Research report M at i l d a H e l l m a n Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 Introduction The present study is an attempt to capture how the concept of addiction has changed in Finnish newspapers from 1968 to 2006 and to investigate how these changes are reflected in the way that the problems themselves are perceived. In everyday language the term is commonly used to describe all manner of dependencies: people may describe themselves as addicted to coffee, sweets, sports, or say that they are “workaholics” or “fashion slaves”. By semantically expressing the phenomenon and mediating messages about it, people engage in a continuous process of attaching different meanings to the concept of addiction. The importance of investigating language use around this phenomenon is obvious when we remember that its designation – the various uses of the concept – reflects the ways in which addiction is viewed in society. These views will naturally have an impact, among other things, on how we deal with the problems in question. This study looks into the meaning-making dimensions of designation practices at differThe author has received a grant from the Victoriastiftelsen, Helsingfors, Finland, for writing this article. ABSTRACT M. Hellman: Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 The study is a diachronic investigation into how addiction is designated in the leading Finnish daily newspaper in the period 1968–2006. It discusses how different designations practices for the concept of addiction are reflected in understanding of the phenomenon. MATERIAL AND PROCEEDINGS Newspaper materials consisting of randomly sampled (n=432) issues of Helsingin Sanomat (HS) served as a base for the investigation. Texts were selected that discuss addiction in ways set out in the inclusion criteria. A total of 34 (=n) texts were analyzed more closely, taken from the years 1972, 1982, 1992 and 2002. RESULTS Two main tendencies can be discerned from the 1990s and onwards. The journalistic pieces start to work an internalization of the problems, i.e. they mediate a perspective from within the problems. Simultaneously, the concept of addiction becomes conventionalized and its use expanded. The cultural unit of addiction starts to include all types of problematic repetitive behavior. The article discusses how these trends serve the general trends towards individualization and medicalization. The expert statements accounted for in the media guide the individual—the citizen, the consumer, the potential or actual addict—in the landscape of the logics and mechanisms of addiction. KEY WORDS Concept of addiction, diachronic analysis, media, individualization, Finland NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 2 6 . 2 0 0 9 . 4 355 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 ent times. The research is based on previ- changed along with these linguistic de- ous work which showed that during the velopments. To the latter end, the analysis period from 1968 to 2006, the scope and focuses on three dimensions: i) where is the meaning of the concept expanded in addiction, ii) who has knowledge about Finnish newspaper reporting (Hellman, in addiction and iii) on what level are the print). Since the mid-1990s there has been courses of events discussed. a significant increase in addiction report- The material is drawn from four years – ing, and words signifying addiction have 1972, 1982, 1992 and 2002 – with a view been taken into frequent use in the report- to tracing the changes in the meaning- ing of Helsingin Sanomat (HS), Finland’s making process. Results are discussed biggest daily. The reporting has started to against the background of a more general apply a vocabulary that spills over into trend of individualization, but also from other areas, bringing all kinds of repeti- the point of view of identifying the point tive behaviours under the single umbrella at which addiction becomes a common of addiction. The range of addiction signs and naturalized part of society and its cul- has been expanded and new combinations tural products. of signs and codes have been taken into use. Theoretical framing The same study also found that with the By semantically expressing the addiction growing adoption in the 1990s of differ- phenomenon in different ways, we con- ent lexical items to describe the addiction tribute to the articulation of its cultural phenomenon, the formats and contents of unit, which is all that what we attach to addiction reporting introduced new im- a concept, what we culturally define and ages of addiction that were more individu- distinguish as an entity for its meaning alized and easier to identify with. These (Eco 1979). The cultural unit of a concept changes coincided with a new perception is shaped according to cultural conven- of addiction as an individualized problem tions within a specific historical and social that could happen to anyone. This stood context. in clear contrast to texts from the 1970s Based on the new insights into the de- and the 1980s that portrayed addictions as velopment over time of addiction report- problems confined to certain marginalized ing presented in the above, it is clear that groups and that framed this as a societal the concept has undergone a convention- problem. The trend towards new under- alization. Conventionalization has been standings of addiction was further empha- defined as a “common cultural process by sized by a general tabloidization of report- which innovative, unconventional codes ing formats (Hellman, in print). gradually become adopted by the major- The present study aims to compare how ity and thus become conventional” (Fiske the concept of addiction is semantically 1990, 81). This is related to what semioti- expressed before and after these changes cians call naturalization. Codes that have occurred. Additionally, the study is con- been naturalized are so widely distrib- cerned to investigate how media under- uted in a culture that rather than being standings of addiction problems have constructed, they appear to be ‘naturally’ 356 NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 2 6. 2 0 0 9 . 4 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 given. At some point, the concept of ad- which the contemporary cultural unit of diction starts to appear as naturally given addiction did not yet exist, the selection in a broader sense. Starting from Barthes’s criteria constitute a “synthetic” frame. A (2000) thoughts on myths as naturalizing tool (the set of criteria) is used for discern- forces in history, we can assume that there ing texts on a phenomenon that is not yet have been simultaneous changes in media named in the early texts. Sometimes dur- myths of addiction along with the changes ing the 1990s, lexical items that denote in the understanding of the concept. the addiction phenomenon per se are Saussure (1989) distinguishes between taken into use: the phenomenon is named two perspectives in diachronic linguistics: rather than described, and consequently a prospective perspective, following the the study´s framework for interpretation course of time, and a retrospective per- is more closely anchored to the contempo- spective, which goes in the opposite direc- rary understanding of the concept. This is tion. The present research integrates both a common problem in studies of concep- of these perspectives in that it combines tual history due to the transitory nature of a reading of 492 daily newspapers from semiosis. 