint Anna (1639), Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna
4 Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn, Saint Paul (1633?), Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna
5 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, ‘Madonna of the Rosary’ (1606/7),
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
6 & 7 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, ‘The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa’, Cornaro Chapel,
Rome
8 Peter Paul Rubens, ‘The Miracles of Saint Ignatius of Loyola’ (1615/16),
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
page 356
359
361
362
364
365, 366
369
xi
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Contributors
Wo l f ga n g B e h r i n g e r is Professor of Modern History at the University of Saarbrücken,
Germany.
P h i l i p B e n e d i c t is Professor of Church History at the University of Geneva, Switzerland.
Ro b e rt B i r e l ey, S J is Professor of History at Loyola University Chicago, USA.
A n n B la i r is Professor of History at Harvard University, USA.
P et e r B l i c k l e is Emeritus Professor of Modern History at the University of Bern,
Switzerland.
M i r i a m B o d i a m is Associate Professor of Jewish History at Touro College, USA.
T h o m a s A . B r a dy is Sather Professor of History Emeritus at the University of California
at Berkeley, USA.
O l i v e r C h r i st i n is Professor of Modern History at the University of Lyon II, France.
S i m on D i tc h f i e l d is Senior Lecturer in History at the University of York, UK.
M i k h a i l D m i t r i e v is Professor of History at Moscow State University, Russia.
Jo h n Pat r i c k D on n e l ly, S J is Professor of History at Marquette University, USA.
A l e x a n d e r J . F i s h e r is Assistant Professor of Music at the University of British
Columbia, Canada.
M a r k G r e e n g r a s s is Professor of History at the University of Sheffield, UK.
B r a d G r e g o ry is Associate Professor of History at Notre Dame University, USA.
S cott H e n d r i x is Nichols Professor of Reformation History at the Princeton Theological
Seminary, USA.
R . P o - c h i a H s i a is Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of History at Pennsylvania State University, USA.
S u s a n K a r a n t - N u n n is Professor of History and Director of the Division for Late
Medieval and Reformation Studies at the University of Arizona, USA.
Ro b e rt K i n g d on is Emeritus Professor of History at the University of Wisconsin at
Madison, USA.
H a rt m ut L e h m a n n is Emeritus Director of the Max-Planck Institute of History in
Göttingen, Germany.
Ut e L ot z - H e u m a n n teaches in the Department of History of the Humboldt University
Berlin, Germany.
R . E m m et M c L au g h l i n is Professor of History at Villanova University, USA.
K e n n et h M i l ls is Professor of History at the University of Toronto, Canada.
Wi l l i a m M on t e r is Emeritus Professor of History at Northwestern University, USA.
xii
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List of contributors
N i co l ett e M o ut is Professor of Modern History and Central European Studies at
Leiden University, The Netherlands.
L u i s e S c h o r n - S c h ü tt e is Professor of Modern History at the University of Frankfurt,
Germany.
N i co la s Sta n da e rt is Professor of Sinology at the Catholic University of Leuven,
Belgium.
I st v á n G . T ó t h is the late Associate Professor of History at the Central European
University, Hungary.
L e e Pa l m e r Wa n d e l is Professor of History at the University of Wisconsin at Madison,
USA.
M e r ry Wi e s n e r - H a n k s is Professor of History at the University of Wisconsin at
Milwaukee, USA.
Ga b r i e l la Z a r r i is Professor of History at the University of Florence, Italy.
