CrisisCommunicationsandMediaCoverageBefore,
During,andAfteraNaturalDisaster
ASeniorProject
Presentedto
TheFacultyoftheJournalismDepartment
CaliforniaPolytechnicStateUniversity,SanLuisObispo
InPartialFulfillment
oftheRequirementsfortheDegree
BachelorofScienceinJournalism
By
JulietSaunders
October2016
©JulietSaunders2016
Abstract
Thisstudyisaimedtofurtherdefinetheconnectionbetweencrisiscommunications
andthemedia.Thisisasingle-sitecasestudythatwasoneofthemostreportedon
naturaldisastersintheUnitedStates,HurricaneKatrina.Thestudywillfocuson
determiningthemeaningofcrisiscommunications,crisiscommunicationsplansand
themedias’rolesinnaturaldisasters.ThreeexpertsinthefieldofPublicRelations
andMediawereinterviewedtogaininsightintotheworkingrelationshipsbetween
themediaandcrisiscommunicators.Beforethestudyisabletodeterminethebest
practicesforcrisiscommunications,itmustfirstlookintothetheoriesandcurrent
practices.HurricaneKatrinaisexaminedinordertositethelessonsmedia
practitionerscanlearninordertomakecrisiscommunicationsmoreefficient.
i
TableofContents
Chapter1………………………………………………………………………………………………..………1
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………….……….1
StatementoftheProblem…….…………………………………………………….………………1
BackgroundoftheProblem……….……………………………………………………………….2
PurposeoftheStudy………………………………………………………………………………….2
SettingoftheStudy……………………………………………………………………………………2
ResearchQuestions…………………...………………………………………………………………3
DefinitionofTerms……………………...…………………………………………………………….3
OrganizationoftheStudy……………..……………………………………………………………4
Chapter2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………6
LiteratureReview……………………………………….…………………………………………………….6
CommunicationTheories……………………………..…………………………………………….6
MediaRoles…………………………………………….………………………………………………...7
CommunicationPlan……………………………….………………………………………………...9
AftertheDisaster……………………………….……………………………………………………10
Chapter3………………………………………………………………………………………………....……12
Methodology…………………………………………………………………………………………...……...12
DataSources…………………………………………………………………………………..……….12
Participants…………………………………………………………………………………...………..12
InterviewDesign…………………………………………………………………………..…………13
InterviewQuestions……………………………………………………………………..………….13
DataCollection…………………………………………………………………………….………….14
DataPresentation…………………………………………………………………………..………..15
Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………..………….15
Delimitations………………………………………………………………………………….……….15
Chapter4……………………………………………………………………………………………..……….16
DataAnalysis…………………………………………………………………………………………….…….16
DescriptionofParticipants………………………………………………………………………16
PublicRelations/StateParks………………………………..………………………..16
ii
CrisisCommunication……………………………………..…………………………….16
MediaRelations…………………………………………………………………………….17
CrisisCommunicationQuestionnaire…………………………..……………………………17
ResearchQuestions……………..…………………………………………………………………..29
Chapter5………………………………………………………..……………………………………………..32
DiscussionandRecommendations………………………………………….……………………….32
Summary………………………………………………………………………..……………………….32
DiscussionandRecommendation……………………………………..………………………33
StudyConclusion…………………………………………………………………………….……….38
References……………….……………………………………………………………………………………40
AppendixA…………………………………………….………………..…………………………………….43
AppendixB……………………………………………………...…………………………………………….51
AppendixC…………………………………………..………………………………………………………..53
iii
Chapter1
Introduction
StatementoftheProblem
Everyyeartheworldishitbynumerousnaturaldisasters.Thepubliclearns
aboutthesedisastersthroughdifferentmediaplatforms.Whenanaturaldisasters
hits-itispartiallyuptothemediatoalertthepublicwithinformationasitbecomes
available.AsGarfieldsuggestsinherstudy,“massmediaistheprimarysourceof
informationduringdisasters,especiallypriorto,duringtheinitialimpact,andinthe
immediateaftermath,”(Garfield,2007,p.59).
Thinkbackto2005,theGulfCoastoftheUnitedStatesisstruckbythe
disastrousstormHurricaneKatrina.Thecountryquicklyshiftsintocrisismodeas
thousandsarelefthomelessandwithoutadequateshelter.CNN’sAndersonCooper
becomesthefaceofthecrisisashereportsfromtheeyeofthestorminhis
characteristicemotionalandrelatabletones.Thecountryisinastateofemergency.
Howwasthepublicnotifiedaboutthedisasterandwhyweresomanypeople
stillleftwithouthelp?ThemysteriesthatsurroundtheHurricaneandthethousands
whowereleftwithouthelp-canbelookedatinafewdifferentways;PresidentBush
andFEMA’sturtle-likepacerespondingtothedisasterandthemedia’sconstantand
activecoverageofthedisaster.Inordertoproperlydissectthedisasterandsomeof
whathappened-wemustfocusononeissueatatime.
Thispaperwillbeasingle-sitecasestudyonHurricaneKatrinaandthe
media’scoveragebefore,duringandafterthedisaster.
1
BackgroundoftheProblem
Naturaldisastercanhaveextremeeffectsonallthoseinvolved.Hurricane
Katrinaiswidelyregardedasamediaandpublicrelationsfailure.Inordertolearn
fromthis“failure”wemustanalyzethedisasterthroughthelensofthemediaand
publicrelationsofficials.Inordertounderstandwhythestormandthecoverage
andpublicrelationsresponsesareconsideredafailure,wemustfirstunderstand
theconceptofcrisiscommunicationsandcrisisplanning.“HurricaneKatrina
representsoneofthemostseverenaturaldisastersinU.S.history.Italsorepresents
oneofthemostpoorlyhandledintermsofcrisiscommunication,”(Ulmeret.al,
2015,p.175).Wemustalsolookintotherolesthemediashouldplayduringacrisis.
PurposeoftheStudy
Thiscasestudywilllookintothemedia’srolefollowinganaturaldisaster.It
willalsolookintowhatthemediasrolesare,andshouldbe,before,duringandafter
anaturaldisaster.ThisstudywilldiscussCrisisCommunicationsPlansforPublic
RelationsPractitioners.Itwillalsorelatecrisiscommunicationsplansexplainedby
experts,totheeventssurroundingHurricaneKatrina.
SettingoftheStudy
Thisisasinglecasestudythatwilluseresearchfrompaperswrittenonthe
mediacoverage,PublicRelationsPlansandinformationalinterviewswithPublic
AffairsOfficers,PublicRelationsExecutivesandmembersofthemedia.
2
ResearchQuestions
Thestudyisbasedonresearchquestionsthatwerecreatedfrom
independentresearchconductedbeforethestartofthepaper.Thisstudywillfocus
onthefollowingresearchquestions:
1. Whatarethecommunicationstheoriesandwhatarethecrisis
managementtechniquesapplicabletothestudy?
2. Whatarethemedia’srolesinplanningandcrisiscommunication?
3. Whatwasthecommunicationplanusedbythemembersofthemediaand
publicrelationsofficialsandwhatweretheaffectsontheamountof
mediacoveragebefore,duringandafterHurricaneKatrina?
4. Afterthemediacoverageended-whatwasthephysicalstateofNew
Orleans?
DefinitionofTerms
Media:Newspapers,magazines,televisionandradio,consideredasagroup;
thenewsmedia.(dictionary.cambridge.org).
PublicRelations:PublicRelationsistheartandscienceofanalyzingtrends,
practicingtheirconsequences,counselingtheorganizationleaders,and
implementingplannedprogramsofaction,whichwillserveboththeorganizations’
andthepublicinterest.(PublicRelationsWriting,FormandStyle.Newsomand
Haynes,4).
PublicInformationOfficer:PublicInformationOfficersarechargedwith
gatheringanddisseminatinginformationtostakeholdersduringacrisis.Itisa
complexcommunicationjobthatisessentialtoaneffectiveresponseandrecovery
3
operationduringacrisis.(Ulmeret.al,EffectiveCrisisCommunication:MovingFrom
CrisistoOpportunity,p.61).
Crisis/IssuesManagement:Isprimarilyaresearchfunction,thepurposeof
whichistoidentifyandtracktrendsandeventslikelytoaffecttheinstitutionand
anyofitspublics.(Newsomet.al,PublicRelationsWriting:FormandStyle,p.325).
CrisisCommunications:AccordingtoEffectiveCrisis
Communication:MovingFromCrisistoOpportunity,CrisisCommunicationsisthe
wayinwhichacompanyorcityrespondstoacrisis,andcanincludepressreleases,
newsconferencesandthemediuminwhichtheycommunicatewiththeir
stakeholders.(Ulmeret.al,EffectiveCrisisCommunication:MovingFromCrisisto
Opportunity,p.6-8).
CrisisCommunicationPlan:(alsoknownascrisismanagementplan);A
crisismanagementplan(CMP)isareferencetool,notablueprint.ACMPprovides
listsofkeycontactinformation,remindersofwhattypicallyshouldbedoneina
crisis,andformstobeusedtodocumentthecrisisresponse.ACMPisnotastep-bystepguidetohowtomanageacrisis.Lerbinger(2012),Coombs(2015),andLow,
ChungandPang(2012)havenotedhowaCMPsavestimeduringacrisisbypreassigningsometasks,pre-collectingsomeinformation,andservingasareference
source.Pre-assigningtaskspresumesthereisadesignatedcrisisteam.Theteam
membersshouldknowwhattasksandresponsibilitiestheyhaveduringacrisis.
(instituteforpr.prg,CrisisManagementandCommunications).
NaturalDisasters/Hazards:Arenaturallyoccurringphysicalphenomena
causedeitherbyrapidorslowonsetevents,whichcanbegeophysical,hydrological,
4
climatologicalorbiological.(InternationalFederationofRedCrossandRedCrescent
Societies,ifrc.org).
Hurricane:Alsoreferredtoastropicalstorms,cyclonesandtyphoons.A
Hurricaneisanon-frontalstormsystemthatischaracterizedbyalow-pressure
center,spiralrainbandsandstrongwinds.(InternationalFederationofRedCross
andRedCrescentSocieties,ifrc.org).
FEMA:AccordingtotheCambridgeEnglishDictionary,FEMAisan
abbreviationfortheFederalEmergencyManagementAgency;AUSGovernment
organizationthatispartoftheDepartmentofHomelandSecurityandthatorganizes
helpforpeoplewhenthereisanemergency,suchasaNaturalDisaster.
(Dictionary.cambridge.com).
OrganizationoftheStudy
Thestudywillbedividedintofivechapters.Thefirstchapterisan
introductiontotheproblemandoverviewofwhatmethodsandquestionswillbe
askedthroughoutthestudy.Chaptertwoistheliteraturereviewoftheresearch
questionsandattemptstousecurrentinformationandotherstudiestoanswerthe
researchquestions.Chapterthreeisthemethodologyinwhichtheauthorusesto
conductthestudyandhowthedatawascollected.Chapterfouristhedataanalysis
wheretheauthorwillconductinterviewsandbegintodrawconclusionsbasedon
theresearchcollected.Thefinalchapter,chapterfiveisthediscussionof
conclusionsandrecommendationsforfurtherpracticeand/orstudy.
5
Chapter2
LiteratureReview
WhataretheCommunicationTheoriesandCrisisManagementTechniques
ApplicabletotheStudy?
ThisstudyisgroundedusingtheSituationalCrisisCommunicationTheory,
whichaccordingtoCoombs(2012),
“Dictatesthatorganizationsmustfirstprotecttheirstakeholdersby
providinginstructinginformationforphysicalcopingandadjusting
informationforpsychologicalcoping.Afteranorganizationhassecured
stakeholders’protectionintheseways,itturnstomendingitsreputation
throughdeny,diminish,rebuild,and/orreinforcestrategiesreflecting
varyinglevelsofaccommodation,”(ascitedinLiu&Pompper,2012,p.xx).
AccordingtoW.T.Coombssituationalcrisiscommunicationtheory“isaclear
exampleoftheorythatprimarilyfocusesonorganization-basedconcerns,actions,
andoutcomes.”
MassCommunicationTheorieshaveagreatdealofimportancewhenit
comestodealingwithanaturaldisasteraftertheinitialevent.Thetheorieswillbe
thebasisofhowthepublicrelationsspecialistsdealwiththemediatorrentthat
occursafterthecrisis.
Thereareothertheoriesthearticlementionsthatlendtheirhandand
abilitiestocrisiscommunications.Suchasthecomplexitytheorythatlistsseven
“keyconstructs”forguidancethroughacrisis.1.InteractingAgents.2.Adaptability.
3.Self-Organization.4.Instability.5.InfluenceofHistory.6.PermeableBoundaries.
6
And7.Irreducibility.Thesestepscouldbeagreatassetinacrisiscommunication
plan.(Gilpin&Murphy,2010,Liu&Pompper,2012).
Astudytitled,BestPracticesasanAssessmentforCrisis
CommunicationfeaturedintheJournalforCommunicationManagement,talks
aboutwhyacrisisCommunicationsPlanisimportant.
“Planforapromptresponse:organizationscanandshouldplanforthechaos
inherentincrises.Thispracticeatminimumrequiresidentificationofneeded
resources,recognitionofpotentialhazards,anddesignationof
responsibilitiesforteammembers.Acrisisplanshouldincludethewho,
what,where,andwhenoftheresponsetoprovidetheorganizationwith
easy-to-followguidelinesduringtheinitialconfusionofthecrisis,”(Veil&
Hustedet.al,2012,p.133).
Thestudyalsosuggestsvariouswaystocomeupwithavalidcrisis
communicationsplan,suchascreatingacommunicationsnetworkwiththe
publicandthemedia(Veil&Hustedet.al,2012,p.134).
WhataretheMedias’RolesInPlanningCrisisCommunications?
Duringthe9/11crisesin2011,theinformationthatthepublicsought
themostwaswhatcausedthedisaster,thethreatlevelandlevelofdamagesamong
others(Ulmer,Sellnowetal,2015,p.118).
Astudyfoundthatthosewhomightbedirectlyaffectedbythecrisisspent
eighthoursadayusingmediaoutlets,suchasradioandtelevision,theinternetor
reachingouttofriendstofindoutmoreinformationaboutthecrisis(Ulmer,Sellnow
etal,2015,p.118).
7
TheCentersforDiseaseControlandPreventionhasdonestudiesaboutthe
bestpracticesforacrisisspokespersonduringacrisis.Theyareasfollows:
“(1)Simplemessagesareimportantduringacrisiswhenpeoplemayhave
difficultyprocessinginformation.(2)Timelymessagesarecriticalduringacrisis.
(3)Accuracyrequiresstraightforwardmessages.(4)Relevantmessagesaddressthe
mostimmediateconcerns.(5)Credibilitybuildstrustthatisessentialtoeffective
crisiscommunication.Finally,(6)consistencyisthehallmarkofeffectivecrisis
communication,”(Ulmer,Sellnowetal,2015,p.149).
TheB.P.OilSpill,justlikeHurricaneKatrinaandthe9/11terroristsattacks
attractedagreatdealofmediacoverage.
“Theglobalmedia’sattentionforthiscrisiswasintense.PIO’ssuggestedthat
themediawasimportanttotheircommunicationbecausetheyweretheprimary
waytogetmessagesouttotheirstakeholders,”(Ulmer,Sellnowetal,2015,p.62).
ThePublicInformationOfficerssuggestthatperhapstheintensityinwhich
themediacoveredthisparticularcrisismadeworkingwiththemharder.Themedia
demandedmoreaccesstothespillcoverageandoftenweren’tsatisfiedwiththe
coveragetheyweregetting.Thestudysuggeststhatitmadegettingcorrect
informationtothepublichardbecausetheonslaughtofmediaquestionsand
attentionmadesomeinformationgooutbeforeitwaschecked(Ulmer,Sellnowetal,
2015,p.62).
8
WhatwastheCommunicationPlanUsedbyMembersoftheMediaandPublic
RelationsOfficialsanditsEffectontheAmountofMediaCoverageBefore,
During,andAfterHurricaneKatrina?