1968 to 2006 with a comparative analysis Another issue that needs to be made of signifying practices before and after the clear is that for reasons of space, this pa- conventionalization of the concept. The per does not deal with the myriad of theo- chronological reading aims to uncover evi- retical discussions on how living condi- dence of how the signifying practices have tions, social life and values have changed developed and unfolded. At the same time, in the past few decades and on how these however, this is a retrospective strategy changes explain the extended need for the in that the researcher is interpreting past addiction concept: individualization, risk historical developments from a present society, modernization and its dimension position. Furthermore, comparisons are of self-reflexivity, narcissistic and thera- conducted between certain dimensions of peutic culture, and the extended use of meaning-making in text groups from dif- psychoanalytic terminology, to name just ferent decades in order to reconstruct and a few. There has also been much discus- compare synchronic states in newspaper sion about how new media formats have reporting. changed the content of reporting. This pa- There are two concerns with my ap- per does not discuss in depth the broader proach that need to be addressed before developments in society that have brought proceeding to the analysis of the newspa- about the need to deal more frequently per texts. First, the set of criteria for dis- with questions of addiction. Instead, the cerning the phenomenon of addiction in discussion will focus on the general trend the texts is created and anchored to a cer- in modern society towards analysing prob- tain view and definition of the problem. lems in terms of the agent instead of the It reflects both a contemporary view on social structure. addiction as well as the interpreter’s own The article applies and mixes Piercean Weltanschauung. Especially when analyz- and Saussurean terminology. The term ing texts from the 1970s and the 1980s, in sign is used primarily for words that sigNORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 26. 2009 . 4 357 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 nify something in a language. The term 1968 to 2006 (even numbers: 1968, 1970, codes is used for the many ways in which etc.), giving an average annual sample of signs are combined according to conven- 22 papers (dailies + supplements). tions in a language or a culture. A para- Journalistic and editorial texts and digm is a set from which a unit in chosen accompanying for purposes of expressing something. touched upon, or that might have touched Syntagms are combinations of units cho- upon problematic behaviour of six types – sen from paradigms. The term lexical alcohol use, drug intake, tobacco use, food items is used for words that explicitly sig- intake, gambling and excessive sexual be- nify the phenomenon. Modality refers to haviour – were collected in a raw text base the reality status accorded or claimed by a that comprised 579 (=n) newspaper texts. sign, text or genre. When making sense of Texts on other behaviours represented in a text, its interpreters make modality judg- addiction terms (excessive exercise, In- ments. An index is a sign that has a direct ternet use, coffee drinking, sugar intake, existential connection with its object, for shopping, etc.) and applying an “addic- instance smoke is an index for fire. Like- tion vocabulary” were also included in the wise, the “holic” suffix, as in “workahol- initial material base. The latter texts were ic” or “shopaholic”, is a symbolic index of needed to test the hypothesis regarding a addiction. Abduction is used here to refer recent shift towards a broader understand- to the practice where whole or parts of ad- ing of the addiction concept. Commercial diction signs are used to draw attention to material was excluded from the study. picture materials that a problematic repetitive element in a com- From these raw datasets, texts were se- mon behaviour, such as in the expression lected based on one main criterion and “Internet junkie”. on three subcriteria (see also Hellman, in print, for a detailed description): Material 1) Main criterion: The text can arguably be The data for the study were drawn from said to deal with ‘problematic continu- Finland’s largest subscription daily Hels- ous repetitive behaviour of which one ingin Sanomat, which in 2007 had a daily has impaired control’. In particular, the circulation of 419,791 (Finnish Audit Bu- text is to acknowledge or imply possi- reau 2007). As well as being the country’s ble harm or problems (e.g. for the in- largest newspaper in terms of circulation dividual, for society, for third parties). figures, it makes a significant political and 2) The text includes words that signify the cultural impact on Finnish society and its type of behaviour described in point 1) public debate (for the Finnish media land- above, for example “alcoholic”, “alco- scape, see e.g. Nordenstreng & Wiio 2000). holism”, “drug addict”, “bulimia”, etc. The material was collected in a number 3) The text portrays a phenomenon that of stages. To begin with, a total of 432 (=n) can clearly be argued to indicate addic- issues (411 daily issues and 21 supple- tive behaviour by illustrating character- ments) of Helsingin Sanomat were read on istic behaviour featured in the diagnos- microfilm from three sampled weeks from tic practices used to identify addictive every second year during the period from behaviour (e.g. withdrawal symptoms, 358 NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 2 6. 2 0 0 9 . 4 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 impaired control, neglect due to habit, slavery to habit; on the characteristics of addiction, see e.g. West 2006 and Or- Table 1. Number of texts selected on the addiction criteria from the raw material base Years ford 2001). Number of addiction texts Average annual number of addiction texts 8 4) The text covers the treatment of people 1968–1978 49 with substance problems, which im- 1980–1988 26 5 1990–1998 63 13 2000–2006 62 16 Total 200 plies that there is a problem with quitting a problematic behaviour without outside help. This set of criteria was developed in a which were exactly 30 years apart and constructivistic manner on the reading for which the number of texts were in the of the texts and can be considered to de- same size range (9 and 14). In addition, the marcate the addiction phenomenon. Other texts for 1982 (n=4) and 1992 (n=7) were interpretations or additional views of ad- included in this comparison to see how diction problems may therefore have been the understanding of the phenomenon excluded