I n e s G . Zˇ u pa n ov is a researcher at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique,
France.
xiii
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Editor’s preface
In designing the shape of this volume, which covers the crucial period of the
Protestant Reformation and the Catholic response, I have attempted to achieve
three goals. The first objective is to provide an authoritative and balanced
exposition of the events and issues that represent the classic commonplaces
of the history of the Reformation and confessional conflicts. A second aim is
to present scholarship that focuses on themes that transcend the Protestant–
Catholic divide, themes of social and cultural history that have animated a
generation of recent historical scholarship. The third goal situates the history
of Christianity in the larger world context; to this end I have solicited contributions that illuminate the relationship between Christian Europe and the
non-Christian world, between Christian missions and Judaism, Native American religions, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
The thirty essays grouped in six sections correspond to these three objectives. Twelve contributions in Parts I and cover the loci communes of Reformation research: the leading Protestant reformers, the interplay between politics
and evangelical movement, and the Anabaptist and radical reforms. Part III is
devoted to the Catholic response that included both an impulse for renewal
that predated the Protestant challenge as well as specific Counter-Reformation
developments. Moving from the core of confessional conflicts, the six essays
of Part IV analyse first the problems of toleration, church discipline, martyrdom, Inquisition, religious colloquies and then moves beyond the frontiers of
Latin Christendom to study the impact of confessional confrontations on the
Eastern Orthodox churches. Topics central to the social and cultural history of
religion in recent decades of scholarship comprise Part V, which attends to the
relationship between religious change and the history of art, liturgy, music,
science, and demonology, offering as well sociological and gender approaches
to the study of the clergies and women. A final Part broadens the vision to the
non-Christian world. In addition to examining the new relationship between
the Christian churches and Judaism within Europe, the five contributions of
xv
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Editor’s preface
Part VI describe the frontiers of religious contact between Christian and Muslim Europe, between ‘spiritual conquest’ and native American religions, and
between Christian missionaries and the major religions of India and China.
As a world religion, Christianity and its history are well represented in
international scholarship. The thirty contributors of this volume consist of
scholars of American, Belgian, British, Canadian, Chinese, Croatian, Dutch,
French, German, Hungarian, Italian, and Russian backgrounds working in a
dozen countries. Bringing to bear their different training and approaches, the
essays illustrate the great diversity of sources and problems that pertain to this
field of study.
xvi
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Chronology
1492
1503
1508
1510
1513
1517
1519
1520
1520–1
1521
1523
1524
1525–6
1526
1527
1527
r
Spanish Reconquista completed under Ferdinand and Isabella, with
surrender of Granada to Christian forces
r Death of Pope Alexander VI
r Maximilian I elected Holy Roman Emperor
r Luther’s journey to Rome
r Death of Pope Julius II
r Publication of Martin Luther’s Ninety-five Theses in Wittenberg
r Death of Emperor Maximilian I; Charles V elected Holy Roman Emperor
r Debate between Martin Luther and Roman Church theologian Johannes
Eck at Leipzig
r Swedish nobility rebel against Danish rule, led by Gustav Vasa
r Publication of Luther’s To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, The
Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian
r Luther excommunicated by papal bulls Exsurge Domine and Decet
r Imperial Diet at Worms; Luther anathematized and his teachings
condemned by Edict of Worms
r Death of Pope Leo X
r Gustav Vasa crowned King Gustavus I of Sweden and territory of Finland
r Frederick I crowned King of Denmark and territory of Norway
r Death of Pope Adrian VI
r Religious reform begins in Imperial City of Strasbourg, led by Martin
Bucer
r First of a series of peasant rebellions begins in southern Germany
r First members of Theatines (Order of Clerks Regular Theate) receive