InanessaywrittentwoyearsafterHurricaneKatrina,Communicating
throughoutKatrina-theauthorssuggesttherearemanypeopleneedtobeinvolved
intheplaninordertohaveagoodcommunicationsplanandgreatmediacoverage.
“Atypicalscenariointhisperspectivewouldhavekeyleadersinteracting
witharangeofadvisors,includingpoliceandfirechiefs,healthandmentalhealth
experts,mediaconsultants,technicalspecialists(terrorismexperts,chemical
specialists,etc.),andodiers,”(Garnett,Kouzmanet.al,2007).
Thiscommunicationplanalsotellsthoseinvolvedinthecoverageofthe
naturaldisasterhowtoproperlycoverthedisasterevendowntothetoneofthe
coverage.Theessayalsosaysthatthemediacoverageandthoseinvolvedsuchas
PresidentGeorgeBushfailedtomeetthesekeycomponentsofpropermedia
coverageduringHurricaneKatrina(Garnett,Kouzmanet.al,2007.)
Thebook,CrisisCommunicationandRace,looksatthefunctionsthatcrisis
communicationsanddisasterpreparednesshaveforthepublic.
“Thecrisismessagemakescleardirectionsonthecurrentstateregardingthe
crisesandwhatactionsshouldnowbetaken,”(Spence,et.al,2007,p.541).
Thisbookalsosuggeststhatevenifacrisispreparednessplanisintheory
effective,itisthepublicwhomakesthedecisionwhetherornottofollowtheplan
closelythathasbeenlaidoutbythemedia.(Spence,et.al,2007,p.546).
9
WhenHurricaneKatrinaMediaCoverageEnded,WhatwasthePhysicalState
ofNewOrleans?
Afteranaturaldisastertherearemanyaspectsthatgointorecoveringacity,
suchaseconomicandsocialrebuilding.HurricaneKatrina,itissuggested,isagreat,
orratherpoorexampleofwhatcanhappentoacityanditsresidentsafteradisaster
asbigasKatrina(Kim,etal.,2014,p.666).Itisnottheresponsibilityofthe
residents,butheresponsibilitylieswithinthegovernmentandthevariouslegal
“stakeholders”withinthecity.
“Therecoveryprocessthattakesplaceinthewakeofseveredamagetoan
arearequiresaholisticapproachthatentailsaddressingtheimmediateneedsof
victims,devisingandcommunicatinganewvisionoftherecoveredcommunity,
planninganeconomiccomeback,andrebuildingsocialnetworksamongresidents,”
(NHRAIC2001).
Inanarticlethatdocumentsafirst-handaccountofamanwhohadfamilyin
NewOrleanswhentheHurricanestruck,theauthortalksabouttheotherformsof
mediaheusedtogethisinformation.Theauthor,GaryK.Perry,talksabouthow
duringthedisasterthebroadcastmediaoutletswereoftenunabletogetintothe
stormandmanypeopleturnedtosocialmediatostayupdatedonthedisaster
(Perry,2012,p.76).Inhisarticle,PerrytalkstoapublichistoriannamedMichael
Mizell-NelsonwhocreatedtheHurricaneDigitalMemoryBank(HDMD).Whichisan
onlinespacewheresurvivorsofHurricaneKatrinacansharetheirstories.Perry
suggeststhattheHDMDwasabletofillavacantspaceleftbythe“mainstream
media”thatfailedintheircoverageofthedisaster(Perry,2012,p.78).
10
“Whenyouconsiderit,themainstreammediagravitatestowardsthe
extraordinary…thingsthatgrabpeoples’attention,”(Perry,2012,p.78).“The
peoplewhowereinthethick-of-itwerenotinthenationalnarrative.”
11
Chapter3
Methodology
Thischapterwilldiscussthemethodologyusedtocollectthedatasourcesfor
thisstudy.ThedatawillbecollectedusingresourcesfoundonlinethroughtheCal
PolyLibraryportalandin-personinterviewswithexpertsinthefield.
DataSources
Anexpertfromthefollowingfieldswereinterviewedwithaquestionnaire
regardingthestudy;formerPublicInformationOfficerfortheCentralCoastof
California,Dr.DanEller,thesecondinterviewwaswithCrisisCommunications
consultingfirmowner,ScottSummerfield,andthethirdinterviewwaswiththe
MediaRelationsManagerforahospital,ChrisSaunders.Thequestionnairewas
designedtogainperspectiveaboutthetrainingandexperienceeachmemberofthe
newscommunityhasregardingnaturaldisastersandcrisiscommunication.The
rangeofintervieweeswascarefullyselectedtoreceiveawiderangeofperspectives,
experiencelevelsandknowledgeforthisstudy.
Theuniversity’slibraryportalprovidesavastarrayofresourcesthatcanbe
pinpointedthroughprecisesearchesincludingkeywordsandyearsofstudy.
Participants
Theparticipantsinthestudyareindustryexpertswithmanyyears
experienceinthefieldofcrisiscommunicationsandthemedia.Participantsinclude:
Dr.DanEller,ScottSummerfieldandChrisSaunders.Dr.DanElleristheformer
PublicInformationOfficerfortheCaliforniaStateParksfortheCentralCoast,and
hasover25yearsexperienceinthefieldofcommunications.Hecurrentlyworksas
12
aPublicRelationsprofessoratCaliforniaStateUniversity,SanLuisObispo,andhas
publishedmanystudiesregardingcrisiscommunications.ScottSummerfieldownsa
consultingfirminNorthernCalifornia,calledSAECommunications,andhasover30
yearsexperienceincommunications.Thefirmspecializesinwritingcrisis
communicationsplansforoutsideagencies,suchasgovernmentagenciesandbig
organizations.ChrisSaundersistheMediaRelationsManagerforPalomarHealthin
SanDiego,California.Hehasbeenincommunicationsforover35years,andisalso
theformerPublicInformationOfficerfortheSanDiegoSheriffsDepartment.
InterviewDesign
Thedesignofthequestionnaireismeanttoincorporatethemainpointsof
thestudywhilebeingabletogainnewperspectivesaboutthefocusofmystudy.It
willcenterontheresearchquestionslistedinchapteroneinordertoprovidea
launchingpadforinformationtobecollectedfromreallifepractitionersofpublic
relationsandmedia.Thiswillgivewaytonewideasandknowledgethatwouldnot
beabletobegatheredfromonlineresearchalone.
InterviewQuestionnaire
Thisstudyusedthefollowinginterviewquestions:
1. Inyourownwords-whatisacrisis?
2. Whyiscrisiscommunicationimportantafteradisaster?
3. Inyourownwords-whatisacrisiscommunicationplan?
4. Whatkindofcrisiscommunicationplandoesyour(previous)employer
have–andhowoftenisitpracticed,updatedandused?
5. Whyisacrisiscommunicationplanimportanttohave?
13
6. Inyouropinion–whatarethemedias’rolesregardingcrisis
communicationafteradisaster?
7. Whatareyouropinionsonthewaythemediatypicallyhandlescrisesin
yourcity?
8. IfyouworkedinNewOrleansduringHurricaneKatrina,whatdoyou
thinkyouwouldhavedonedifferentlyandwhy?
9. ArethereanylessonswecanlearnfromHurricaneKatrinaandtheway
themediahandledthedisaster?
10. Whatistheimportanceofcommunicationbefore,duringandaftera
disasterhitsandwhy?
11. Anythingelseyouwouldlikeadd?
DataCollection
Themethodologyfordatacollectionusedinthisstudywillbefromthree
interviewsconductedwithprofessionalspertainingtothefieldforthestudy,Public
RelationsandMediaCommunications.Theintervieweeswillbeaskedspecially
formulatedquestionerstogarnerasmuchinformationaspossiblepertainingto
theirareaofexpertise,includingplanstheircompaniesoragencieshaveinplace
andpriorexperienceregardingcrisiscommunicationsandmediacoverageofcrises.
Thiswillhelpshedlighttotheonlineinformationgathered.
DataPresentation
Itisimportantthattheinterviewstakeplaceinamannerthatallowsfora
completelyun-biasedapproachtothesubjectmatter.Theinterviewswilltakeplace
inpersonoroverthephoneiftheirscheduledoesnotallow.Priortotheinterview
14
communicationwillmainlytakeplaceoverthephoneinordertoconfirmthe
interviewsandfindoutinformationabouttheirjob-soresearchcanbedonein
advance.Thiswillallowtimetocomeupwithanyquestionsmissedinthe
questionnairethatwillbevitaltoinformationneededtofurtherthestudy.Iwill
recordtheinterviewsdoneinpersonwithadigitalaudiorecorder,oraniPhone
allowingtheinterviewertogivefullattention.Aftertheinterview,thetapeswillbe
usedtotranscribetheinterviews,whichwillbelistedintheappendixofthisstudy.
Limitations
TheSeniorProjectislimitedbytheamountoftimeallottedtocompletethe
study.Thecoursewilltakeplaceovera10-weekperiodandotherlimitations
includebutarenotlimitedto,timeconstraintsandworkoverload.
Delimitations
AsthisseniorprojectwilltakeplaceafterIwalkintheFallCommencement
for2015,andwillbetheonlyremainingcourseneededtocompletemydegree.Iam
limitedtointerviewingexpertsinmyhometownofSanDiegooroverthephone.
Oneinterviewwilltakeplaceinpersonandtwowilltakeplaceoverthephoneand
berecordedtoensureallinformationrecordedintheappendicesisverbatim.
15
Chapter4
DataAnalysis
Chapterfourwilldiscussresponsesconductedinthreeinterviewswith
professionalsrelatedtopublicrelationsandthemedia.Eachinterviewlasted
between30-45minutesandwasrecorded.Duetothelengthoftheinterviews,they
willbeparaphrasedandorganizedbysectionbelow.Eachanswerfromthe
interviewsandtheresearchfromtheresearchquestionswillbeparaphraseddueto
thelengthoftheinterviewsandthedensityoftheresearch.
DescriptionofParticipatingExpertsinRelatedFields
PublicRelations-StateParks:
Dr.DanEllerwasaPublicInformationOfficerfortheCaliforniaStateParks
foralmost25years.PartofDan’sdutieswasoverseeingmediaandcrisis
communicationfortheCaliforniaStateParksontheCentralCoastofCalifornia.Dr.
EllerhasabackgroundinPublicRelations,MediaandCrisisCommunications.
CurrentlyheisaPublicRelationsProfessoratCaliforniaPolytechnicState
University,SanLuisObispo.Hehasalsopublishedseveralpeer-reviewedJournal
articlesandbeenaco-authorforaPublicRelationstextbook.
PublicRelations–CrisisCommunications/Consulting:
ScottSummerfieldhasbeeninmediaandmediacommunicationsforover30years.
Hestartedoutasareporterandfoundhiswayintomediarelationsandbecamethe
PublicInformationOfficerfortheCityofNewark,California.Fromthere,Scott
foundedSAECommunicationslocatedintheBayAreaofCalifornia,wherehealso
servesasthecompanies’President.Thecompanyprovidesconsultingandcrisis
16
communicationsplansforcompaniesandgovernmentorganizations.SAE
Communicationshasbeeninoperationforover23years.Heisalsoacourse
managerandcommunicationsteacherforCaliforniaSpecializedTrainingInstitute.
PublicRelations–MediaRelations:
ChrisSaundershasbeenincommunicationsforover35years.Hestartedoutasa
producer,beforebecomingaseasonedreporterforover20years.Hemovedonto
becomethePublicInformationOfficerfortheSanDiegoSheriffsDepartmentbefore
becomingtheMediaRelationsManagerforPalomarHealthinSanMarcos,
California.Inaddition,ChrishasalsobeenanAdjunctProfessorfortheGovernors
OfficerofEmergencyServicesforover11years.
CrisisCommunicationQuestionnaire:
Eachexpertwasaskedtorespondtoquestionsregardingcrisis
communicationandHurricaneKatrina:
1. Inyourownwords-whatisacrisisintermsofPR?
Question#1wasmeanttoadapttheconversationinawaythatwasrelatablefor
eachpublicrelationsexpert.Acrisis,orcrisesisabroadtermthatcanrelateto
dozensofscenarioseachemployermayexperience.Eachcrisisprovidesitsown
uniquecircumstancesandchallenges,makingeachresponsevaried;soonebroad
definitioncannotdefinetheterm.
•
DanEller:“Usuallywhencrisishappensitnotonlybringsunwanted
publicattentionbutitcanchangethewaybusinessisdonefora
companyoranorganizationorapublicagencyinthefuture”
(AppendixA).
17
•
ScottSummerfield:“Crisestakeacoupleofdifferentforms.Oneisa
naturaldisasterlikehurricaneKatrinaorothereventslikethat.And
theotheriswhatwecallcrisesofconfidenceandthat’swhenapublic
agencyoracompanycreatesitsowncrisisthroughsomebodydoing
somethingillegal,immoral,orunethical”(AppendixB).
•
ChrisSaunders:“Ithinkacrisisoccurswhenthereisanevent
involvingyourcompanyoryourorganizationthatneedsimmediate
attentiontokeepitfromlookingextremelynegativetothepublicand
therestoftheworldthatiseffectedbyyourorganization”(Appendix
C).
2. Whyiscrisiscommunicationimportantafteradisaster?
Question#2ismeanttodeterminewhycrisisisimportantaftera
crisisandwhatkindofcommunicationisnecessary.Basedonthemeaningof
thetermcrisiscommunicationdefinedinchaptertwo,weknowthat
communicationfollowingacrisisisimportant,butthetypeof
communicationispertinenttotherecoverytimeofthecompanyaswell.Itis
importanttogaindifferentperspectivesonthekindofcommunication.
•
DanEller:“Wellcrisiscommunicationafteradisasteriscritical,
especiallyimmediatelyafter.Assoonaspossible,crisis
communicationshouldbeincorporated…Andthenonceit’shappened
aresponseiscritical.It’sreallyimportantthatitbefast,accurateand
beastransparentasitcanbe”(AppendixA).
18
•
ScottSummerfield:“Wellit’snotonlyafter,itsduringaswell…
peoplesemotionsareveryandpeopleareveryworried,goodcrisis
communicationshelpspeoplemaketherightdecisionsduringthese
veryemotional,veryverytenseandstressfultimes”(AppendixB).
•
ChrisSaunders:“Itisextremelyimportanttocommunicatetothe
publicimportantinformationtheyneedtoknowtopreventthem
frombeinginjuredortheirpropertybeingdamagedbyadisaster”
(AppendixC).
3. Inyourownwords-whatisacrisiscommunicationplan?
Question#3ismeanttodeterminenotonlytheimportanceofcrisis
communicationafteracrisis,asansweredinquestiontwo,butalsoto
determinewhatkindofpreparationhappensbeforeacrisisthatleadsto
greatcrisiscommunicationbefore,duringandafteracrisis.
•
DanEller:“Wellacrisiscommunicationplanistryingtodosomething
thatcanbealittlebittrickyandthatisriskassessment.Tobeginwith
wewanttodefinewhatacrisisisforacompany…Soinacompany
whatwewanttolookatintermsofcrisiscommunicationplanningis
definewhatthecrisescanbeforacompany”(AppendixA).
• ScottSummerfield:“Crisiscommunicationsplanisafoundationforhowa
governmentagencyoraprivatecompanyshouldcommunicatewhena
crisishappens…It’sessentialthataplanisinplacethatincludesdifferent
procedurestocommunicateduringacrisis,veryclearstaffing
responsibilities,aclearunderstandingofhowtogetnewstothelocal
19
mediaandregionalmediaandoftennationalandinternationalmedia
duringacrisis”(AppendixB).
• ChrisSaunders:“Tome,itisverysimilartothehospitals’disasterplan,
anticipatingvarioustypesofdisastersandhowwewillhandlethem…So
basically,youhavetothinkofasmanypossiblescenariosasyoucan,based
onhistoryandalsoalittleoutoftheboxthinking,withwhatcouldhappen
buthaven’thappenedyet”(AppendixC).
4. Whatkindofcrisiscommunicationplandoesyour(previous)employer
have–andhowoftenisitpracticed,updatedandused?
Question#4ismeanttoexplorethedifferentkindsofcommunicationsplans
usedbytheexperts’employers,sothatwecanseehowcrisis
communicationsplansareusedinpracticalandreallifesituations.