from the study. The criteria have has changed over time. All in all 34 (=n) been formulated with the aim of capturing texts were analysed more closely for the addiction in a definition that merits some purposes of the present study. “Neverthe- basic characteristics discussed among oth- less, general developments accounted for ers by West (2006) and Orford (2001) and are also based on the diachronic reading of accounted for in diagnostic criteria for ad- the newspapers and analysis of the mate- diction such as DSM-IV and ICD-10 (see rial as a whole (n=200).” West 2006, 15). was tested by recruiting three lay persons Language use before and after conventionalization to decide whether a sample of 10 texts How were messages on addiction con- drawn from the raw data should, accord- strued before the concept of addiction ing to the four selection criteria presented became conventionalized, and what infer- 1 above, be included in the material proper. ences can we draw about society’s views A total of 200 (=n) texts were collect- of addiction problems from a possible ed from the raw data base on the criteria change in the structure of these messages? The reliability of the selection process specified (see Table 1): these texts are thus Nine texts were selected from the origi- all considered to contain messages on ad- nal 1972 material (n=9). Three (3) of these diction. texts were selected because they men- In order to demonstrate the changes in tioned the words alcoholism and alco- language use before and after convention- holic (criterion 2). Three (3) were selected alization, two texts groups were formed because they refer to the treatment of sub- to represent these periods in the present stance use problems (criterion 4). Finally, analysis. These two groups consisted of three (3) were chosen on the criterion that all articles from the 1972 (n= 9) and 2002 they can be argued to describe problematic (n=14) samples. The decision was made continuous repetitive behaviour of which to compare reporting in 1972 and 2002, one has impaired control (criteria 1 and 3). NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 26. 2009 . 4 359 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 The closest Finnish equivalent for addic- One of the texts calls for increased police tion (‘riippuvuus’) appears no more than resources and more treatment centres for once in the 1972 texts. The understanding alcoholics (HS 8, April 1972, 6). of addiction, the idea to which the con- Only in two of the texts focus is put cept gives rise is channelled as underly- on the actual dependency process:“You ing assumptions, reflecting an acknowl- get hooked on tobacco the same way as edgement of the problem. However, it is on morphine” (HS 2, December 1972, 6) not the core focus. In the three texts that implies that there is a similarity between discuss alcoholism (HS 8, April 1972, 6; the two addiction mechanisms. In a piece HS 16, November 1972, 41; Kajava 1972), about a TV play it is stated that “The main it is viewed as an illness that needs to be character in the play was weak in a very treated and cured. The dependency aspect vague sense. His social development and is not mentioned per se, but is very much growth to adulthood were presented as implicit, as “alcohol problems” (HS 16, weak in an unspecified sense. Riisi was November 1972, 41) and their treatment touched by destiny as in the old days: right imply problems with quitting the (bad) from the first drink it was route one to the habit of drinking too often and too much. gutters” (Kajava 1972). The text criticizes AA is mentioned in two of the texts: on the play for its “old fashioned” view of one occasion it is used as a paraphrase in how one can get into trouble just by get- an ironic chronicle about people to whom ting acquainted with alcohol. The text society has become a problem (HS 15, No- shows how a moralistic view on drinking vember 1972, 12), and it is mentioned in is at work in Finnish society in the early a preview of a radio programme dealing 1970s. These moralistic dimensions are with what help and treatment is available also reflected more generally in the tone of for those who “suffer from alcoholism” reporting in the 1970s, when responsibili- (HS 16, November 1972, 41). In the early ty for addressing these problems is mainly texts terms like “abuser” (=väärinkäyttäjä), ascribed to society. “abuse” (=väärinkäyttö) and “drug prob- In the 14 texts included in the sample lems” (=huumeongelmat) seem to some from 2002, addiction phenomena are very extent to correspond to the addiction- much mediated and formulated through modality of this study (HS 27, November lexical items, through a group of terms 1972, 11). Use, abuse and dependency that can be referred to as a contemporary seem to be regarded as almost equally seri- “addiction vocabulary”. All 14 texts in- ous problems in the earlier texts. clude signs which explicitly involve the The problems are generally regarded as idea of addiction, of problems with quit- serious and as tragic human fates, prob- ting a habit: riippuvuus (=dependency/ lems that need to be addressed by soci- addiction), addiktio (=addiction), vieroi- ety (=yhteiskunta). The texts deal with tus (=withdrawal), himokuntoilija (=com- the problems of drug-using youth and the pulsive physical exercise), narkomaanit drug dealers’ industry (Siikala 1972) and (=drug addicts) etc. Most of the texts were the treatment system for substance abuse therefore selected on the second crite- problems (HS 15, November 1972, 18). rion, i.e. they contain words that signify 360 NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 2 6. 2 0 0 9 . 4 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 the phenomenon under study. The idea enon. By ascribing potentially anyone in of addiction is mediated through direct society these habits, the media mediates semantic expressions that denote the core pictures of addiction as a natural element problems of addiction. Also, addiction is in contemporary life. discussed as a problem in itself. Compared In pre-conventionalization texts the to the material from 1972, the texts’ sig- phenomenon is not described using direct nifying practices directly put the focus on lexical terms. The texts only imply a prob- the dimension of dependency, instead of lem in their underlying presumptions, or just implying dependency problems in the as part of other more visible discourses. background of societal alcohol and drug The cultural unit, the idea to which it gives problems. Even in news items that deal rise, is at work in the background rather with themes like the banning of cigarette than brought into focus. The paradigm of vending machines (Ollikainen 2002) and words signifying the phenomenon is nar- an HIV epidemic in Russia and the Baltic row and the level of syntagmatic action states (Markkanen 2002), the dimension is tame: no innovative constructions and of addiction is still included, albeit only combinations for stretching and abducting mentioned in passing. Addiction and de- are employed. The dependence aspect is pendency also receive