papal authorization
r Treaty of Malmö officially dissolves 1397 Union of Kalmar, ending political
unity of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden
r Suppression of German peasants
r First printings of William Tyndale’s English translation of the New
Testament burnt in London
r League of Gotha founded among Protestant Saxon and Hessian princes
r Sack of Rome by Imperial forces
r King Friedrich I of Denmark grants Danish Lutherans religious freedom
in Denmark at Diet of Odensee
xvii
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Chronology
r
1529
1530
1531
1530
1531
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
1538
1539
1540
Diet of Västernås approves reforms of Swedish Church
Marburg Colloquy attempts unsuccessfully to unify Swiss and German
Reformations
r Evangelical princes issue official ‘Protestation’ against imperial
anti-Lutheran policies at Diet of Speyer
r Evangelical revolution in Lübeck expels city council and elects Jürgen
Wullenwever as burgomaster
r Imperial army defeats Turkish army at Vienna
r Anabaptist prophet Johannes Hubmaier burned for heresy in Vienna
r Diet of Augsburg attempts to reconcile Lutheran princes and cities to
Emperor Charles V; Lutheran delegates issue Augsburg Confession
defining Protestant faith
r Civil war between Protestant and Catholic cantons in Switzerland
r Formation of the Schmalkaldic League provides for a defensive alliance
among Lutheran imperial cities and princes in event of imperial attack
r Publication of Luther’s Warning to the German People
r Emperor-elect Charles V crowned; last officially crowned Holy Roman
Emperor
r Death of Ulrich Zwingli at battle of Kappel; Swiss civil war ends in
Catholic victory
r 50,000 die in Lisbon earthquake
r Papal approval of Barnabite Order (Clerks Regular of Saint Paul)
r Act of Supremacy institutes Henry VIII as official head of the Church of
England
r Anabaptist Kingdom of Münster established, city besieged by erstwhile
prince-bishop Franz von Waldeck
r Death of Pope Clement VII
r Münster falls to Lutheran-Catholic army
r Execution of Thomas More
r Beginning of John Calvin’s ministry in Geneva
r Papal approval of Constitution of Capuchin Order
r Attempt to unify German and Swiss reform traditions at Wittenberg
Concord
r Death of Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam
r Execution of William Tyndale
r Danish Church Ordinance establishes Lutheranism as official confession
of Danish Church
r Catholic princes form Catholic League of Nuremburg in response to
Protestant Schmalkaldic League
r Charles V agrees to fifteen-month truce with princes of the Schmalkaldic
League by accepting Frankfurt Interim
r Papal recognition of the Society of Jesus
r Papal recognition of Order of the Somascans (Clerks Regular of
Somascha)
r First auto-da-fé accompanying sentencing of heretics held in Portugal
r
xviii
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Chronology
1540–1
1541
1542
1544
1545
1546
1546–7
1547
1547–8
1548
1549
1551
1551
1551–2
1552
1555
1556
1558
1559
1560
1560
1562–3
1564
1564
1565
1570
r
Religious Colloquies at Worms and Regensburg fail to reconcile
confessional difference between Protestant and Catholic theologians in
Empire
r Failure to effect religious reconciliation among estates of Empire at Diet
of Regensburg; Charles V forced to admit Protestants to Imperial
Chamber Court
r Town council of Geneva accepts Calvin’s Ecclesiastical Ordinances,
instituting the Consistory for enforcing moral discipline in the city
r Inquisition reconstituted by Paul III
r Papal recognition of the Ursuline Order
r General Church Council opens in Trent
r Death of Luther
r Schmalkaldic War
r Charles V defeats Lutheran princes at Battle of Mühlberg
r General Church Council transferred to Bologna
r Charles V imposes Interim on Protestant Estates at Imperial Diet at
Augsburg
r First period of Church Council concludes
r Death of Pope Paul III
r Death of Strasbourg reformer Martin Bucer
r Founding of Jesuit Collegium Romanum in Rome
r Church Council reconvenes at Trent for second period
r Death of Francis Xavier in Macao
r Collegium Germanicum founded in Rome by papal bull
r Religious Peace of Augsburg officially recognizes Lutheranism as an
official confession in the Holy Roman Empire
r Death of Pope Julius III
r Death of Ignatius Loyola
r Death of Emperor Charles V; Ferdinand I elected Holy Roman Emperor
r Death of Mary I of England ends attempts to restore Catholicism in
England
r First Jesuit mission in Japan