•
DanEller:“Wellwehavesomecommunicationplansinplacefor
Tsunami,Fire,Earthquake,thosetypesofthingsarethataremore
likelytohappen…Actuallywepracticequiteabit.Workingwiththe
CountyofSanLuisObispoofficeofEmergencyServices,wepractice,I
wouldsaythroughouttheyearperiodically”(AppendixA).
•
ScottSummerfield:“Wellweactuallyworkwithdifferentcompanies
anddifferentgovernmentagenciestocreatetheirplans.Sowehave
writtenanumberofthem.Theyarepracticedfairlyfrequently,more
commonlywiththesecrisesofconfidenceratherthannatural
disasters”(AppendixB).
20
•
ChrisSaunders:“Mypreviousemployerhadanextremelydetailed
communicationsplan.Stagingareasforthemedia,whowouldbe
speaking,howdowehandlethistypeofemergency,howdowe
handleanothertypeofsituation?”(AppendixC).
5. Whyisacrisiscommunicationplanimportanttohave?
Question#5ismeanttodiscussfurthertheimportanceofacrisis
communicationplan.Sofarwealreadyknowwhatacrisis
communicationplanis,accordingtotheexperts.Wealsoknowwhythey
believecommunicationisimportantafteradisasteroccurs.Nowwecan
explorewhytheprofessionalsbelievehavingaplaninplacepriortoa
naturaldisasterorcrisisofconfidenceiscrucial.
•
DanEller:“Wellbecausethemostimportantthingabouthavinga
crisiscommunicationplanisusuallywhencrisishappens,itcan
involvemultipleagencies,multiplestakeholdersormultiple
companies,individuals,andnothavingaplanforyourparticular
companyorpublicagencyisdifficulttoworkwithothers”
(AppendixA).
•
ScottSummerfield:“Itreallyisnotoptional.Infact,itis
mandatory.Becauseatsomepointeverycompanyandevery
governmentagencyisgoingtofacesomesortofcrisis…Andwhen
theyfacethatcrisistheyneedtobeabletoactquicklytohelp
peoplemakegooddecisionsandtomaintaintheircredibilityas
theyrespondtotheircrisis.Theonlywaytodothatistohavea
21
planinplaceandreadytogowhenthecrisishits.Youabsolutely
cannotcreateoneduringthecrisisitself”(AppendixB).
•
ChrisSaunders:“WellIthinkwehaveansweredthatquestion.You
cannotgointoanykindofcrisisorincidentwithoutknowinghow
youaregoingtohandleitinadvanceandthatiswhyweplanthese
scenarios’(AppendixC).
6. Inyouropinion–whatarethemedias’rolesregardingcrisiscommunication
afteradisaster?
Question#6ismeanttoexplorehowthemediaineachexpert’scity
handlescrisesandcrisescommunicationnotonlyafterbutalso
beforeandduringacrisis.
•
DanEller:“Ifeelthatthemostimportantthingthemediacan
doafteracrisishashappenedis1,toreportthenewsinanonbiasedfashion…Ibelieveitisveryvitalforthemediato
respondwiththepublicnotjusttothepublic”(AppendixA).
•
ScottSummerfield:“Themediaisthemostefficientwaythata
companyoragovernmentagencycancommunicatewitha
largenumberofpeople…Allofthosetraditionalandsocial
mediachannelsaddedtogetherhelpsacompanyoranagency
getnewstothelargestnumberofpeoplemostquickly”
(AppendixB).
•
ChrisSaunders:“Themediarealizesthatitplaysanimportant
roleincrisissituations,andtheyareverygoodabout
22
understandingthatroleandgettingthelatestgreatest
informationout.Itisuptoustogettheinformationtothem
andmakesurethatitisbeingtransmittedtothepublic
properly”(AppendixC).
7. Whatareyouropinionsonthewaythemediatypicallyhandlescrisesin
yourcity?
Question#7ismeanttobringthescopeofthemediatothetownorcity
eachexpertlivesin.Itisimportantformembersofthemediato
distinguishhowthemediaworksonanationalandonalocallevel.
•
DanEller:“Ithinkin,letssay,theCityofSanLuisObispointerms
oflocalmediahandlingcrisis,Ithinkthattheyareveryquickto
respond.Becauseforonething,it’sasmalltownandit’sasmall
mediamarketandthere’snotasmuchcompetitionwithstories
andincidentsandthingsthataregoingoneeachday,andsothey
areabletocommitprettymuchfullresourcestoit…Iguessmy
onlycritiquethatmightbenegativeisthatIdon’tthinkthatthe
localmediaherereallyknowquiteasmuchaswhatgoesinto
planningandparticipateintermsofwhatsomeofthethingsthat
arebeingdone”(AppendixA).
•
ScottSummerfield:“Ifindthemediatendstobeveryvery
responsibleduringcrises…Thatsaid,themediaisonlyasgoodas
theinformationthattheyareabletoget.Whichiswhyittrulyisa
23
partnershipbetweenlocalagenciesorcompaniesandthemediain
helpingpeoplegetthenewsthattheyneed”(AppendixB).
•
ChrisSaunders:“InSanDiegoCountyIwouldsaytheygetanA+.
Themediaheredoesawonderfuljobofunderstandingtheirrole
incommunicatingimportantinformationtothepublic,andthey
stepupanddothejobverywell…InSanDiegoCountyIwouldsay
theygetanA+.Themediaheredoesawonderfuljobof
understandingtheirroleincommunicatingimportantinformation
tothepublic,andtheystepupanddothejobverywell”
(AppendixC).
8. IfyouworkedinNewOrleansduringHurricaneKatrina,whatdoyou
thinkyouwouldhavedonedifferentlyandwhy?
Question#8ismeanttobringthequestionnairebacktothefocusofthe
casestudy,HurricaneKatrina.Itisimportantthattheemphasisisonone
eventtounderstanditthroughthelensofanactualevent,ratherthan
pre-planningforadisaster.
•
DanEller:“Katrinawaspoorlyhandled.Ihatetosaythis,butthere
wasafailuretocommunicate…ifIhadbeenworkingtodealwith
it,itstoughbecause,workingincommunicationsthereisachain
ofcommand.Andworkingforapublicagencythetopchainof
commandisFederalGovernmentthenStateGovernment.And
whentheFederalGovernmentcouldn’tgetitrightthenthereare
24
communicationbreakdownsthatwilloccurthroughout”
(AppendixA).
•
ScottSummerfield:“HurricaneKatrinawasamajorfailona
numberoffronts.Therewasverypoorcommunicationwiththe
public…Iwouldhavehadamuchbetterplanbeforehand.Iwould
havemadesurethatelectedofficials,includingthemayor,were
partofthatplan…Iwouldhavemadesurethattheplanincluded
coordinationingettingmutualaidandassistancefromother
agencieswaspartofthatplanaswell”(AppendixB).
•
ChrisSaunders:“Wellthat’shardformetoanswerbecauseIdon’t
knowexactlywhattheydiddowntherebutIknowitwasrather
chaotic.SomyquestiontothempostKatrina,‘didyouhavean
effectivecrisiscommunicationsplanalongwithallyourother
disasterplans,anddidyouimplementitproperly?...SoIthinkthat
iftheywerenotdoingthosethings,ifIwereatKatrinaatthetime,
IwouldhavehadacommunicationsplanineffectandIwould
haveutilizedit”(AppendixC).
9. ArethereanylessonswecanlearnfromHurricaneKatrinaandtheway
themediahandledthedisaster?
Question#9ismeanttodiscussthelessonsthatcanbelearnedfromall
naturaldisasters.SeeingasHurricaneKatrinaisoneofthemajorlessons
inCrisisCommunicationsplanninginPublicRelationsBooks,theexperts
25
cannowdispensethelessonstheymayhavelearnedthroughwatching
thehurricanefromanoutsiders’perspective.
•
DanEller:“…Ithinkoneofthemostcriticalchallengeslearnedis
thatofpubliccommunications.Whatcanbedoneinaunified
managementintermsofcommunications?Commandandcontrol
andhowthat’shandled,becausethatwasnothandledduring
Katrina”(AppendixA).
•
ScottSummerfield:“YouknowIfeelthemediadidthebestjob
theycould.Idon’tknowthattherewasanythingmoretheycould
do…youalwayslearnfromit.Youlearnwhoyoursourcesare,you
learnwhoyoucangoto…Iamprettysurethelocalmediathere
madeveryclearwhattheyneedthenexttimesomethinglikethat
happens”(AppendixB).
•
ChrisSaunders:“…themediahandleditthebesttheycould,itwas
achaoticsituation.Onethingthatiscriticalinasituationlikethat
issettingupwhatiscalledaJointInformationCenter,aJ-I-C.And
that’soneofthethingthatweteachatCSTI,CaliforniaSpecialized
TrainingInstitute,aJICiswhereyoubringtogetherspokespeople
forvariousagenciesinvolvedsoeverybodythatistherewillbe
abletoinformthemediaaboutwhatisgoingon”(AppendixC).
10. Whatistheimportanceofcommunicationbefore,duringandaftera
disasterhitsandwhy?
26
Question#10ismeanttodiscusstheimportanceofcommunication
beforeandduringadisaster.Wehavealreadydiscussedwhyitis
importanttocommunicateafteradisaster,butthecommunicationshould
beongoing.
•
DanEller:“WellI’dsaybeforewhatisreallycritical,andthisisthe
mostcriticalthingifyouareapublicinformationofficer,isto
establishcloserelationshipswithyourlocalmediafolks
beforehand.(During)Firstandforemostthingisthatthe
informationfollowsachainofcommand.Thatthepersonatthe
topisbeingawareofwhatisbeingsaidintermsofcontent,howit
isbeingdeliveredintermsoftiming,whoisdeliveringitandthen
whatisthefollowuponthat…Thepublicneedstoknow
immediatelywhatisgoingon.Butyouaretheonetellingthem.
Notthemedia,theyaresimplyaconduit.(After)Nowintermsof
postcrisis,post-crisisistodebriefinfernally…Youtellthemwhat
youaregoingtosay.Yousayit.Andthenyoutellthemwhatyou
said”(AppendixA).
•
ScottSummerfield:“…themediaasapartnercanhelppeople
makethosegooddecisions…Itisoneofthemostcriticalpiecesof
anytypeofdisasterresponse,soitisabsolutelyessential”
(AppendixB).
•
ChrisSaunders:“…ifastormiscoming,ifahurricaneiscoming,
you’llhaveseveraldaysofadvancedwarningusually.Soitisall-
27
importanttocommunicatetothepublic,thatit’scomingandif
theyneedtoevacuate…Sotheadvancedcommunicationisallimportant…duringtheevent,wearegivingoutinformationthat
enablespeopletosurvivewhatevertheeventit…Afterwards,
assumingthattheemergencyisover,it’sveryveryimportantto
basicallyletthepublicknowwhatthelessonslearnedwere”
(AppendixC).
11. Anythingelseyouwouldliketoadd?
Question#11ismeanttoallowtheexpertstotouchonanythingimportant
theywantedtospeakaboutbutwasnotabletofitintooneoftheiranswers.
•
DanEller:“ThefinalthingIwouldliketosayis,isthat,Ireallyvalue
mymediarelationsandworkingwiththemedia.Ivaluethembecause
IknowatsomepointtherewillbeacrisisandIknowthattheconduit
theyprovidetothepubliciscritical…AlsoinclosingIwouldliketo
saythatfromastandpointofbeinginpublicrelationsand
relationshipmanagement,Ihaveactuallyseensomegoodthingscome
outofcrisis”(AppendixA).
•
ScottSummerfield:“Ithink,weareseeingalotofgovernment
agenciesandcompaniesrecognizingthattheyneedtohaveacrisis
communicationsplaninplace.Thatisverygratifyingtosee…People
areconsuminginformationinnewways.Itisveryimmediate,we
don’thavetimetothink,ortoplan,ortoponderthesethings.Our
responsehastobevirtuallyimmediate.Andacrisiscommunications
28
plan,agoodwellthoughtoutcrisiscommunicationsplan,allowsyou
todothat”(AppendixB).
•
ChrisSaunders:“Iseeeverycrisisasanopportunityforyoutomake
yourorganizationlookgood.Nowwearenotsayingthatwearetrying
toputlipstickonatragedy,sotospeak.Butifwedemonstratethatwe
arepreparedandwearehandlingitinthebestpossiblewayand
learninglessonsfromthingsthatdidnotgosowell,thenthatbuilds
trustinourorganization.Peoplewilltendtotrustusmoreandbelieve
inusmore,itenhancesourcredibilityandreputation.Soevery
situation,nomatterhowbaditappears,isanopportunitytoshowthe
publicthatyoutaketheirconcernsseriously,thatyouaregoingto
learnandgrowfromthesituation”(AppendixC).
CrisisCommunicationsResearchQuestions
Forthisstudy,fourresearchquestionsweredevelopedtogatherinformation
onHurricaneKatrina.CrisisCommunicationstheoriesarediscussed,mediaroles
andthescopeofthepaperisthennarrowedtofocusonasinglestudy,Hurricane
Katrina.Thisissowecanbetterunderstandthetheorieswefocuson,fromareal
lifeandpracticalapplication.
ResearchQuestionNumber1:WhataretheCommunicationsTheoriesand
CrisisManagementTechniquesthatareApplicabletotheStudy?
•
AccordingtoW.T.Coombssituationalcrisiscommunicationtheory“isaclear
exampleoftheorythatprimarilyfocusesonorganization-basedconcerns,
actions,andoutcomes”(Liu&Pompper,2012,p.xx).
29
ResearchQuestionNumber2:WhataretheMedias’Rolesinplanningand
CrisisCommunications?
•
“(1)Simplemessagesareimportantduringacrisiswhenpeoplemayhave
difficultyprocessinginformation.(2)Timelymessagesarecriticalduringa
crisis.(3)Accuracyrequiresstraightforwardmessages.(4)Relevant
messagesaddressthemostimmediateconcerns.(5)Credibilitybuildstrust
thatisessentialtoeffectivecrisiscommunication.Finally,(6)consistencyis
thehallmarkifeffectivecrisiscommunication”(Ulmer,Sellnowetal,2015,p.
149).
•
Theglobalmedia’sattentionforthiscrisiswasintense.PublicInformation
Officerssuggestedthatthemediawasimportanttotheircommunication
becausetheyweretheprimarywaytogetmessagesouttotheir
stakeholders”(Ulmer,Sellnowetal,2015,p.62.)
ResearchQuestionNumberThree:WhatwastheCommunicationplanusedby
membersofthemediaandpublicrelationsofficialsanditseffectonthe
amountofmediacoveragebefore,during,andafterKatrina?
•
Atypicalscenariointhisperspectivewouldhavekeyleadersinteractingwith
arangeofadvisors,includingpoliceandfirechiefs,healthandmentalhealth
experts,mediaconsultants,technicalspecialists(terrorismexperts,chemical
specialists,etc.),andodiers”(Garnett,Kouzmanet.al,2007).
•
“Thecrisismessagemakescleardirectionsonthecurrentstateregardingthe
crisesandwhatactionsshouldnowbetaken”(Spence,et.al,2007,p.541).
30
ResearchQuestionNumberFour:WhenHurricaneKatrinaMediaCoverage
Ended,WhatwasthePhysicalStateofNewOrleansAfter?
•
“Therecoveryprocessthattakesplaceinthewakeofseveredamagetoan
arearequiresaholisticapproachthatentailsaddressingtheimmediate
needsofvictims,devisingandcommunicatinganewvisionoftherecovered
community,planninganeconomiccomeback,andrebuildingsocialnetworks
amongresidents”(NHRAIC2001).
31
Chapter5
DiscussionsandRecommendations
Summary
Thisstudywasconductedinordertodeterminebettercrisiscommunication
practicesduringcrises.Thescopeofthestudywasnarrowedtoresearchnatural
disasters,andtookoneofthemostbuzzedaboutnaturaldisasters,Hurricane
Katrinawhichhappenedin2005.CrisisCommunicationsisessentialtomedia
reportingduringnaturaldisasters,andinordertolearnmoreaboutthreeexperts
wereinterviewedtogathermoreinformation.