attention in more ascribed to “traditional” problematic re- unlikely contexts. The phenomenon is al- petitive behaviour like drug intake or alco- most routinely mentioned in all types of holism. The idea of addiction is equivalent texts. Excessive physical exercise (Pantti to the obvious commonsensical aspect of 2002) and TV viewing (HS 9, March 2002, dependence problems, i.e. dependence on D12) are framed as problematic repetitive a substance. There is no symbolic account behaviours that can be understood as in- of a wider understanding of the phenome- volving similar elements as more tradi- non. The “object” of the addiction concept tional substance abuse problems. is more limited and more precisely a spe- The concept of addiction is used more cific problem. It is implied and represent- frequently, sometimes routinely abducted, ed through phenomena such as alcoholism but it is not precisely defined. New “shal- or the treatment of substance problems ac- low” quasi addictions are included in the counted for in the texts. These types of is- addiction modality in the texts from the sues can be seen as representing addiction 1990s and 2000s. The references to ad- in the newspaper reporting at that time. diction problems related to the use of cof- The earlier texts lack the symbolic dimen- fee (Ahonen 1994; HS 21, March 1998, sion that is present in the latter ones. The D10), chocolate (Ahonen 1994; Hazard cultural unit is more specifically a limited & Blom 1998), sweets and carbohydrates problem, the commonsensical dependen- (Repo 1998), television shows (Karonen cy problem. At the same time, the concrete 2006) and the Internet (Lindholm 2000) signification praxis is more implicit com- and lumping them together with severe pared to the more recent, direct employ- drug addictions and alcoholism (e.g. Repo ment of signifying items belonging to an 1998) also reflect a turn in the cultural addiction vocabulary. understanding of the addiction phenom- In 2002 the addiction phenomenon reNORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 26. 2009 . 4 361 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 ceives more space and attention in news- throughout the material would shed light paper reporting, and the paradigm of ideas on the understanding underlying the phe- on and understandings of the phenomenon nomenon at different times. have a much broader scope and are more ated by the concept per se, the cultural Q Where is addiction? The texts under study were analysed, first- unit is vague in its contours and applied to ly, by identifying the domain or sphere many different types of problematic hab- of society within which addiction prob- its. Abductions of the addiction concept lems were discussed. This represents the lead to new innovative combinations of framing of the problems, the sphere in concepts (workaholic, ʻchocaholic’, etc.). which addiction problems are thought to The addiction vocabulary is highly con- be located, the domains of life that they ventionalized and naturalized in the texts, affect. Based on the themes identified in and used almost in a routine manner. the newspaper pieces it was possible to varied. Even if the latter texts are perme- Views on addiction before and after conventionalization group these domains into three main areas: The first contains discourses connected to treatment, medical aspects and physi- My previous study had indicated that ological facts and circumstances. These changes in the understanding of the con- discourses mediate a view on addictions cept coincide with changes in views as as situated within the domain of physio- to which part of society is affected by the logical, medical or mental problems, to be problem. In order to investigate which addressed and treated with different treat- changes in the public understanding of ment methods and/or within a system of the phenomenon coincide with changes treatment. The second category comprises in signifying practices, three dimensions discourses dealing with social and policy were analysed in closer detail in the texts efforts and mediates a view of addiction as selected from 1972, 1982, 1992 and 2002. problems that affect society and that need These dimensions were: i) Where is ad- to be addressed by society by means of diction? This question was posed in or- policy tools, for example. Finally, the third der to identify the domain in society to domain category consisted of questions re- which addiction problems were ascribed lated to the addicts’ living environment, in the texts; ii) Who has knowledge about private sphere and family. This group of addiction? This question was posed in texts mediated a view of addiction prob- order to identify the sources offering in- lems as being situated within the private formation and expertise on addictions in sphere, in the environment where indi- the texts under study; and, finally iii) On viduals grow up and where they live out what level are courses of events due to ad- their daily lives. The three domains can be diction taking place? This question was labelled as a) physiological & treatment, b) posed for identifying the perspective on society & policy and c) private sphere. the problems mediated in the texts. It was All three domains are more or less equal- thought that a systematic analysis of these ly represented in the 1972 and 1982 texts. dimensions – domain, source and level – Within the physiology and treatment do- 362 NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 2 6. 2 0 0 9 . 4 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 main, alcoholism is discussed as an illness cussed on a new detailed level that did not (HS 8, April 1972, 6, Kajava 1972). It is occur in the 1982 and 1972 texts: “Smoke also pointed out that young people do not heroin works in the same way as injected understand that they can become depend- heroin. You will quickly get addicted to ent even on non-prescription medicines it”, says one piece (HS 7, April 1992, A5). (HS 30, November 1972, 42). Reference is New methods for quitting smoking are also made to the effects of alcohol on blood discussed in another piece (HS 12, April pressure, blood sugar levels and the per- 1992, A5). In an article about the treat- manent health damage it can cause (HS 15, ment of heroin addicts, it is stressed that November 1982, 17; Söderblom 1982). “In the heroin addict will come to the centre order to be effective, treatment for addic- once a day to pick up “medical drugs that tion should continue for 3–5 years”, says a counteract the effects of heroin” (Naarma- letter to the editor (Cajander 1982). In the la 1992). Physiological issues within the society and policy domain, one text (HS addict’s body are added as a new element 8, April 1972, 6) refers to the problem of in the understanding of the phenomenon. scarce resources: “More money should be In 2002, there is a clear shift in the do- allocated to the police and treatment fa- mains to which addiction problems are cilities”; another (HS 15, November 1972, attached. The physiology & treatment do- 18) says that “Substance abuse treatment main dominates