r Protestant Confession of Faith establishes Presbyterianism as official
confession of Scotland
r Death of Gustav I of Sweden
r Death of German reformer Philip Melanchthon, author of Confession of
Augsburg
r Third and final period of General Church Council at Trent
r Tridentine decrees proclaimed in Spanish lands under rule of Philip II
r Death of Emperor Ferdinand I; Maximilian II becomes Holy Roman
Emperor
r Archbishop Carlo Borromeo begins reforms in Milan
r Permanent Spanish settlement instituted in the Philippines
r Death of Pope Pius IV
r Inquisition established in Mexico and Peru
xix
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Chronology
r
Congregation of the Index created to oversee production of books
Protestant Church Ordinance officially establishes Lutheran state church
of Sweden
r Massacre of French Calvinists on day of the feast of St Bartholomew
1572
r Death of Pope Pius V
r Papal approval of community of Hospitallers
r Founding of first English presbytery, indicating growing influence of
Presbyterians in England
r Papal recognition of the Congregation of the Oratory, founded by Filippo
1575
Neri
r Death of Emperor Maximilian II; accession of Emperor Rudolf II
1576
r Beginning of a wave of executions of Catholic missionaries in Elizabethan
1577
England
r Oblates of Saint Ambrose founded by Carlo Borromeo
1578
r Formation of Protestant United Provinces
1579
r Jesuits establish mission in China
1580
r Lutheran negotiations concerning doctrine culminate in Book of
Concord, providing a standardized account of Lutheran doctrine
r First anti-Catholic legislation enacted in the United Provinces
1581
r Japanese Catholic emissary to Europe
1584
r Death of Pope Gregory XIII
1585
r Restructuring of papal government creates congregations of cardinals for
1588
secular and spiritual affairs
r Papal approval of Clerks Regular Minor (Caracciolini), founded by
Francesco Caracciolo
r Death of Pope Sixtus V
1590
r Papal approval of Camillians (Order of Clerks Regular, Servants of the
1591
Sick)
1562–98 r French Wars of Religion
r Papal recognition of Order of Discalced Carmelites
r Death of Filippo Neri
1595
r Papal approval of Order of Clerks Regular of the Mother of God
(Matritani)
r Papal approval of French Doctrinaires
r Edict of Nantes establishes toleration for French Protestants
1598
r Death of Pope Clement VIII
1605
r Carlo Borromeo canonized
1610
r Founding of community of French Oratorians
1611
r Death of Emperor Rudolf II; Matthias becomes Holy Roman Emperor
1612
r Japanese government begins efforts to suppress Christianity
1614
r Clerical estate of France officially recognizes Tridentine decrees
1615
r Papal recognition of Poor Clerks Regular of the Pious Schools
1617
r Capuchins (Order of Friars Minor Cap) become a fully independent order
1619
r Death of Emperor Matthias, accession of Ferdinand II
r Death of Pope Paul V
1621
1571
1571
r
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Chronology
1622
1624–9
1626
1628
1632
1637
1640
1641
1642
1643
1644
1648
1649
1653
1655
1657
1658
1660
1664
1685
r
Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier, Teresa of Avila, and Filippo Neri
canonized as new saints of Catholic renewal
r Repression of Protestants in Habsburg-conquered Bohemia
r Consecration of the new Basilica of St Peter in Rome
r Charles I of England issues Royal Declaration, requiring church
ordinances to be submitted to crown approval
r Papal recognition of French congregation of Vincentians (Congregation of
the Mission)
r Death of Emperor Ferdinand II; election of Ferdinand III
r Charles I calls Long Parliament
r Anti-English and anti-Protestant uprising in Ireland suppressed by Oliver
Cromwell
r Beginning of Civil War in England
r Publication of first volumes of the Acta sanctorum, a Jesuit-led effort to
standardize and record lives of Catholic saints
r Death of Pope Urban VIII
r Peace of Westphalia ends Thirty Years’ War; updates Peace of Augsburg’s
provisions for confessional coexistence in the Empire
r Execution of Charles I of England
r Papal condemnation of Cornelius Jansen’s Augustinus
r Oliver Cromwell installed as Lord Protector of England
r Death of Pope Innocent X
r Death of Emperor Ferdinand III
r Leopold I becomes Holy Roman Emperor
r Death of Oliver Cromwell, succeeded as Lord Protector by son Richard
r Charles II enters London; end of English Protectorate
r Papal approval of French Congregation of Jesus and Mary
r Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
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