Tofindoutmoreinformationoncrisiscommunicationsthreeexpertsinthe
fieldofpublicrelationsandthemediawereinterviewed.Theywereaskedtoanswer
thefollowingquestions:
1. Inyourownwords-whatisacrisisintermsofPR?
2. Whyiscrisiscommunicationimportantafteradisaster?
3. Inyourownwords-whatisacrisiscommunicationplan?
4. Whatkindofcrisiscommunicationplandoesyour(previous)employer
have–andhowoftenisitpracticed,updatedandused?
5. Whyisacrisiscommunicationplanimportanttohave?
6. Inyouropinion–whatarethemedias’rolesregardingcrisiscommunication
afteradisaster?
7. Whatareyouropinionsonthewaythemediatypicallyhandlescrisesin
yourcity?
32
8. IfyouworkedinNewOrleansduringHurricaneKatrina,whatdoyouthink
youwouldhavedonedifferentlyandwhy?
9. ArethereanylessonswecanlearnfromHurricaneKatrinaandthewaythe
mediahandledthedisaster?
10. Whatistheimportanceofcommunicationbefore,duringandaftera
disasterhitsandwhy?
11. Anythingelseyouwouldliketoadd?
Eachquestionwaschangedslightlytocatertoeachrespondentbasedonhisor
herfields.Theinterviewquestionnairewasdesignedtogatherinformationfrom
eachrespondentthatrelatedtotheliteraturereview.
DiscussionandRecommendationsforPractice
Responsesfromeachexpertinchapterfourareusedtocompareresearch
findingsfromchaptertwo,theliteraturereview.Therecanbesimilaritiesfound
betweentheresearchandtheexperts’responses.
Researchquestion#1:WhataretheCommunicationTheoriesandCrisis
ManagementTechniquesApplicabletotheStudy?
Theinterviewquestionsreliedheavilyoncrisiscommunicationsplansand
thedefinitionofcrises,particularlynaturaldisasters.Allthreerespondents
maintainedtherearetwokindsofcrises,naturaldisastersandcrisisofconfidence.
Eachrespondenthighlightedtheimportanceofcrisiscommunicationsplanstodeal
withtheaftereffectsofcrises.Dr.Ellerstatesthatacrisiscommunicationsplanis
criticalforacompany,usingriskassessmentasanexampleforhowtocreate
aspectsofone.ScottSummerfieldaddsthatcrisiscommunicationsplansare
33
essentialduringadisaster.ChrisSaundersexplainedthatspeakingtothepublic’s
concernsisthemostimportantpartofcrisiscommunications.
Theliteraturereviewsumsuptheideastherespondentshad,thearticleBest
PracticesasanAssessmentforCrisisCommunicationsstates,inrelationtoacrisis
communicationplan;“organizationscanandshouldplanforthechaosinherentin
crises”(Veil&Hustedet.al,2012,p.133).Thisarticlealsostatestheideathatthe
publicsconcernsarealsoyourconcernswhendealingwithcrisiscommunications.
Fromthesimilaritieswecandrawfromtherespondentsanswersandthe
research,wecanconcludecrisiscommunicationsplansareoftheutmost
importance,andshouldlookatallaspectsoftheplanincluding,riskassessment,
andcommunicationswiththepublicandaddressingtheirconcernsduringacrisis.
Researchquestion#2:WhataretheMedias’RolesinPlanningCrisis
Communications?
Eachrespondenthighlightedtheimportanceofthemediabefore,duringand
afteradisaster,buteachrespondentalsoemphasizeddifferentaspectsofthe
medias’importanceaswell.Dr.Ellerspokefirstoftheimportanceofthemedia
reportinginanon-biasedway,hethensaidoneofthemostimportantpartsofthe
media-istherelationshipthatyou,asagovernmentagencyhaswiththemedia.He
alsotalkedabouttheimportanceoftherelationshipthemediahaswithPublic
InformationOfficers,sayingthatitishisstorytotell,andgettinghisstoryout
efficientlyiscrucial,becausesomebodymighttellitfirst,anditcouldbewrong.
ScottSummerfieldreiteratedtheimportancethegovernmentagencyorcompany
haswiththemedia.Healsohighlightedtheideathatthewaythepublicreceives
34
informationisever-changingsothemediamustkeepupwiththesetrends,butthat
localtelevisionnewsisstillthemosteffectivewaytocommunicateduringa
disaster.ChrisSaundersemphasizedthatthemediamustmakesurethecorrect
informationisgettingtothepublic.
TheliteraturebackedupSummerfield’s’ideathatthechannelof
mediaisimportanttothepublic.Astudyfoundthatthosewhomightbedirectly
affectedbythecrisisspenteighthoursadayusingmediaoutlets,suchasradioand
television,theinternetorreachingouttofriendstofindoutmoreinformationabout
thecrisis(Ulmer,Sellnowetal,2015,p.118).Dr.Ellerbacksthisideaupandargues
thatPIO’sarecrucialtothemedias’rolesduringacrisis.Theliteraturealsoshows
thatitishard,butvastlyimportanttogetcorrectinformationoutafteradisaster,
suchasthisfindingrelatedtotheB.P.OilSpill:Themediademandedmoreaccessto
thespillcoverageandoftenweren’tsatisfiedwiththecoveragetheyweregetting.
Thestudysuggeststhatitmadegettingcorrectinformationtothepublichard
becausetheonslaughtofmediaquestionsandin-attentionmadesomeinformation
gooutbeforeitwaschecked(Ulmer,Sellnowetal,2015,p.62).
Fromthesesimilarities,wecanconcludethatthemedias’roleinanatural
disasterarecrucial,andwithoutthischannel,governmentagencieswouldnotbe
abletogettheirinformationoutinafast,efficientandeffectivemanner.
35
ResearchQuestion#3:WhatwastheCommunicationPlanUsedbyMembersof
theMediaandPublicRelationsOfficialsandits’EffectontheAmountofMedia
CoverageBefore,DuringandAfterHurricaneKatrina?
Whiletheremaynotbeawaytodeterminetheexactcommunicationsplanin
effectduringHurricaneKatrina,wecantakethelessonswelearnedfromHurricane
Katrinatoevaluatehowtoimprovecrisiscommunications.Dr.EllerandScott
SummerfieldbothcitedHurricaneKatrinaasadisasteronmanyfronts.Chris
SaundersandSummerfieldbothstatedthatthemediahandledthecrisisasbest
theycould.Allthreeagreedthemainideathatwouldhavehelpedthe
communicationsduringKatrina,wastohaveawellthoughtoutcrisis
communicationsplan.TheyallalsoagreedthatlessonswerelearnedfromKatrina
aboutcrisiscommunications,andhavebeenusedsince.Allthreeagreedthat
communicationtothemedia,andfromthemediatothepublicisabsolutelycritical
duringadisaster.
Theresearchalsoshowsuswhattherespondentsweresaying,a
communicationsplanwouldhavehelpedthemedia,thegovernmentandthestateof
NewOrleanshandlethedisasteralittlebetter.Theessay,Communicating
ThroughoutKatrina,suggestsaplantolayoutabettercommunicationsplan.“A
typicalscenariointhisperspectivewouldhavekeyleadersinteractingwitharange
ofadvisors,includingpoliceandfirechiefs,healthandmentalhealthexperts,media
consultants,technicalspecialists’”(Garnett,Kouzmanet.al,2007).Itgoesontosay
thatPresidentGeorgeW.Bushfailedtomeetallkeycomponentsduringthat
36
disasterthatwouldhaveledtobettercommunications(Garnett,Kouzmanet.al,
2007).
Fromtheresearchandtherespondent’sanswers,wecanconcludethat
althoughHurricaneKatrinawasatextbookexampleofafailureonmanyfrontsof
communication,thelessonsthatwecanlearnfromthedisasterareinvaluable.
Researchquestion#4:WhenHurricaneKatrinaEnded,WhatwasthePhysical
StateofNewOrleans?
NewOrleansnolongerappearsinthenewsonadailybasis,asisexpected
afteradisasterhits.Itisinthemediauntilthepublicnolongerwantstoseeit.Now,
wonderingwhetheritisthemediasresponsibilitytocontinuetoreportonthestate
ofdisasterareasyearsafterthedisasterisatopicforanotherstudy.Wemaybeable
totakethelessonslearnedfromthedisastertostrengthenthewaythemedia
communicatesduringadisaster.Dr.Ellerstatesthatthemediaisimportantfora
crisisbecausetheyarethechannelsyoutellyourstorythrough.ScottSummerfield
highlightedtheuseofthemorepopularmediachannels,suchastwitteror
Facebook.Thingsthatmaynothavebeenaroundoraspopularbackthen,youuse
whatwillgetyourmessagesouttherethefastestandtothewidestaudience.Chris
Saundersreiteratedtheimportanceofbriefingthemediaonthecorrectinformation
beforeitreachesthepublic.Allrespondentsagreedthatcrisiscouldbringabout
opportunity.Thereareopportunitiestogrow,andtomaketheorganizationsand
themediacommunicationsbetter.
37
Theresearchshowsusthatthemedialikestolatchontosensationalstories,
andbacksuptheideathatitisimportanttomakesurethemediaisreceivingthe
correctinformation.
Whenyouconsiderit,themainstreammediagravitatestowardsthe
extraordinary…thingsthatgrabpeoples’attention”(Perry,2012,p.78).
TheideathatweknowthestateofNewOrleansisconfusing.The
respondentseachdidnottouchontheimportanceofcommunicationwiththe
publicafteradisaster.Whichmaypointtoanotherlessonthemediacouldlearn,the
ideathatcommunicationafteradisaster,withthepubliccouldbejustasimportant
asduring,andbefore.
StudyConclusion
Inconclusion,themediaisanever-changingmedium.In2005when
HurricaneKatrinahit,thewaystocommunicatewithandreachthepublicisvastly
differentthanthechannelsmediausestodaytocommunicate.Twoseparatemedia
practices,PublicRelationsandMediaarebroughttogetherbytheideaofcrisis
communications.Thescopeofcrisiscommunicationswasnarrowedtostudy
HurricaneKatrina.ThePublicInformationOfficersandtheagenciesneededto
communicateduringthecrisis,failedontheirpartandthemediadidthebestthey
couldtodelivertheimportantmessagestothepublic.Itiscrucialformedia
membersandpublicrelationspractitionerstocommunicatewitheachotherin
ordertomakeanaturaldisaster,justalittleeasiertonavigate.Itisessentialthatthe
publicrelationspractitionerslayoutasolidandall-encompassingcrisis
communicationsplan.Itisalsonecessaryforthemtoincludethemediaintheir
38
plans,makecontactsandlearnhowtocommunicatewithmediamembersinorder
togettheirmessagestopublicinaclearandefficientmanner.Asthemediaisevery
changing,lessonshavebeenlearnedfrompreviousdisastersandwillcontinuetobe
learnedinordertomakecrisiscommunicationsmoreproficient.
39
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RetrievedOctober16,2016,fromhttp://www.ifrc.org/en/what-wedo/disaster-management/about-disasters/definition-of-hazard/tropicalstorms-hurricanes-typhoons-and-cyclones/
Miles,B.,&Morse,S.(2007).Theroleofnewsmediainnaturaldisasterriskand
recovery.EcologicalEconomics,63(2-3),365-373.
doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.08.007
Miller,A.,Roberts,S.,&Lapoe,V.(2014).WhoRunsThisDisaster?TheMediaand
theBlameGame.OilandWaterMediaLessonsfromHurricaneKatrinaand
theDeepwaterHorizonDisaster,82-99.
doi:10.14325/mississippi/9781617039720.003.0005
Newsom,D.,&Haynes,J.(2014).Publicrelationswriting:Formandstyle.Boston,
MA:WadsworthCengageLearning.
Perry,G.K.(2012).DocumentingDisasterAfterKatrina:UsingOnlineToolsto
RebuildCommunity.Contexts,11(2),76-79.
doi:10.1177/1536504212446470
41
Spence,P.R.,Lachlan,K.A.,&Griffin,D.R.(2007).CrisisCommunication,Race,and
NaturalDisasters.JournalofBlackStudies,37(4),539-554.
doi:10.1177/0021934706296192
Ulmer,R.R.,Sellnow,T.L.,&Seeger,M.W.(2015).Effectivecrisiscommunication:
Movingfromcrisistoopportunity.California:SAGE.
Veil,S.R.,&Husted,R.A.(2012).Bestpracticesasanassessmentforcrisis
communication.JournalofCommunicationManagement,16(2),131-145.
doi:10.1108/13632541211217560
42
AppendixA
InterviewTranscripts:DanEller
Thefollowinginterviewwasconductedtogetanexpertopiniononmediacoverage
before,duringandafteranaturaldisasterandcrisiscommunicationpractices.
Interviewer:JulietSaunders
Respondent:PublicInformationOfficerwithCaliforniaStateParks,Dr.DanEller.
Spent25yearsworkingincrisiscommunicationsforCaliforniaStateParks.
DateofInterview:8/11/16
InterviewTranscription:
JulietSaunders:“Inyourownwords,whatisacrisis?”
DanEller:“Well,Imyownwordswhatisacrisis?It’sbeyondbeingaproblemfora
companyorinmycaseinapublicagency.Aproblemiswhensomethinghappens
thatcantakesometimebutisusuallyquicklyresolved.It’ssomethingthatmay
affectthecompanyortheagencybutnotdisruptitsoperation.Acrisisisdifferent
thanthat.Acrisisactuallytakestimetodealwith.Itcantakeactuallysometimes
considerabletimetogothroughtotherecoveryperiodofacrisis.Itmaygreatly
affecttheorganizationsreputation.Usuallywhencrisishappensitnotonlybrings
unwantedpublicattentionbutitcanchangethewaybusinessisdoneforacompany
oranorganizationorapublicagencyinthefuture.Sometimesafteracrisis,normal
operatingproceduresareneverdoneagain.Itcanaffectthebranditcanaffecthow
thepublicperceivesacompanyoranorganization.”
JS:“Whydoyouthinkcrisiscommunicationisimportantafteradisaster?”
DE:“Wellcrisiscommunicationafteradisasteriscritical,especiallyimmediately
after.Assoonaspossible,crisiscommunicationshouldbeincorporated.Buttoback
up-acrisiscommunicationplanbeforeacrisis,canhelpanorganizationintheir
effortstocommunicate.Herewouldbeanexample:Everyairlinecompanyalready
rightnow–theyhaveadarkwebsite.Thedarkwebsiteisforaplanethatcrashed.
Theyhavealltheinformationexceptotherthanpluggingintheairlinesnameand
flightnumberandspecificsintothatwebsite.Theyhavepressreleasesreadytogo-
theyjustneedtoincorporatethematerials,thespecificsintoit.So,oftenweare
doingcrisiscommunicationplanningwaybeforeanythinghappens.Andthenonce
it’shappenedaresponseiscritical.It’sreallyimportantthatitbefast,accurateand
beastransparentasitcanbe.Andinamajorcrisis,itshouldbedeliveredbythetop
person.Typicallywedon’tjustmarchoutthepersoninchargeforanylittle
announcementbecausethatkindofdilutestheimportanceofthemessagecoming
fromthetopperson.Wesavethatforthingslikethis,acrisis.Wewantthepresident
tocomeoutandspeak.AndIthinkit’sreallyimportanttoallowfollowupbythe
public,bythemediaandtoallowaccesswherethereisatwowaysymmetrical
43
communicationprocesswithourpublicsandwiththemediasopeoplecangetthe
informationtheyneedimmediately.That’smyanswer.”
JS:“Inyourownwords–whatisacrisiscommunicationplan?”