the material with a rela- needs more money”. A third text (HS 16, tively large margin (10 accounts compared November 1972, 41) asks, “What are the to 2 in the domain of society & policy and options available to alcoholics?” A letter 3 in the private sphere). In one piece about to the editor points out that treatment is ecstasy, a doctor states that “In contrast costly for society (HS 15, November 1982, to common belief, sporadic use can lead 17). In the private sphere, the texts refer to addiction and changes in organic ac- to families with alcohol problems (HS 16, tivities of the brain. In particular, learn- November 1972, 41) and describe the eve- ing abilities can be adversely affected” ryday life of an alcoholic (Kajava 1972). In (Forsström 2002). Another article says that a piece from 1982, it is pointed out that “as far as addictive effects are concerned, life is very difficult for children in families tobacco can be compared to heroin” (Ol- with an alcoholic (Lahti & Sievers 1982) likainen 2002). A piece about the tobacco and that alcoholics can be abusive to other plant points out that the nicotine in this family members (HS 15, November 1982, plant “is extremely addictive” and that 17). it works through the nervous system: “It In 1992, addiction problems are still is a very poisonous chemical compound discussed within all three domains, al- and around 60 mg, which corresponds to though more emphasis is given to physiol- 6–12 cigarettes or a teaspoon of crushed ogy & treatment and social & policy at the tobacco leaves is a fatal dose for an adult”. expense of the private sphere. However, (Patja & Elovainio & Hara 2002) New ad- a change can be seen regarding the level dictions are also identified within the of discussion when it comes to the physi- private sphere: one letter to the editor ex- ological aspects of addiction: these are dis- presses the reader’s frustration over havNORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 26. 2009 . 4 363 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 ing to play second fiddle to the TV due to dicts (a smoker and three drug addicts), a family member’s “TV addiction” (HS 9, representatives of deacon services and an March 2002, D12). organization involved in drug work. To, summarize, the analysis of domain Given the small size of the dataset and found that in the texts from 1992 and the large number of information sources, 2002, the accounts of addiction is increas- it is impossible to draw any meaning- ingly positioned within the physiological ful generalizations regarding changes in domain and explanations of the problems the sources on addiction. However, what and their underlying mechanisms are in- we can see is that medical experts have a creasingly detailed. There is a shift from more prominent role in 2002 (6 sources framing addiction problems as matters of out of 16) than they did earlier. The au- policy and society in the 1970s and the thorities speaking about addiction are a 1980s, towards a medical or physiological medical examiner, deputy chief physician, view in the 1990s and the 2000s. medical doctor, the head of an HIV laboratory, a virologist and a professor in medi- Q Who has knowledge about addiction? References to addiction appearing in the cal sciences. Other sources include public texts were analysed by identifying the vate person (in a letter to the editor), and source of the information about addic- representatives of the non-governmental tion: what individual or sector of social sector. The tendency to refer increas- life does the authority represent. The texts ingly to medical experts fits well with the identified several different sources: repre- changes in the domain to which addiction sentatives of the media, public authorities, problems were associated in the texts. The scientists and researchers, representatives understanding of addictions is obviously of high culture, medical experts, private becoming more medicalized over time. authorities, media representatives, a pri- persons, etc. main sources of information about ad- Q On what level is the problem situated? The third dimension of analysis was the diction problems were media representa- level of focus in the texts. In this analysis tives (5 of 11 cases) as well as public au- the main concern was with the story, the thorities, cultural figures, researchers and course of events accounted for in the texts: medical experts. In 1982, the main sources on what level did these events take place were representatives of an association in terms of the number of people involved. providing treatment for addicts, an anony- This aspect differs from domain in that it mous letter to the editor, high culture (a is less thematically concerned. Did the ad- piece by the author Aleksis Kivi and a diction stories concern society at large and theatre play) and an alcoholic who speaks involve larger populations, or did they op- of his problems in an interview. In 1992, erate at the level of the individual problem accounts of addiction are given by public holder? Sometimes the stories were con- authorities (the police are cited twice, and fined to certain groups who were affected reports from the court system indicate an by the problems discussed. Three levels of increase in drug-related crime), some ad- settings were identified on the basis of this The analysis showed that in 1972, the 364 NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 2 6. 2 0 0 9 . 4 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 analysis: 1) a macro perspective, in which 7 texts discuss the courses of events on a addiction problems were presented as single level. The other texts combine ac- concerning populations or society at large, counts involving at least two and often all 2) a group level perspective, where addic- three levels: macro, group and micro. By tions were seen as affecting or involving more frequent references to the logics of certain groups of people, or a section of the addiction, expressed in a new addiction population and 3) a micro perspective, in vocabulary, the concept is thrown into all which problems were accounted for on the types of discussions on all levels of rea- level of the individual. soning. For example, it is pointed out that In 1972 and 1982 the courses of events the primary role of drug legislation is to are accounted for on all three levels, i.e. prevent narcotics from entering the illicit from a macro, micro and group perspec- drug market and from “causing addiction tive. On the macro level, the texts discuss and other problems” (Viljakainen 2002). the drug business (Siikala 1972) and the Addiction is thus mentioned as the first resources allocated by government to the and most elementary problem caused by treatment of abusers (HS 15, November illicit drugs, as a root cause, as a motive 1972, 18; HS 8, April 1972, 6). The con- for drug legislation, which of course is a sequences are once again discussed as macro level policy measure. Hence, ef- an expense for society (HS 15, November forts on the macro level are explained by 1982, 17), and efforts to help abusers are the