DE:“Wellacrisiscommunicationplanistryingtodosomethingthatcanbealittle
bittrickyandthatisriskassessment.Tobeginwithwewanttodefinewhatacrisis
isforacompany.AndwhatImeanbythatistryingtodefinethedifferencebetween
problemsandcrisis.Herewouldbeanexample:Thebossgetsarrestedfordriving
undertheinfluencewithnoinjuriesorfatalitiesafterleavingthecompanypartyor
acompanyevent.Thatisaproblem.Itisnotgoingtocompletelydisruptthebrand
orhowthecompanyoperates.You’llgetthroughit.Acrisiswouldbethepresident
ofthecompanyhasbeenembezzlingalargeamountofmoneyorwasarrestedfor
insiderstocktrading-thatisacrisis.Soinacompanywhatwewanttolookatin
termsofcrisiscommunicationplanningisdefinewhatthecrisescanbefora
company.Thisisreallycritical:listtheorganizationkeystakeholders.Whoarethe
keypeoplethatyouneedtospeakto?Inthecaseofthepresidentembezzlingthe
moneyitwouldbetheboardofdirectors,immediately;media,immediately;
shareholders,immediately.Thoseareallkeystakeholders.Anotherkeycomponent
inplanningistoidentifytheverythreadsunderwhichanorganizationoperates.I
meanthatisonewaywecanlookatdefiningwhatcrisisis.IfIamdoing
communicationsforaminingoperation,obviouslythereisalotofriskinmining.
Especiallylet’ssayminersthataregoingintoanundergroundmine,wellsomeof
theobviousthreatsarethattheminecouldcollapseandpeoplecouldbetrapped,
deadandwhateverthesituationis.ButIcouldbedoingoffshoreoildrilling,well
obviouslythereisathreatofaleakorfailureofsomecapacityorthereisaspillin
thewater.Alsodevelopingaplanmeansdevelopingcommunicationstrategiesfor
identifiedrisks.Sometimeswe’llspeakdifferentlytodifferenttypesofrisks.Andwe
mayhaveadditionaldifferentstakeholdersintermsofrisk.Ifit’sanenvironmental
crisiswemightlet’ssaybespeakingintermsofenvironmentalissueswithspecific
environmentalpublics.Hereisanotherbigthingwedon’tthinkabout,whereare
yougoingtodeliver–youneedtoplanforthis–whereareyougoingtodeliverthe
communicationsaheadoftimes.Youneedtohaveanemergencyoperationscenter.
Nowherewouldbeoneexample:IwascalledoutonaTsunamiincidentexercise
withthecountyofSanLuisObispo.Iwasdispatchedandtoldtodriveimmediately
fromSanSimeontothe(Joy)informationcompoundonCampusAvenueinSanLuis
Obispo.IdroveovertoPasoRoblesIwentdowntheCuestagradeandup(highway)
1totheinformationcenter.MysuperintendentwasreallyupsetwithmebecauseI
wasthatlate.Infacthewasprettymad.UntilIexplainedtohimthatifyoutakethe
inundationmapsthatwehavefromthecountyofTsunamis,andyoulookatthe
TsunamiinundationlevelsandifViaCreekonHighway1iscompletelyunderwater
–therewouldbenowayinrealtime–andIwasaskedthatthisbearealtime
incident-todoexactlywhatIwoulddoincaseofaTsunamiactuallyhitting.WellI
amnotgoingtodrivesouthonhighway1throughViaCreek,itdoesn’texist,andit’s
underwater.AndsowhenIdidthat,theteamrealizedthatitisagreatpartinour
planhereforwhenwedocommunicate,isallowingtimeforpeopletogetfromthe
44
NorthCoastdownintoSanLuisObispo.Sothosearesomeofthethingsyoumightto
lookatasaplan.”
JS:“So…whatkindofcrisiscommunicationplansdoesyourcurrentorprevious
employershave?”
DE:“WellwehavesomecommunicationplansinplaceforTsunami,Fire,
Earthquake,thosetypesofthingsarethataremorelikelytohappen.Nowinour
campgrounds,whichislikealittlecity,ifyouwill,oralittletown,wherepeopleare
transientinnature,living,wehavethingslikeactiveshooter.Violencetoothers,
basedonissueslikerobbery,theftissues,violence,domesticissues.Wehavea
numberofdifferentplansputinplacethere.Butthelargerscopewouldbeflood,
fire,earthquakeandthosetypesofnaturaldisasters.”
JS:“Howoftenaretheypracticedupdatedandused?”
DE:“Actuallywepracticequiteabit.WorkingwiththeCountyofSanLuisObispo
officeofEmergencyServices,wepractice,Iwouldsaythroughouttheyear
periodically.Mostofthepeopleinvolvedincrisiscommunicationsandcrisis
planninghavevariouslevelsofcrisistraining.IwastrainedattheCalifornia
Governor’sOfficeofEmergencyServices(CSTI)Training.AndIholdcertain
certificationsincrisisandthemediacommunications,advancedcrisisandmedia
communications.IhavebeentrainedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigationsin
officer-involvedshootingandthemediacommunications,whichIwasinvolvedwith
inadoublehomicidedowninMorroBay.Sowedoalotofplanningandtraining.
TrainingwiththenuclearregulatoryagencywithDiablo(Canyon).Severaldifferent
requiredtrainingwiththemwiththeNRC(NationalRegulatoryCommission).Alot.”
JS:“Whyisacrisiscommunicationplanimportanttohave?”
DE:“Wellbecausethemostimportantthingabouthavingacrisiscommunication
planisusuallywhencrisishappens,itcaninvolvemultipleagencies,multiple
stakeholdersormultiplecompanies,individuals,andnothavingaplanforyour
particularcompanyorpublicagencyisdifficulttoworkwithothers.Andisavery
fastmovingenvironmentifyoudon’thaveaplaninplace.”
JS:“Inyouropinion–whatarethemedias’rolesregardingcrisiscommunication
afteradisaster?”
DE:“Ifeelthatthemostimportantthingthemediacandoafteracrisishas
happenedis1,toreportthenewsinanon-biasedfashion.Workingwiththemedia
issomethingthatpersonally,withouragencywedothroughouttheyear,sothose
contactsareestablished.Themediashouldcontinuetoworkwiththeirpointof
contacts,theirpublicinformationofficers,thepeoplethattheyarenormally
workingwithtogetaccurateinformation.Ibelieveitisveryvitalforthemediato
respondwiththepublicnotjusttothepublic.Theoldtraditionalmodelisforthe
45
mediatoinvestigateandreport.Nowitismorehavingadialoguewiththepublic,
especiallywithsocialmedia.Wherethemediacanbeprovidingupdated
informationquickly,accuratelyandtalkingwiththepublic,butreallybeingcareful
withtheirsources.AswesawwiththebombingincidentthreeyearsagoinBoston,
attheBostonMarathon.Of100newsreportsputoutrightaftertheincident,only
twowerecorrect.Thereisalotofmisinformation,newsagenciestryingtocompete
andhavealeadinthestory.Ithinkitisbetterifnewsagenciesworktogetherand
collaborateintermsofcrisis,knowingthatmaybetryingtowinthestory,andlead
thestory,maynotbeandshouldn’tbethemostimportantthing.Themost
importantissafety.”
JS:“Whatareyouropinionsonthewaythemediatypicallyhandlescrisesinyour
city?”
DE:“Ithinkin,letssay,theCityofSanLuisObispointermsoflocalmediahandling
crisis,Ithinkthattheyareveryquicktorespond.Becauseforonething,it’sasmall
townandit’sasmallmediamarketandthere’snotasmuchcompetitionwithstories
andincidentsandthingsthataregoingoneeachday,andsotheyareabletocommit
prettymuchfullresourcestoit.I’dsaythatmostofthemediapeoplehereknow
mostofthelocalcommunicationspeople,theyknowwhomtocontactinsituations.I
thinktheytrytobeveryaccurateandhonestintheirreporting.Iguessmyonly
critiquethatmightbenegativeisthatIdon’tthinkthatthelocalmediaherereally
knowquiteasmuchaswhatgoesintoplanningandparticipateintermsofwhat
someofthethingsthatarebeingdone.Mostofthetimethingsintermsofcrisisare
reportedtopeople.Maybenotasmuchintermsofwhatcompaniesand
organizationsandagenciesaredoingeachday,tohopefullydealwithaproblemthat
comesup.Iwouldsayoneexampleofwheretheydidagoodjobwiththatrecently
isthecountyhadadrilllastyearforthepossibletrainderailmentwithoiltankers,
andthatwaswellreported.Butitwasreportedbecauseitisapoliticalissue.Itwas
reportedbecauserightnowtherearesomanypeopleupinarmsaboutoiltrains
comingthroughSanLuisObispo.SoIthinkthemediaisstillquicktoreportstuff
that’sgoingtogetariseoutofpeople.Idon’tthinkthat’sthebestthingforpublic
safety.Ithinkthatsomeofstoriesthataren’ttoldinthecounty,wellonewouldbe
CampSanLuisObispo.It’sthehomeoftheCaliforniaNationalGuard.Idon’tthink
peoplerealizethattheguardisalotmorethanjustweekendwarriors.Theyarethe
numberonepublicsafetyagencyinthestate.TheGovernordispatchestheguard
whenpoliceandfirecall911.Whenpoliceandfirecan’thandleaproblembecauseit
isoverwhelming,theycalltheCaliforniaNationalGuard.Thatisnotastorythathas
beentold,anditsonethatshouldbetold.SoIthinktheyareslowintellingstories
aboutallthethingseachdaythatpeoplearedoingintermsofpublicsafetyand
crisisfortheresidentsofSanLuisObispoCounty.”
JS:“IfyouworkedinNewOrleansduringHurricaneKatrina,whatdoyouthinkyou
wouldhavedonedifferentlyandwhy?”
46
DE:“WellifIhadworkedincommunicationsinNewOrleansduringKatrinait
wouldhavebeentough.HowcanIsaythis-tobeginwith-thecrisisKatrinawas
poorlyhandled.Ihatetosaythis,buttherewasafailuretocommunicate.Andthisis
acasestudythatisinmostPublicRelationsbookstoday,sothisisnotapolitical
statement,Iamnotlookingatwhowasinchargeofpoliticsatthattime.Butthe
WhiteHouseandIcanciteUSNews&WorldReport,citesthatKatrinawasafailure
intermsofWhiteHouseCommunications.AsIsaidmanyofthecommunication
bookstodayusesKatrinaasanexampleofafailuretocommunicate.Andthe
informationflowduringandpostKatrinahurricanewasreallybad,andsomeofthat
hastodowithpolitics.SoifIhadbeenworkingtodealwithit,itstoughbecause,
workingincommunicationsthereisachainofcommand.Andworkingforapublic
agencythetopchainofcommandisFederalGovernmentthenStateGovernment.
AndwhentheFederalGovernmentcouldn’tgetitrightthenthereare
communicationbreakdownsthatwilloccurthroughout.Andithappened.Hereisan
example:thesheriff’sofficeinJeffersonParish,thatwasoneofthemainareas,was
crippledintheircommunicationefforts.TheNewOrleanspolicedepartmentwas
prettymuchlargelyinoperativeforthreedaysfollowingthehurricane.Theseareall
partsofcasestudiestodayinwhatnottodoincrisiscommunication.AndKatrinais
oneofthegreatexamplesofthefailureofthefederalgovernmenttoactincrisis.”
JS:“ArethereanylessonswecanlearnfromHurricaneKatrinaandthewaythe
mediahandledthedisaster?”
DE:“Yeahtherearesomebiglessonsthatwecanlearnintermsofdisasterandin
termsofcommunication.AndofcourseFEMA–theFederalEmergency
ManagementAdministrationisdoingmoretohavemoreofacentralizedapproach
tocommunications.Thisincludesincorporatingallagenciesandhavingmoreofa
strategicsystematicapproachtocommunicationswherepeopleareinformedof
whatisgoingonatthetime-asmuchasisknownatthetime.Andthatare
orchestratedintheircommunicationsinastrategiccollaborativefashion.Witha
chainofcommand,whichworks,toincorporateallfolkswhentheyarenotworking
independently,notmisinformed,andeithernotactingornotactingappropriately.I
guesssomeotherlessonsthatwerelearnedfromKatrinaarelookingatournational
preparedness.Thesearecriticalchallengestoo-Irealizethat.Butbylookingatour
nationalpreparedness,ourintegrationanduseofmilitarycapabilities,our
communications,thelogisticsofcrisisintermsofthingslikesearchandrescue,
publicsafety,publichealth,masscareandhousing,andtrainingexercisesandthings
likethat.ButIthinkoneofthemostcriticalchallengeslearnedisthatofpublic
communications.Whatcanbedoneinaunifiedmanagementintermsof
communications?Commandandcontrolandhowthat’shandled,becausethatwas
nothandledduringKatrina.Therewasnocommandandcontrol.Itwasnothandled
correctly.Foronething,theplanningintermsofknowledgeandpracticeneedtobe
sufficient.AndthatcanbedonenowthroughFEMA’splanningandcoordination
capabilitiesintermsoftrainingandhowtohandlecommunications.Onethingtoo
thatmadeittoughisthatcommunicationstotheregionwasreallydifficult,Imean
wetakeforgrantedthatwearegoingtogetthenewsfromourTV,ourComputer,
47
Radio,CellPhone…allofthosetingswerelostinKatrina.Becauseforonethingyou
can’tpowerupthosedevicesafteraboutaday.Thosethingsaretotallyuseless.And
therewereotherthingsthatthenusuallygounused,butciviliancacheradioslike
handradiooperators,thosenowareusedincountieslikeintheSanLuisObispo
countyofficeofemergencyservicesoveronKansas,theyhaveahandradio
operationthere.Thatcanoperatewheneverythingelsegoesdown.AMradio
specificallyincars,canbealotoftimeswherepeoplecangetinformation.That
wasn’tusedinKatrina.Andsowearelookingatwaysthatwearestillgoingtobe
abletologisticallyconnectwithpeoplewhentheircellphonehasbeendeadfora
dayortwo.Theircomputerisdead,theirTVisdead,everythingisdownand
sometimesinapoweroutageyougetalittleminiwake-upcallonhowthingscango
downquickly.AndthatisonereasonwhyIalwayskeepallofmystuffreally
charged,isbecausethereisacrisistodaybecauseIwillbereallyquicklyburning
daylightonmyabilitytocommunicate.Atthe(Hearst)Castlethathappenedtome
intheEarthquake.Icouldn’tputoutapressrelease,Sacramentohadto,andwehad
noelectricity.Icouldn’tfireupmycomputer.Sothosearesomeofthethingsthat
arereallycriticalchallenges.”
JS:“Whatistheimportanceofcommunicationbefore,duringandafteradisaster
hitsandwhy?”
DE:“WellI’dsaybeforewhatisreallycritical,andthisisthemostcriticalthingif
youareapublicinformationofficer,istoestablishcloserelationshipswithyour
localmediafolksbeforehand.Youdon’twanttomeetpeopleforthefirsttimeina
crisis.Thatisnotagoodlook.Youwanttobeabletohavepeopleknowwhoyouare
aheadoftimebecauseseewhatyouareworkingoffinacrisis?Credibility.Thatis
thenumberonethingyouhave.Andifyourcredibilityislost,seetome,Inever
speculate.Tomespeculationislying,becauseyoudon’tknowforsure,it’sa
speculation.Seethemediawillspeculatefromthebeginningonandtheydon’tcare
iftheyarewrong,becausetheywanttogetastoryout.Thatisnohowweoperatein
publicinformation.Weonlysaywhatweknowtothebestofourknowledgeinthat
momentoftime.Nowcouldwebe“quote”wrong?It’snotaperfectworld.Butwe
trytoknowthepeoplewhoweareworkingwithandhavetheinformationathand
thatwecanbackupatthatmomentasbeing100percentaccurate.Orwearenot
goingtosayanythingatall.AndsometimestheonlyresponsethatIcanmakeis“we
areawareoftheproblemandweareworkingonit,we’llgetbacktoyouinthenext
hourwithmoreinformationinanewsconference”.Iamnotgoingtogetbackedinto
thewalltryingtospeculate.Andreporterswantinformationnowbecausetheywant
togetastoryout,sotheywillfindapersontotalk,anditsnotgoingtobeme.So
thatisplanning,isthinkingaboutallthoseissues.Andyouhavetothinkaboutthat
asapublicinformationofficer.Youaretrainedonthat.
Nownextisduringtheincidentwasthesecondpartofyourquestion?”
JS:“Yes.”
48
DE:“Firstandforemostthingisthattheinformationfollowsachainofcommand.
Thatthepersonatthetopisbeingawareofwhatisbeingsaidintermsofcontent,
howitisbeingdeliveredintermsoftiming,whoisdeliveringitandthenwhatisthe
followuponthat;meaningnewinformationcominginorquestionsthatarebeing
asked.Intermsofdeliveringaresponseevenifyouhavezerofacts,thatiswhyI
saidImightsay,“weareawareoftheproblem,weareworkingonit,wewillget
backwithinthehourwithanewsconference,”youneedtorespondimmediately.
Becauseifyoudon’ttellyourstory,guesswhoisgoingtotellyourstory,themedia.
AndGodforbidtheytellyourstorywithoutyoutellingit.Youwanttoframeastory,
youwanttoownastory.AndIwilltellmystory;theyaren’tgoingtotellit.Theyare
simpleaconduitforme.Thatstorybelongstome;Iamspeakingonbehalfofmy
agency,sothatiscriticalwhenitisatruecrisis,wherelivescanbelostorarelost,or
livesareinjeopardyandpublicsafetyisinjeopardy.Thepublicneedstoknow
immediatelywhatisgoingon.Butyouaretheonetellingthem.Notthemedia,they
aresimplyaconduit.
Nowintermsofpostcrisis,post-crisisistodebriefinfernally.Butthenonceagain
externallycommunicatetothemediaandtothepublic.Becauseitisimportantthat
peopletoknowwhathappened,onceagain.Youtellthemwhatyouaregoingtosay.
Yousayit.Andthenyoutellthemwhatyousaid.Andbackincrisisyouletpeople
knowbasicallywhathappened,howitwasdealtwith,whatyouplantodointhe
futureandyoulookforpublicinput.Youwantpeopletobeabletocommunicate
backwithaflowofinformationbacktotheagencyortothecompany.Youwantto
hearfrompeople.Youdon’tjustwanttomakeitgoaway.Becauseyouseecrisis
bringsopportunity.Thatiswhatalotofpeopledon’tunderstand.Crisiscanbea
goodthing;because,maybeyeahmaybeyouweredoingsomethingwrongasa
company,andlikeIsaiditisnotaperfectworld,ifyouownuptothatinthevery
beginningtheAmericanpublicisveryunderstanding,ifyoutrytohideit,theycan
turnonyouinadime.Butbythesametokenitmayallowyourcompanyor
organizationnowawaytoseethat,yesthereneedstobeimprovement,weare
takingactionstoimproveitandwearegoingtobebetterbecauseofit.It’slikein
ourownlives,sometimeswhenthingsgowrong,webecomestrongerbecauseofit
becausewelearnwhatnottodointhefuture.”
JS:“Isthereanythingelseyouwouldlikeadd?”
DE:“ThefinalthingIwouldliketosayis,isthat,Ireallyvaluemymediarelations
andworkingwiththemedia.IvaluethembecauseIknowatsomepointtherewill
beacrisisandIknowthattheconduittheyprovidetothepubliciscritical.People
arelookingforinformation.SowiththatItrymybesttoalwaysestablisha
professionalworkingrelationshipwithmylocalmediamembers.Localmediaisthe
mostimportantmediaoutthere.Ithinkpeoplealotoftimespeoplethink,“wellifI
canthebigstorywiththebigpeople,thebigmediamarkets,itsgoodforme,”it
couldbe.Butalways,localmediaisthemostimportant.Storiesthathavelocal
interestareimportanttopeople.Andwhenitisacrisis,boyisthatthecasebecause
itisverylocal.It’simmediatetothepeoplethatyouareworkingwitheachdayin
yourcommunity.AlsoinclosingIwouldliketosaythatfromastandpointofbeing
49
inpublicrelationsandrelationshipmanagement,Ihaveactuallyseensomegood
thingscomeoutofcrisis.Theycreatedawork,andattimesIreallyhadtoflexand
beopentoexploringdifferentthings,andtalkingaboutdifferentthingsinternally
withintheorganization,butIsawsomegoodthingscomeoutofcrisisthatreallyin
thelongrunhelped.Sodon’tjustgointoacrisisthinkingthisistheend,itcanbethe
beginning.”
50
AppendixB
InterviewTranscript:ScottSummerfield
Thefollowinginterviewwasconductedtogetanexpertopiniononcrisis
communicationsandnaturaldisaster,andmediacoveragebefore,duringandafter
thecrisis.
Interviewer:JulietSaunders
Respondent:OwnerorSAECommunication,ScottSummerfield
DateofInterview:8/14/16
InterviewTranscription:
JulietSaunders:“Inyourownwords–whatisacrisis?”
ScottSummerfield:“Crisiscommunicationsoracrisisaffectingthepublicagencyis
reallythemost;Iwouldsayvitalopportunitytohelppeoplemakegooddecisions
duringverydifficulttimes.Crisestakeacoupleofdifferentforms.Oneisanatural
disasterlikehurricaneKatrinaorothereventslikethat.Andtheotheriswhatwe
callcrisesofconfidenceandthat’swhenapublicagencyoracompanycreatesits
owncrisisthroughsomebodydoingsomethingillegal,immoral,orunethical.And
thatcouldbeembezzlement,itcouldbeworkplaceviolence,itcouldbeanynumber
ofthings.Thereareavarietyoftypesofcrisesthatcanreallyaffecthowyouserve
thepublicifyouareapublicagency.”
JS:“Okay,sowhydoyouthinkcrisiscommunicationisimportantafteradisaster?”
SS:“Wellit’snotonlyafter,itsduringaswell.Ifit’samajornaturaldisasterlikea
floodorfireorhurricaneorsomethinglikethat,peopleareveryworried.Often
theirlivesarethreatenedortheirpropertyisthreatened,ortheirlovedonesor
friendsarethreatenedinsomeway.Andpeoplesemotionsareveryandpeopleare
veryworried,goodcrisiscommunicationshelpspeoplemaketherightdecisions
duringtheseveryemotional,veryverytenseandstressfultimes.Peopleareoften
consumedwithprotectingthemselves,protectingtheirproperty,andoftenjust
doingoneortwothingsdifferentlycanmakethedifferencebetweenliterallylife
anddeath.Andgoodcrisiscommunicationshelpspeoplemakethosesmart
decisions.”
JS:“Andinyourownwordswhatisacrisiscommunicationsplan?
SS:“Crisiscommunicationsplanisafoundationforhowagovernmentagencyora
privatecompanyshouldcommunicatewhenacrisishappens.Veryquicklythings
canspiraloutofcontrolintermsofhowmuchmediainterestthereisandcontact
fromthepublic,socialmediaposts,thatsortofthing.It’sessentialthataplanisin
51
placethatincludesdifferentprocedurestocommunicateduringacrisis,veryclear
staffingresponsibilities,aclearunderstandingofhowtogetnewstothelocalmedia
andregionalmediaandoftennationalandinternationalmediaduringacrisis.Allof
whichwhentheyarecombinedhelppeoplemakethosegooddecisions.Itisvery
veryhardtoplanandtothinkaboutcrisiscommunicationstrategyinthemiddleof
acrisis.Itreallyneedstotakeplacewellaheadoftime.Soyoucanliterallygoto
yourchecklists,gotoyourplanandstartactinginyourpublics’interestaheadof
time”.
JS:“Whatkindofcrisiscommunicationsplandoesyour(previous)employerhave-
andhowoftenisitpracticed,updatedandused?”
SS:“Wellweactuallyworkwithdifferentcompaniesanddifferentgovernment
agenciestocreatetheirplans.Sowehavewrittenanumberofthem.Theyare
practicedfairlyfrequently,morecommonlywiththesecrisesofconfidencerather
thannaturaldisasters.Naturaldisastersareobviouslyveryverychallengingand
oftenveryseriousbutfortunatelytheydon’thappenveryfrequently.Thesortof
illegal,immoral,unethicalactionsthatareoftentakentendtohappenmore
frequentlybutrequireacrisiscommunicationsresponseaswell.Typicallywe
recommendupdatingacrisiscommunicationplanaboutonceayear.Andthat
includesnotjustupdatingtheplanitself,butalsodoingexercisesanddrillswiththe
appropriatestaffmemberstomakesurethateverythingisuptodate,thatitworks
properlytomakeanyadditionalchangestomakesureitisaseffectiveascanbe.”
JS:“IfeellikeyoualreadyansweredthisquestioninoneofthefirstquestionsthatI
hadaboutwhatisacrisiscommunicationplanbutcouldyoureiteratethe
importanceofhavingacrisiscommunicationplanforacompanyoragovernment
agency?”
SS:“Yeah.Itreallyisnotoptional.Infact,itismandatory.Becauseatsomepoint
everycompanyandeverygovernmentagencyisgoingtofacesomesortofcrisis,
whetheritisanaturaldisasterorcrisisofconfidence.Andwhentheyfacethatcrisis
theyneedtobeabletoactquicklytohelppeoplemakegooddecisionsandto
maintaintheircredibilityastheyrespondtotheircrisis.Theonlywaytodothatis
tohaveaplaninplaceandreadytogowhenthecrisishits.Youabsolutelycannot
createoneduringthecrisisitself.”
JS:“Whatcityareyoucurrentlyin?”
SS:“IliveinthecityofPleasantonupintheBayArea,butweworkwithcitiesall
overCalifornia.”
JS:“Thenextquestionisthemedia’srolesregardingcrisiscommunicationinthecity
youlivein,butitcouldbemaybeforallofCaliforniatoo.”
52
SS:“Themediaisthemostefficientwaythatacompanyoragovernmentagencycan
communicatewithalargenumberofpeople.AndbymediainthiscaseImeana
blendoftraditionalmediasuchastelevision,radioandtraditionalnewspaper
outlets,butalsoincreasingly,Twitter,InstagramandFacebook.Allofthose
traditionalandsocialmediachannelsaddedtogetherhelpsacompanyoranagency
getnewstothelargestnumberofpeoplemostquickly.Itsinteresting,thatinspite
ofthegrowthofsocialmedia,localtelevisionisstillthemostefficientwaytoget
newstoalargenumberofpeoplequickly.Itstillhasthelargestnumberofviewers
andconsumersofnewsthananyothertraditionalorsocialmediachannel.In
virtuallyeverycity,whetheritsurban,suburbanorruralthetraditionalmediain
someareas,radio,someareas,television,someareasprintoronline;servesavery
veryimportantroleingettingfastbreakingnewsandnewsaboutchanging
conditionstopeoplethatneedtoreceiveit.Anditreallydoesserveauniquerole.
Thereisnosubstitutefortheimportanceofthemediaduringacrisis.”
JS:“So,whatareyouropinionsthewaythemediatypicallyhandlescrisesinyour
cityorinCalifornia?”
SS:“Ifindthemediatendstobeveryveryresponsibleduringcrises.Oftenwhere
thereareproblems,itisbecauseacompanyoragovernmentagencyhasn’t
understoodtheneedsofthemedia,hasn’tunderstoodtheirresponsibilityin
providingnewsandinformationtoresidents,businessowners,visitorsandanybody
thatneedsthatinformation.Generally,themediatriestoberesponsibleandIthink
reallyupholdsitsroleasaveryveryimportantpartofthecrisiscommunicationsfix.
Thatsaid,themediaisonlyasgoodastheinformationthattheyareabletoget.
Whichiswhyittrulyisapartnershipbetweenlocalagenciesorcompaniesandthe
mediainhelpingpeoplegetthenewsthattheyneed.AvastmajorityofthetimeI
findthemediaactuallyveryresponsibleduringacrisis.”
JS:“Iknowsomepeoplefeelthatthemedia,especiallythebroadcastmedialookfor
astory,andtrytogetthestoryinanymeanspossible.Doyoufeellikethatisa
failureonpartofthemediaortheorganization?”
SS:“Imean,medialooksforstoriesthataregoingtointerestthelargestnumbersof
viewers,orlistenersorreaders.Oftenthattendstobethenegativetypeofstories.I
don’tfindthattheygooutoftheirwaytotrytobeinaccurateortoexaggerateortry
andmisrepresentastory.Yesthereissomeofthat,butparticularlyduringacrisis,I
findthemediatakestheirresponsibilityveryveryseriouslyingettingpeoplethe
informationtheyneed.Oftengovernmentagenciesorcompaniesareslowto
respondordon’tunderstanddeadlines,don’tunderstandforexample,televisions
needforvisualsandradiosneedforsound,thatsortofthing.Wealsodon’tfindall
thetime,theneedtoexplainwhatisgoingoninlanguagethatisunderstandableby
thepublic,andforreporters.Alotoftimescommunicationisdoneusingjargon
terms,languagethatisveryhardtounderstand.Duringacrisis,peopleareworried,
theyaredistractedandtheyarefrightened.Andweneedtocommunicatewiththem
inlanguagethatrecognizesthattheymaynotbepayingfullattentionandmaynot
53
havetimetothinkaboutwhatwesaid.Weneedtomakeitveryveryclearandvery
veryefficient.”
JS:“Okayso,thenextquestionisalittlebutofajump.IfyouworkedinNewOrleans
duringHurricaneKatrina,whatdoyouthinkyouwouldhavedonedifferentlyand
why?”
SS:“HurricaneKatrinawasamajorfailonanumberoffronts.Therewasverypoor
communicationwiththepublic.Therewasverypoorcommunicationbetween
differentlevelsofgovernment,whetheritwascityofNewOrleans,stateof
Louisiana,FEMAatthenationallevel.Therewasabitofarroganceonthepartof
somecommunicators.Thenetresultintermsofwhatshouldhavebeendone
differentlyisalmosteverything.Bettercoordination,morerapidresponse,justa
muchbetterconstructedplanbeforesomethinghappened.Ithinktheoutgrowthof
KatrinaisagoodoneinthatbecausethingswentsopoorlyinNewOrleansand
peoplelosttheirlivesandlostproperty,perhapsthatdidn’tneedtoifthe
communicationhadbeenbetter.Alotofagencieshavelearnedfromthat.They’ve
changedthewaytheydobusiness,they’vechangedthewaytheycommunicatewith
thepublic,andthey’vechangedthewaytheycommunicatewitheachother.So,
therearesomepositivethingsnow,11yearslaterthathavecomeoutofthat.And
willcontinuetokeepgettingbetter.Itreallydidcomedownto;Ithinkmost
importantly,alackofcoordination.”
JS:“SoifyouwereaconsultantforthecityofNewOrleans,doyouthinkyouwould
havehadabetterplanenactedbeforehand?”
SS:“YesIwouldhavehadamuchbetterplanbeforehand.Iwouldhavemadesure
thatelectedofficials,includingthemayor,werepartofthatplan.Iwouldhavemade
surethatalldepartmentheadswerepartofthatplan.Iwouldhavemadesurethat
theplanincludedcoordinationingettingmutualaidandassistancefromother
agencieswaspartofthatplanaswell.SoIthinkanumberofthingsifIwasthereI
wouldhavedonedifferentlyduringKatrina.Frommyperspective,watchingfrom
theoutside,itseemedveryverydisjointed.SubsequentbooksthatIhavereadon
Katrinaandnewscoverageinthedecadesinceithappened;Ithinkhaveverified
thatitwasextremelyuncoordinated.Youknowoneexampleofthingsthathave
changed,oneofthemostdifficultpiecesofKatrina,separatefromobviouslypeople
gettinghurt,losingtheirlives,theirhomes,butbeingseparatedfromtheirpets.You
havepeoplewhoneversawtheirpetsagain.Andresearchhasshownthatduringa
crisis,havingpeoplestaywiththeirpetsortheirpetsaccompanythem,whetherit’s
inashelterorsomeplaceliketheSuperdomeinKatrina’scase,whereveritmightbe
anhelppeoplegetthroughaverydifficulttime.Communicationnow,hasevolvedin
similardisasters;thereisveryveryclearcommunicationabouthowpeoplecanstay
withtheirpets,whattheyshoulddowiththem,howtheycanbereunitedwiththem
afterward.Thatsortofthing.It’sonesmallpiece,butIthinkitillustratessomething
thatwentverywrongduringKatrina,butthathassincebeenimproved.Andhow
youcanlearnfromeachcrisisthatyougothrough.”