physiological (individual) addiction accounted for from the society’s perspec- process on the micro level. The incorpo- tive (Cajander 1982). On a group level, ration of the addiction concept into the there are pieces that talk about “those who macro level discussion is a new element have been able to break free from alcohol” that was also seen in the later texts during (Cajander 1982), alcoholics in relation the diachronic reading of the newspaper to obese people (HS 15, November 1982, texts: “Male drinking habits lead girls to 17), drunkards (Söderblom 1982) and ‘old addiction” (HS 8, February, 2004, D2) says drunkards’ (Lahti & Sievers 1982). Refer- one piece from 2004. In other words, a cir- ence is also made to AA groups and young cumstance that is described on the macro abusers (HS 15, November 1972, 12; HS level (drinking patterns) is seen as having 30, November 1972, 42). Among the cours- consequences on the micro level (girls get- es of events discussed on a micro level are ting addicted). It seems that the extended abusers’ difficulties in their private lives use of addiction concepts and increasing and personal relationships (e.g. HS 27, No- portrayals of addiction correlate with ex- vember 1972, 11). The amounts of money planations of social phenomena in terms spent by alcoholics and people who eat of seeing them as the sum of individuals excessively are also discussed (HS 15, No- with the problems in question. The fre- vember 1982, 17), and in one piece an al- quent use of the addiction concept chan- coholic speaks about his problems and his nels the focus on the dependence per se, road to recovery (Lahti & Sievers 1982). and invites an understanding of the prob- In 1992, the texts increasingly combined lems from an individual’s point of view in different levels of accounts. Only 2 out of various contexts. In 2002, the story is set NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 26. 2009 . 4 365 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 in a macro level setting in a minority of havioural problems. The underlying as- cases (only 3 framings out of 15). sumption is that addiction is a widespread Results phenomenon in society, an assumption that seems to be closely interwoven with Two main developments can be discerned the wider and naturalized use of signs sig- on the basis of the material. Firstly, the nifying addiction. analysis provides further evidence of a The analysis of language use in the me- conventionalization of addiction from the dia texts under study indicates a shift over 1990s onwards. Additionally, the under- time in the idea of addiction. In the earlier lying views of addiction reflect a process texts, the understanding of the phenom- of internalization. Through this process, enon is that it is a problem for a group of the reader is invited to explore the logics people that needs to be addressed in dif- and nature of addiction problems from the ferent ways. Problems of dependency are problem holder’s perspective, sometimes recognized, but they are not explicitly ad- on a very detailed level, and often por- dressed. The cultural unit, the idea it gives trayed as a natural part of everyday life. rise to – according to the framing of this The developments observed are summa- study – works in the background. The de- rized in Table 2. pendency aspect, the compulsory behav- In the pre-conventionalization texts, iour, isn’t brought to the fore, as the root the concept of addiction is typically em- cause of the problem. The understanding bedded in descriptions of social problems of the phenomenon works on different and is implicitly referred to in other than levels: it can be a problem for society as direct addiction discourses. Addiction is a whole, for a group of people, or for an an idea lurking in the background, but it individual. However, the reasoning sur- doesn’t take up much room at all in the rounding the different addiction problems actual reporting. In the post-convention- does not cut through the levels – issues alization texts the concept takes up much of the individual are not presented as ex- more space, it is understood more broadly planatory circumstances for social prob- and it is directly and explicitly mediated lems and vice versa. through terms that signify “continuous At the same time, as the cultural unit problematic repetitive behaviour”. The becomes increasingly blurred and as the meaning of the concept expands as it starts paradigm continues to expand, there is a to channel various types of –more or less shift from viewing addiction as a specific problematic – behaviour. problem that is part of alcohol and drug In the earlier texts addiction is dealt problems to additionally viewing it as a with in the context of larger, often socially common phenomenon at large. It is obvi- anchored problems. It is not a problem ous that the codes for mediating messages that can affect anybody. Thirty years later, on addiction in the newspaper in question any individual can, for whatever reason, reflect practices and needs of the society of fall prey to the vicious circle of addiction. which they are a product. In the 1970s there Addiction problems can be attributed to is no cultural need to explain and channel almost any type of substance use and be- different behaviours in terms of addictions. 366 NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 2 6. 2 0 0 9 . 4 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 Addictions are problems for specific groups as a physiological problem depicted from of people with specific problems (mostly the individual’s perspective and requiring alcohol and drug problems). medical expertise and treatment. From the 1990s onwards, the texts begin to apply an addiction terminology that re- Discussion flects a wider and more variable cultural By investigating changes in uses of the con- unit that permeates the texts and reflects cept of addiction in newspaper materials on problems on a broad scale. Physiologi- over time, we can retrace a process where cal processes are explained in great de- the theme of social deviance, a problem to tail. The problems of a society or a group society, turns into an often physical and of people can be explained by reference quite common problem of the individual. to circumstances at the level of the indi- This study has captured a movement to- vidual. Medical expertise emerges as the wards a more internalized and physiologi- major source of information on addiction cal view of addictions and media reporting problems. that covers the problems on many levels To summarize, the main trends identi- (micro, macro and group). fied in this study are the combination of The introduction of a new addiction vo- new conventionalized and “inflated” lan- cabulary in the material during the 1990s guage use about addictions with a new un- should not be interpreted as the addic- derstanding of addiction predominantly tion concept first being introduced at that Table 2. Signs of conventionalization and internalization processes observed in the material under study. Tendencies LANGUAGE USE *Adaption of addiction