54
JS:“Soagainthequestion,Ifeellikeyoualreadyanswered,becauseyouranswers
areallencompassing,butarethereanylessonswecanlearnfromhurricaneKatrina
andthewaythemediahandledthedisaster?”
SS:“YouknowIfeelthemediadidthebestjobtheycould.Idon’tknowthatthere
wasanythingmoretheycoulddo.Again,thecoverageismorethanadecadeold
now,sothemediahaschangedquiteabit.Obviouslytherewouldbeamuchgreater
relianceonTwitter,andothersocialmediachannelstoday.Twitterdidn’tevenexist
in2005whenKatrinahappened.Soyouwouldhaveaverydifferentapproach.ButI
thinkthemediadidasgoodajobastheycouldhavegiven,inmanycaseswasvery
littleinformationwhenKatrinawashappening.Soyoualwayslearnfromit.You
learnwhoyoursourcesare,youlearnwhoyoucangoto.Forexample,todayyou
wouldbeabletolaunchadroneandgetaerialcoverage.Youknow,dronesdidn’t
existin2005.Sothatgivesthemediaanadditionaltool.Twitteralsoallows
immediateandverybroadcommunicationbetweenthepublic,differentagencies
andthemediaaswell.So,alotoflessonstobelearned.AndIamprettysurethe
localmediatheremadeveryclearwhattheyneedthenexttimesomethinglikethat
happens.”
JS:“Whatistheimportanceofcommunicationbefore,duringandafteradisaster
hitsandwhy?”
SS:“Youcan’toverstatetheimportanceofgoodcommunicationduringacrisis.
Whenanaturaldisasterorthattypeofevenoccurs,itimpactspeopleinaway,
almostlikenothingelse.Ifyouarethreatened,ifyourfamilyoryourfriendsare
threatened,oryourproperty,youoftenlosetheabilitytothinkclearly,tomake
gooddecisionstotheextentthatalocalgovernmentagencyoracompanyandthe
mediaasapartnercanhelppeoplemakethosegooddecisions.Itisoneofthemost
criticalpiecesofanytypeofdisasterresponse,soitisabsolutelyessential.”
JS:“And,isthereanythingelseyouwouldliketoaddaboutthissubject?”
SS:“Ithink,weareseeingalotofgovernmentagenciesandcompaniesrecognizing
thattheyneedtohaveacrisiscommunicationsplaninplace.Thatisverygratifying
tosee.Everytimethereisacrisis,whetheritisanaturaldisasterorcrisisof
confidencewelearnsomething.Andastechnologychanges,andasdifferentmedia
channelsevolve,andthepredominanceofsocialmedia,weneedtokeeppacewith
thosechangesaswell.Peopleareconsuminginformationinnewways.Itisvery
immediate,wedon’thavetimetothink,ortoplan,ortoponderthesethings.Our
responsehastobevirtuallyimmediate.Andacrisiscommunicationsplan,agood
wellthoughtoutcrisiscommunicationsplan,allowsyoutodothat.”
55
AppendixC
InterviewTranscript:ChrisSaunders
Thefollowinginterviewwasconductedtogetanexpertopiniononmediacoverage
before,duringandafteranaturaldisasterandcrisiscommunicationpractices.
Interviewer:JulietSaunders
Respondent:PublicRelationsManageratPalomarHealth,ChrisSaunders.
Hasspent20plusyearsinbroadcastandpublicrelations/communication.,
includinglawschoolsandtheSanDiegoSheriff’sDepartment.
DateofInterview:8/18/16
InterviewTranscription:
JulietSaunders:“Inyouropinion–whatisacrisisintermsofPR?”
ChrisSaunders:“Ithinkacrisisoccurswhenthereisaneventinvolvingyour
companyoryourorganizationthatneedsimmediateattentiontokeepitfrom
lookingextremelynegativetothepublicandtherestoftheworldthatisaffectedby
yourorganization.Andyourorganizationitself,inotherwords,itstoprevent
damage.Andsometimesacrisisoccursevenifthereisn’tanexternalevent.Likefor
example,inmyhospital,ifthereisabigbrushfirethatthreatensthehospital,which
hashappenedonetime.That’sanexternalthing.Butwhathappensifsomething
goeswrongapatient,orthereissomekindofascandalthatinvolvesanemployee
thatisn’tpublic?Wellyoustillhavetoplanforthatandmakesureyouhandleitina
waythatdoesthebestgoodforthereputationandoperationofyourorganization.”
JS:“Whyiscrisiscommunicationimportantafteradisaster?”
CS:“Itisextremelyimportanttocommunicatetothepublicimportantinformation
theyneedtoknowtopreventthemfrombeinginjuredortheirpropertybeing
damagedbyadisaster.Inthecaseofthehospital,wewouldinformthepublicthat
wehavesetupextrabedsatthehospitaltohandleanyincomingthatareinjuredby
thedisaster.It’salsoimportanttocommunicatethesethingstoourownpeople.The
internalaudienceatanorganizationisjustasimportant,ifnotmoreimportant,than
theexternalaudience.And,ofcourse,thebestwaytocommunicateexternallyisby
themedia.Andthere’squiteafewwaysofreachingthemedia.Callinglivenews
briefingsisoneway.Sendingoutgroupemailstothemediaisanother.But,maybe
thebestmethodofallinthesetimesisusingsocialmediaandyourwebsiteto
communicate.Thosetoolshavebecomeallimportant.Sowearetalking,Twitter,
Facebook,Instagramandofcourseusingyourwebsite’semergencycapabilities.
Because,studieshaveshownthatthousandsofpeoplewilluseyourwebsitetoget
thelatestinformation.Wearetalkingaboutinformationthatcouldsavelivesand
avoidpropertydamage.”
JS:“Inyourownwordswhatisacrisiscommunicationsplan?”
56
CS:“WellI’mworkingononerightnowformyhospital.Wehavedisasterplansfor
thehospital,butthecommunicationpartofithasnotbeendevelopedenough.To
me,itisverysimilartothehospitals’disasterplan,anticipatingvarioustypesof
disastersandhowwewillhandlethem.Ifforexample,thereisabrushfirethat
comesclosetothehospitalandwehavetoevacuatethehospital,thenthereare
plansonhowtodothatproperly.Butwealsohavetothinkabouthowwewould
handlecommunicationsinthatplan.Now,thereisaninternalprocesswhereby
peoplecanbenotifiedbytextmessagesandbyemailandbyothermethods.But,we
alsoneedtonotifythepublic,what’sgoingon.Let’ssayyouhavealovedonethatis
stayingatthehospital,andyouhearonthenewsthatthehospitalisbeing
evacuated,wenotonlywouldtellthemediatoannouncetheevacuation,butwhere
thepatientsaregoingaswell.WhetherwearetransferringthemtoTri-CityHospital
ortoPomoradoHospitalortoourdowntownhospital.Wehavetothinkaboutthe
lovedonesaswellasthepatientsandcommunicatethatinformation.Becausewe
aretryingtopreventpeoplefromgettingpanickedaboutwhat’shappening.So
numberoneiscommunicatingaboutlovedones.Sowewouldcomeupwith
differentscenarios,earthquake,fire,letssaythereisanactiveshooterinthe
hospital;wehavetothinkthrougheveryoneofthosescenariosandcomeupwitha
planonhowwereact.Andeachoneofthosescenarioshastohaveamedia
componenttoit.Whatwillwetellthemedia?Andmoreimportantly,whoisgoingto
tellthemedia,whoisgoingtobethedesignatedspokespersoninthisinstance?And
Iwouldthinkthatinmajorincidents,it’sgoingtobetheCEOofthehospital,andwe
wouldspeakwithonevoice.But,partofthecrisisplanisalsodesignatingin
advancewhattherolesofdifferentmembersofyourteamaregoingtobe.Let’ssayI
amthemaincrisiscommunicationsmanagerforthehospitalduringanincident,but
Ican’tdoitalone,Iamgoingtohavetohaveateamdoingdifferentthings.For
example,monitoringthemedia,updatingthewebsiteandsocialmediaand
communicatingwithdifferentbranchesofourorganizationtogetthelatest
information…ittakesateam.Andwecan’twork24/7,sowearegoingtohavetoset
upschedulesforwhoisgoingtobeworking12hourson,thenwhoisgoingtobe
workingthenext12hours.
Duringthefirestorms[InSanDiego]in2003attheSheriff’sDepartment,wesetupa
communicationscheduleamongmydepartment,whereIwould12hours,andthenI
wouldgohomeandsleep.Andanotherteam,designatedbyus,partofour
departmentwouldtakeoverforthenext12hours.Andthenwewouldcomeback.
Soitwas12on,12off,verymuchliketheydofordeputiesandfirefighters.
Soyourcommunicationsplan,needstocoverallthoseeventualities.Andyoualso
havetoplanforthingslikepoweroutages.Ifthepowergoesout,willthehospital
haveback-uppoweronsite?Yeswewill.ButifinmyofficeoverinSanMarcos,ifthe
powergoesout,willIbeabletocommunicateeffectivelywiththemedia,andwillI
haveasatellitephoneifthecellphonesareoverloaded,whichwasaprobleminthe
Sheriff’sdepartmentin2003.Sobasically,youhavetothinkofasmanypossible
scenariosasyoucan,basedonhistoryandalsoalittleoutoftheboxthinking,with
whatcouldhappenbuthaven’thappenedyet.Andthencomeupwithawayof
handlingeachscenariousingthebasicprinciplesofcrisiscommunication.
57
Mymaintenantofcrisiscommunicationsisthis;thepublicneedstoknowthattheir
concernsarealsoyourconcerns.Whatevertheyareworried,youarealsonotonly
concernedabout,butaretakingcareof.Iusedtheexamplealreadyofifthehospital
isevacuated…thenhowdowecommunicatewiththefamilyandfriendsofthe
patientsofthepatientswhoarethere.Wellweusethemediatogetthemessageout,
thepatientswillbegoingtoPomoradohospital,orthePatientswillbegoingtoTriCityHospital,andthisisanorderlyprocess,everyoneissafeandthereisnothingto
worryabout.
Thatis,Ithink,thebestexampleofthatyouneedtoanswerthepublicsconcerns.
Anotherexample,whentherewasashooteratKellyElementarySchoolinCarlsbad,
thespokespersonfortheCarlsbadPolice,thenumberonethingthathewantedto
communicateisthat‘thereisnolongeranactiveshooterandallyourchildrenare
safe.Youcanreunitewiththematthislocation’.Ofcoursehealsohadtotalkabout
thefactthatthereweretwochildrenthatwereinjuredbygunfirebutnotseriously.
Soheassuredtheparentsthattheirchildrenweresafe,andthereweretwo
children,injuredandtakentoRadyChilren’sHospital.Sothatwashisnumberone
concern,anditwasalsothepublicsnumberoneconcern.Andofcoursewhat
happenedtotheshooter,isheincustody,hashebeendisarmed,ishestilladanger?
So,youhavetothinkaboutexactlywhoyouraudienceiswhenyouaretalkingtothe
media.Youaretalkingtoseveralaudiences,butthemostimportantaudienceisthe
lovedonesofthepeopleaffectedbythedisasterorincident.That’snumberone.And
alsothisgoesrightalongwithmymaintenant,youneedsomebodyinaposition
whoisgoingtoreassurethepublicthatyouarehandlingthesituationinan
effective,competentandsafemanner.Forexample,duringthefirestormsin2003,
theSheriffwasthatvoiceforus.Hewasthevoiceofcalm,tellingpeopleexactly
what’sgoingon,howwearehandlingit,andansweringtheirfearsandconcernsina
reassuringway.Thereneedstobeavoiceofreasonandreassurance.
MayorRudolphGiulianiwasthatvoiceinNewYorkCityduring9/11.Hewasn’t
speakingjustforthecity;hewasspeakingforthenation.Inthatmoment,itwas
almostasifhewerethePresidentoftheUnitedStates.Hesaidsomeveryvery
important,veryreassuringandunifyingthingstothepeopleofNewYorkCityandI
don’tthinkanybodywhosawhimspeakthatdaywilleverforgethispresence.I
don’trememberthewordsheused,butIdorememberhiscalmandauthoritative
presence.Hemadeyouthinktheauthoritiesarehandlingthis,andwedon’thave
chaos.That’swhatpeopleworryabout.”
JS:“Whatkindofcrisiscommunicationplandoesyour(previous)employerhave–
andhowoftenisitpracticed,updatedandused?”
CS:“Mypreviousemployerhadanextremelydetailedcommunicationsplan.Staging
areasforthemedia,whowouldbespeaking,howdowehandlethistypeof
emergency,howdowehandleanothertypeofsituation?Itwasaverydetailed
communicationsplan.ItwasexactlythekindofthingIwasdescribingbeforein
questionthree.”
JS:“Okay,whyisacrisiscommunicationplanimportanttohave?”
58
CS:“WellIthinkwehaveansweredthatquestion.Youcannotgointoanykindof
crisisorincidentwithoutknowinghowyouaregoingtohandleitinadvanceand
thatiswhyweplanthesescenarios.Oryouusehistory.Weseenotonlywedidina
givensituationbutwhatotherinstitutionsororganizationshavedoneinsimilar
situations.Wefeelthatthemostimportantthingistolearnwhatthebestpractices
areandapplythemtothesituation.Somymantrahastobe,bestpractices…what
arethebestwaysofhandlingthiscrisisintermsofcommunications?Sowelearn
fromeachother,organizationstalktoeachotheraboutthingslikethisandwepay
attentiontowhatotherorganizationdointhesesituations.Andwewilllearnfrom
whattheydidright,andlearnfromwhattheymightnothavedonesowell.Justlike
wedidintheSheriff’sdepartmentafterthe2003firestorms,wedidsomething
calledanAfterActionReport.Weconsideredeverythingthatoccurredduringthat
emergencywithinourdepartment,includingourcommunicationsandourmethods
ofcommunicatingwiththepublic.Becauseofthat,someimprovementsweremade.
Forexample,weusedtododoor-to-doorevacuationsintheSheriff’sdepartment.
Wewouldannouncetothemediathattherewereevacuations,butwewouldalsogo
door-to-door.Then,after2003,whenalotofpeopledidnotgetnotifiedoftheir
evacuationsintime,wewenttoasystemcalledreverse9-11.Wherewecan
designateaneighborhood,oralargeareatoreceiveaphonecallsaying‘thereisa
brushfiremovingtowardyou’rearea,youmustevacuatenow.’Sothatsystemwas
putintoplayin2007fortheWitchCreekfire,anditworkedverywell.Therewere
someproblemswithit;asamatteroffactwegotevacuatedinourneighborhood.
Butwenevergotaphonecallbecausethesystemdidnotreacheveryoneitwas
supposedto.AndIthinkitwascountingonneighborstogodoor-to-doorsaying
‘heydidyougetthecall?’Wellthatflawhasbeenfixed.Therewereanumberofbig
issuesthatcameupthen.Inlawenforcement,oneofthebigissuesin2003,isthat
our9-11calltakersanddispatchersdidnotknowthelatestinformationabout
wherethefirewas,whereitwasgoingandwhowasbeingevacuated,sotheygave
outsomeerroneousinformationtothepublic.Andthepubliccalls911,notbecause
theyhaveemergenciesmostofthetime,butbecausetheywanttoknowsomething.
Whereisthefire?DoIneedtoevacuate?That’snotwhat911isfor,butourcall
takersdidn’tknowwhattotellthem.Soweinstalledaseriesoftelevisionmonitors
aroundthecommunicationscenterwiththelatestinformation.TheSheriff’s
departmenthasusedthatmanytimesinemergenciessince.Let’ssaythatthereisan
incidentataschool,ourTVscreenswouldsay‘allchildrenatSmithelementary
schoolaresafeinthereclassrooms.Theincidentisoverandchildrenwillbe
reunitedwiththeirfamiliesatthislocation.’Soobviously,thecommunicationplanis
sothatyoudon’thavetomakeitupasyougo.Youusepasthistory,bestpractices
andexperiencesofotherorganizationsimilartoyours,tohandlecommunicatingto
thepublic.Communicatingtothepublicisall-important,becausewecouldbe
talkinglifeordeathinformationthattheyneedtoknow,orjustinformationthat
theyneedtoknowtosurviveontheirown.Lawenforcementorfirefighterscan’t
alwaysbethere.Soweneedtotellcommunicatetopeopletoboiltheirwateror
thingsalongthoselines.”
59
JS:“Inyouropinion–whatarethemedias’rolesregardingcrisiscommunication
afteradisaster?”
CS:“Themediarealizesthatitplaysanimportantroleincrisissituations,andthey
areverygoodaboutunderstandingthatroleandgettingthelatestgreatest
informationout.Itisuptoustogettheinformationtothemandmakesurethatitis
beingtransmittedtothepublicproperly.Whichiswhypeopleonyourteamneedto
bemonitoringwhatthemediasays.Whatisbeingprintedandwhatisbeingsaidon
televisionandradio,becausesometimestheygetitwrongandweneedtocorrectit.
I’vehadalotofexperiencewiththat,especiallyduringthe2003firestormswhen
erroneousinformationwentout.Andonethingaboutthemedia,thatismentioned
inthispaperthatIhavejustfinishedreadingoncrisiscommunications;it’sacase
studyonLouisiana,ifwedon’ttellthem…thenhowcantheygetitright?Andthat
comesintoplayfrequentlyduringdifferentsituations,especiallyshootingsituations
thatareactive.Ifwedon’ttellthemtherightstory,theyaregoingtoputoutthe
wrongstory,soit’sveryimportanttogettherightstorytothemediaasquicklyas
possible.Andtimeandagainwe’veseenthemputouterroneousinformation
becausewewerenottheretotellthemthefactsinatimelyway.Sothosearetwo
importantthings.”
JS:“Whatareyouropinionsonthewaythemediatypicallyhandlescrisesinyour
city?”
CS:“InSanDiegoCountyIwouldsaytheygetanA+.Themediaheredoesa
wonderfuljobofunderstandingtheirroleincommunicatingimportantinformation
tothepublic,andtheystepupanddothejobverywell.InSanDiegoCountyIwould
saytheygetanA+.Themediaheredoesawonderfuljobofunderstandingtheirrole
incommunicatingimportantinformationtothepublic,andtheystepupanddothe
jobverywell.Wehadacaseinthe2003firestorms;oneoftheTVstations
announcedthatthreefirefightershadbeenkilledwhilefightingthefireinJulian,
wellthatwasn’ttrue.Wehadthreeinjuredfirefighters,andoneofthemdidwindup
dying.Theproblemis,isthattheotherTVstations,hearingthatstationonesaythat
therehadbeenthreefatalities,theystartedreportingittoo.‘Therearereports
wherethreefirefightershadbeenkilled.’Wellcanyouimaginethepanicthat
spreadsthroughthefamilyofthefirefightersinSanDiegoCountywhohappentobe
watchingtelevision…andiftheyhappentoknowiftheirsonordaughterorhusband
orwifeisactuallyfightingthefireinJulian?That’swhyit’sveryimportantforthe
mediatomakeabsolutelysureitisdisseminatingcorrectinformationandnotgoing
offwith‘therearereportsthat’youhavetobesureofwhatyouaresaying.AndI
thinktheSanDiegomediadoesareallygoodjobofthat.Oneoftheworstexamples
thatIcaneverthinkof,ofthemediabeingirresponsibleistheshootingof
congresswomanGabrielleGiffordsinTucsonArizona.Thatwaswherethesick
youngmancameupwithagunandopenedfireonalotofpeopleandshewasshot
betweentheeyesandtakentoahospitalinTucsonwherethemediawaswaitingon
forconditionreportsonher.Onereporterwhowasontelevisionliveacrossthe
nation,reportedthatshehaddiedandsaid‘wehaveinformationfromsourcesin
60
thehospitalthatcongresswomanGabrielleGiffordshasdied’.Andofcoursesheis
aliveandwelltothisday.Andthatwasahorriblemistake,amistakethatyoudonot
everwanttomake.Sohowcouldthereporterhavepreventedthat?Simplygettingit
fromanofficialsource,andinthatcase,itwouldbewhoeverisdoingmyjobatthe
hospital.Theirjobwouldbetoinformthemediaofherconditionandcertainlyif
shehaspassedaway,wearegoingtoletthepublicknowasquicklyaswecan,but
wealsohavetomakesurethatnextofkinisnotified.Youdon’teverwantthefamily
ofsomeonewhohasbeenkilledorseriouslyinjuredinthelineofdutyforyour
organization;youdon’twantthefamilytoeverfindoutaboutitbywatching
televisionorhearingitontheradio.Soit’sextremelyimportantforusandthe
mediatorememberthatthelovedonesofanyvictimneedtobenotifiedbeforeany
publicannouncementismade.Andthemedianeedstomakesurethattheyonlyput
officialinformationoutinsituationslikethat.Andofcourse,theGabirelleGiffords
caseisnottheonlytimethathaseverhappened.Ithappenedonetimein
WashingtonD.C.wherethenewswentonandannouncedthatmayorMarionBarry
hadbeenshotandkilled.Andthiswouldhavebeenintheearly80’s.Wellitwasa
hoax.SomebodycalledthenewsroomandreporteditandtheTVstationwenton
theairandsaid‘mayorMarionBarryhasbeenshotandkilled’,wellhewasn’t,it
neverhappened,itwasahoax.Sothattellsyouthatyouneedtoverifythingsand
getthemfromofficialsources.Sothat’stheresponsibilityofthemedia,andI
generallythinktheydoaverygoodjob.”
JS:“IfyouworkedinNewOrleansduringHurricaneKatrina,whatdoyouthinkyou
wouldhavedonedifferentlyandwhy?”
CS:“Wellthat’shardformetoanswerbecauseIdon’tknowexactlywhattheydid
downtherebutIknowitwasratherchaotic.SomyquestiontothempostKatrina,
‘didyouhaveaneffectivecrisiscommunicationsplanalongwithallyourother
disasterplans,anddidyouimplementitproperly?Wasthepublicgettingthe
informationtheyneededtosurvivetheincident?’Idon’tknowtheanswertothat.I
knowthatafewyearslaterwhenhurricaneGustavhittheLouisianaarea,things
werehandledalotbetter,infacttheGovernorofLouisiana,BobbyJindal,according
tothisresearchthatIamreadingdidanexemplaryjobofreassuringthepublicas
wellastellingtheminformationthattheyreallyneededtoknow.SoIthinkthatif
theywerenotdoingthosethings,ifIwereatKatrinaatthetime,Iwouldhavehada
communicationsplanineffectandIwouldhaveutilizedit.Because,notonlyisthe
disasterbadinitofitselfbuttherecanbesecondinjuryinadditiontothat.Andthat
iswhentheauthoritiesandthemediadon’tgetthebestinformationouttothe
publicandtheycanmakemistakesthatresultinpeoplegettinginjuredorproperty
beingdamaged.Forexample,ifyoudon’twarnpeoplethattheyshouldnotdrive
throughfloodedintersections,sometimespeoplewillassumeitssafeandtheywill
getsweptaway.Sothat’sthekindofcriticalinformationthatyouneedtogetout.
AndofcourseinKatrina,thatwasextremelyimportanttowarnpeoplewhattodo
andwhatnottodo.Don’ttouchelectricallines,turnoffthepowertoyourhomeso
youdon’tgetelectrocuted,alotofimportantthingslikethat.SoIthinklessonswere
learned.”
61
JS:“ArethereanylessonswecanlearnfromHurricaneKatrinaandthewaythe
mediahandledthedisaster?”
CS:“Wellwe’vetalkedaboutthelessonsfromKatrina,themediahandleditthebest
theycould,itwasachaoticsituation.Onethingthatiscriticalinasituationlikethat
issettingupwhatiscalledaJointInformationCenter,aJ-I-C.Andthat’soneofthe
thingthatweteachatCSTI,CaliforniaSpecializedTrainingInstitute,aJICiswhere
youbringtogetherspokespeopleforvariousagenciesinvolvedsoeverybodythatis
therewillbeabletoinformthemediaaboutwhatisgoingon.Itmightbe,let’ssay
theMayor,ChiefofPolice,FireChief,CommunityHealthOfficer,SDG&E,yourutility
companies,yourpublicworkspeoplewhocontrolflooding…Sobasicallywhatyou
doisyoubringthemediaalltogetherinoneplaceandthenyouhaveallthepeople
thattheyneedtotalktoinoneplaceandyouhaveacoordinatedresponse.And
that’swhatwedidduringthe2003firestorms.Isetupabriefingroominthe
counties’emergencyoperationcenter,andwehadregularbriefingsforthemedia.
Andsotheybasicallystayedput.TheonlytroublewastheCityofSanDiegoalsodid
theirownbriefingsatadifferenttimeandlocation,sothemediaactuallydidn’thave
enoughcrewstobeeverywhereatoncesotheywereactuallygoingbackandforth
betweenthebriefings.Theycalleditduelingnewsconferences.Weimmediately
contactedthecityaftertheirfirstnewsconferenceandsaid,‘weshouldbedoingthis
togetheratonelocation,’theyrefused.Sotherewaslackofcooperationbetween
agencies’there,itwasnotahealthysituation.Now,in2007,thatdidn’thappen,
therewascoordinationandeverybodywasonthesamepageandworkedtogether.
Sothat’sabiglessonthatcomesoutofKatrinaandlocaldisastersinSanDiego
County.”
JS:“Whatistheimportanceofcommunicationbefore,duringandafteradisaster
hitsandwhy?”
CS:“Well,wehavetouchedonsomeofthat.Obviously,ifastormiscoming,ifa
hurricaneiscoming,you’llhaveseveraldaysofadvancedwarningusually.Soitis
all-importanttocommunicatetothepublic,thatit’scomingandiftheyneedto
evacuate,orwhatstepstheyneedtotaketobesafeandtohavethesuppliesthat
theyneedfortheirfamilytoeatandtohavewater.Anddotheyneedtoreinforce
theirhomeswithplywoodoverthewindows,thingslikethat.Orisitsmarterfor
themtoleavetheareaandgetoutofharmsway.Sotheadvancedcommunicationis
all-important.Andthenyouaretellingthemifyoufindthatyoumustevacuate,the
evacuationcenterswillbehere.Allthesethingsaresetupinadvanceandneedtobe
communicatedinadvance,sothatwhenithits,thereisminimalconfusion.Andthe
sameappliesforduringtheevent,wearegivingoutinformationthatenablespeople
tosurvivewhatevertheeventis.Andweareagainreassuringthemsothatthey
don’tpanic.Peopleneedtoknowthatyouareincharge,youareonit,youare
competent,andyouaredoingwhatneedstobedonetohandlethesituationinthe
bestpossibleway.Andthatisanothercriticalthingaboutcrisiscommunications.
Andobviouslyduring,youwanttocommunicatewiththemediaasbestyoucan
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usingwhateverchannelsyouhave,livebriefings,whichbasicallyarepress
conferences,andsocialmedia-whichwedidn’thavein2003,andusingyour
website,whichwedidhave.AnotherthingthatIhaven’tmentionediswesetupa21-1system,wherevolunteerscomeinandanswercriticalquestionsforthepublic.
Wehadateamofvolunteersonstand-by;thereisalwaysateamonstand-by,the21-1systemscanbeactivatedveryquickly.Andsothat’sanotherchannelforpeople
tocallinandgetindividualinformationabouttheirsituation.‘IliveinOtayValley,
arewegoingtobeflooded,wheredoIevacuateto?’Andsoyouneedtokeepthe
telephoneoperatorswhoareansweringthoseinformationcallswellinformedas
possible.That’spartofyourcommunicationsplan.Whoisgoingtobeinteracting
withthepublic,andhowdowegetthemthelatest,greatestinformation?Tosave
lives,preserveproperty,preventinjury,andalsotoletlovedonesknow.Wewould
makesuggestionslike,ifyouareaffectedbythefireandyouhaverelativesinother
partsofthecountry,ratherthanmakingthecallsyourself,youcouldcallsomebody.
SayyouhavearelativeinBoston,youhavelotsofrelativesinBoston,callone
relativeandtellthemtocallalltheotherrelativesandthatwaytheirwon’tbe
jammedphonelinesgoinginandoutofSanDiegoorwhereverthecityis.Sosetting
upphonetreesisoneofthebestpractices.Afterwards,assumingthatthe
emergencyisover,it’sveryveryimportanttobasicallyletthepublicknowwhatthe
lessonslearnedwere.‘Wehandledthisextremelywellinthisarea,butthereisa
challengeinthisotherarea,wecouldhavecommunicatedtoresidentsbetter,which
iswhywearelookingathavingreverse911.’Sobasicallyyouwanttokindofstep
backanddoapostmortem,whatworked,whatdidn’twork.Andletthepublicknow
thatmoreofyouneededtoevacuateormoreofyouneededtohaveasupplyof
drinkingwater,orstepsthattheycouldhavetakentoprotectthemselvesandtheir
familiesandtheirproperty.Andsothewhyisobviouslybecauseifitcanhappen
onceitcanhappenagainandlookatLouisiana,firsttheyhadKatrinaandthenthey
hadGustavandnowtheyarehavingterriblefloodingthererightnow.It’snotonthe
magnitudeofKatrina,butithashappenedagain,andsothelessonslearnedare
beingapplied.AndwehavehadothermajorfirestormsinSanDiego,ofcoursewe
had2003wheretherewerealotofthingsthatdidnotgowell,andthenin2007
manyofthoseverythingsthatwerebigchallengesin2003,werehandledsmoothly
in2007.”
JS:“Okay.Andisthereanythingelseyouwouldliketoadd?”
CS:“Ithinkthataverykeythingaboutcrisiscommunicationisyoumustalwaystell
thetruth.Thereisnoroomforfudging.Everything,alwayscomesoutitseemslike,
andsoyoudon’twanttobecaughtinasituationwhereyouwerelyingtoor
misleadingthemediaorthepublic.Andyoualwaystohavetokeepinmindwhen
youarespeakingtothemedia,youarespeakingtothepublic.Sothat’sanotherkey
componentofmycrisiscommunicationstheory.Tellthetruth.Now,therearetimes
whenyoucanholdbackcertaininformation,thathappensallthetimeinlaw
enforcement,whenthereisaninvestigation,let’ssayamurderinvestigation,
investigatorscan’ttellthemediaandthepubliceverythingtheyknowbecausethat
wouldharmtheinvestigation.Itmightletthesuspectknowthattheyareinfact
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wantedandtheymightflee,orthereisinformationthatonlytheperpetratorwould
knowthatiftheyhappentointerviewthatperpetratorandthesuspectsays,‘well
yeahIknowthatbodyhadaplasticbagoveritsheadandthehandsweretied
behinditsback’.Andthedetectivesmightgo‘wellgeethat’sinterestingwenever
announcedthattothepublic,howdoyouknowthat?’thentheyhavejustconvicted
themselves.So,youknowthereareareaswhereforthegoodofthepublic,
informationhastobeheldbackforatime.Butintheendyouareasupfrontand
forthrightwiththemasyoucanpossiblybegiventhesituation.Andsotruthis
everything.Iseeeverycrisisasanopportunityforyoutomakeyourorganization
lookgood.Nowwearenotsayingthatwearetryingtoputlipstickonatragedy,so
tospeak.Butifwedemonstratethatwearepreparedandwearehandlingitinthe
bestpossiblewayandlearninglessonsfromthingsthatdidnotgosowell,thenthat
buildstrustinourorganization.Peoplewilltendtotrustusmoreandbelieveinus
more,itenhancesourcredibilityandreputation.Soeverysituation,nomatterhow
baditappears,isanopportunitytoshowthepublicthatyoutaketheirconcerns
seriously,thatyouaregoingtolearnandgrowfromthesituation.Butalso,letting
themknowthethingsthatyoudidwellanddidright.SoIamnottryingtosayputa
goodfaceonabadsituation,Iamsayingbehonestanduseeverycrisisasan
opportunitytodemonstratethatyourorganizationistrustworthyandcompetent
anditenhancesyourreputation.Andifyouhavemademistakes,ownuptothem
andshowthatitwillneverhappenagain.”
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