vocabulary: from an implicit and indirect to explicit and direct referring to the phenomenon by lexical items. Main development: Conventionalization/ naturalization Signs and codes for expressing addictions are conventionalized, applied as a natural part of language and life. *Inflation in concept use: from a more precise and limited use of the concept of addiction as a specific and problematic part of alcohol and drug problems to a broader use that covers all sorts of repetitive behavior. *Variation in expressing addiction: paradigms of signs and codes for expressing addiction move from narrow paradigms (only a few words used for the phenomenon) to broader paradigms (a lot of words and formats used for designating and describing the phenomenon). *Innovative syntagmatic combinations: the latter texts include e.g. combinations of everyday concepts with signs/ indexes of addictive behavior to emphasize a problematic repetitive element in the behavior in question. *Use of tropes: the latter texts contain rhetorical ‘figures of speech’, like e.g. irony and metaphors when portraying addictions. UNDERSTANDING OF PHENOMENON Main development: Internalization Addictions are portrayed from within the problem. *Shift from the social to the individual problem holder in portrayals of addiction. *Shift towards increasingly detailed physiological accounts. *Incorporation of the addiction element into discussions on the macrolevel (subjects of society). * Towards a more frequent use of medical expertise as source of information. NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 26. 2009 . 4 367 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 time: “problematic repetitive behaviour of having becomes an important theme in ev- which the individual has impaired con- eryday life. The point when the addiction trol” is dealt with, although to a much theme enters the reporting as something lesser extent, even in the earliest texts naturalized, will therefore coincide with a from 1968, but at that point there is appar- level of prosperity and coherent contem- ently no need to name the phenomenon porary lifestyles that enable and encour- in terms of addictions. The need to lump age us to become repetitive consumers of together different compulsory behaviours substances and habitual slaves of all sorts. under the umbrella of an addiction termi- Additionally, we can see that at the time nology begins to emerge in the material when addictions have become sufficiently under study from the 1990s onwards. So prevalent, naturalized and self-evident in what circumstances does this need reflect, the material, they start to be viewed as and how does it influence our understand- self-identifying everyday practices. Fol- ing of addiction problems? lowing these lines of reasoning, it is not First of all, we need to take into consid- all that surprising that addictions have eration some changes in Finnish society been significantly more often discussed that appeared before and around the time and seemingly completely conventional- of the changes observed. French philoso- ized since the mid-1990s. Individualiza- pher Jacques Derrida (2003) suggests that tion, consumerism and thereto connected it is a crossing of a quantitative threshold views on freedom of choice were boosted that allows us to speak of a modern phe- in Finnish culture in the years after the nomenon of addiction (Derrida 2003, 23). fall of the Soviet Union in a way that was According to this line of reasoning we can directly reflected in the reporting under date the birth of a modern phenomenon of study, both in newspaper contents and addiction to a point when a large number formats. Finland enjoyed sustained eco- of individuals obtain easy access to the nomic growth from 1994 through until the technical possibility of repeating the acts, recent economic recession in 2008. The alone or otherwise, in private or in public country underwent a period of active eco- (see ibid.). Likewise, we can see the con- nomic liberalization from the late 1980s, temporary extended employment of the and in the latter half of the 1990s the coun- concept as dependent on the number of try joined both the European Union (1995) persons that will personally in one way or and the Eurozone (1999). By the middle another be affected by the various types of of the 1990s – when newspaper reporting addiction problems portrayed in the mate- began to adopt a more personal tone – the rial. country had entered a new phase of eco- Thus, addiction will become a signifi- nomic growth reflected and supported in cant and relevant theme in our culture trends of consumerism and individualiza- when a majority of people have the pos- tion. The more tabloidized and personal- sibility or are frequently exposed to the ized reporting that corresponds to a con- possibility of taking addictive substances temporary consumer culture differs clear- or engaging themselves in problematic re- ly from the traditional, politically oriented petitive behavior, i.e. when this way of be- news reporting of Helsingin Sanomat dur- 368 NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 2 6. 2 0 0 9 . 4 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 ing the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s (see Hell- can be compared to another historical shift man, in print). in the understanding of addiction pointed These developments support and reflect out by Levine (1978). He discusses a shift a general trend of individualization. The in views on addiction in the early 19th cen- internalization of addiction problems in tury, as reflected in changing views on the the media coincided with a climate that source of alcoholism. The North American can be viewed as fostering certain gener- temperance movement had believed that ally adopted thoughts on self governing. the source of addiction lay in the drug it- According to Foucault (referred to by Rose self, that it was the addictive substance of 1999) a certain view on humans as free alcohol that caused addiction. Post-prohi- to act upon themselves and against their bition thought, on the other hand, located limits are a result of certain forces that the source of addiction in the individual arises as a historical possibility in society body: “only some people, for reasons yet in a specific time. Governing through the unknown, become addicted to alcohol” freedom of individuals’ to govern them- (Levine 1978, 495). The developments selves links public objectives for the good witnessed in the present study suggest that health and good order of the social body this development is now being extended with the desire of individuals for personal to involve potentionally any habit and any health and well-being. This is strongly re- individual body in society: “addictions of flected in the developments under study various types can affect any individual in and interestingly enough, this shaping society, but for some reason they become a of a private responsibility over the body- bigger problem for some than for others”. project assigns a key role to experts: “For The focus in the accounts of the problem it is – first doctors but later a host of oth- is put on the agent, reflecting a new view ers – who can specify ways of conducting on the individual’s role in the emergence one’s private affairs that are desirable” of the problems. On the one hand, addic- (ibid. 74–75). Results of the analysis here tion becomes a common concern and the suggest that during the 1990s and 2000s, idea of involving and engaging anybody medical expertise is increasingly viewed can be seen as people being equal before as possessing crucial knowledge about the threats of addiction. On the other addiction. Precise knowledge of technol- hand, there is also the underlying view ogies of the body in relation to different that everybody is responsible for his/her addictions is presented by experts and au- own life project, for their self-management thorities in the field of medicine. Members and the realization of their own health and of society are equipped by the media with ‘body project’ (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim these expertise statements that guide the 2006, 140). This fits in well with the no- individual – the citizen, the consumer, the tion of self-reflexive identify formation potential or actual addict – in the land- suggested by post-modern culture theories scape of the logics and mechanisms of ad- that recognize a heightened degree of frag- diction. mentation, pluralism and individualiza- The shift towards a view of addiction as tion. The public are informed about vari- including potentially anybody in society ous risks and dangers and each individual NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 26. 2009 . 4 369 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 is responsible for his/her own life project the individual nor the history of a society and identity formation on the basis of the can be understood without understanding information available. both (e.g. Mills 1959, 3). Either we are wit- The extended use of the addiction con- nessing a move towards such a “double” cept, which in itself connotes a state of understanding of addiction problems, or individual struggle, implies an orienta- we are witnessing a move towards a gen- tion towards physicalism. Addictions are eral individualization of a problem at the viewed as physiological and psychologi- expense of a socially rooted contextuali- cal states that need to be treated in differ- zation. The analysis of the present study ent ways. This coincides with newspaper points to the latter alternative. accounts being more heavily focused on A paradoxical circumstance that re- the micro or group level, and less on the quires further attention is that this devel- population level. Through internalization opment coincides with the application of in the portrayals of addictions, the indi- a more vague and fuzzy understanding of vidual’s state of dependence is presented the concept of addiction. On the one hand, as a core element in what we understand problems are increasingly viewed as meas- as addiction problems, and the accounts urable and physiological in line with clas- of the problem on the individual level are sical deductive reasoning. On the other used to explain broader problems in soci- hand, the essence of the concept/phenom- ety. Naming and viewing the core element enon of addiction is increasingly difficult of addictions as the physical condition of to grasp. dependence can be said to reflect a disease As yet it is not clear who will emerge as view – a general medicalization trend in winners and who will lose out as a result views on addictions. of the changes observed. Will, for exam- Conventionalization and internalization ple, the new individualized understand- can thus be viewed as part and parcel of a ing of the problems detract from the view more general shift towards viewing addic- that social aspects and processes should tion as the loss of individual control, and be taken into account when investigating the social problem of addiction as the sum and addressing these problems? of all individuals who have this problem. Following this line of reasoning, we This reasoning is grounded in a view of so- might well see the Nordic welfare state ciety where each phenomenon is the sum project lose out as well. It is increasingly of its individual parts. In this way, addic- difficult to advocate a model in which the tion problems can be measured and clini- state assumes primary responsibility for cally diagnosed merely by referencing the the welfare of its citizens when each indi- individual involved, which departs from vidual is viewed as responsible for his/her the view in the media pieces from the own health and life trajectory. Also, the 1970s and 1980s according to which social shift towards greater individualization fits processes are more than just the sum of the in well with the messages of commercial citizens living in the same society. A more stakeholders who do not want to see the traditional sociological view on social state involved in regulating the distribu- problems claims that neither the life of tion of goods for public health reasons, for 370 NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS V O L . 2 6. 2 0 0 9 . 4 Designation practices and perceptions of addiction – a diachronic analysis of Finnish press material from 1968–2006 instance. The consumer is encouraged and group affected by the problems in the fu- expected to take the prime responsibility ture? for making his/her own choices. When By researching different uses and under- the focus is placed on problematic indi- standings of the concept of addiction over vidual behaviour, it has to be assumed by time, this study has demonstrated how definition that there is a non-problematic journalism plays a major role in produc- way of behaving that some people are bet- ing and distributing modern society’s un- ter able to control. These discourses will derstanding of phenomena such as social inevitably mediate a view on mastery as deviance and in locating and explaining something worth striving for and a view social problems. It has investigated chang- on control – a capacity to direct and shape es in the ways that addiction is linguisti- objects and processes to meet one’s objec- cally expressed in a Finnish newspaper tives – as the ultimate goal. New views material from 1968 to 2006, and pointed on failure and guilt will inevitably follow out internalizing and conventionalizing with these patterns of thinking. Another trends. The changes observed could be in- outcome of these developments is a new vestigated further, for example by focusing shallow approach to the problems, which in depth on how the concept is used for has also been identified in other analyses different types of addictions, or by looking of media images of addiction (Hellman & at the paradox of mastery in addiction that Rantala, in submission). The broader the coincides with the expanded use of the concept, the more blurred the borderline concept. between serious addictions and amusing little habits. What consequences will lumping together severe problems and funny habits under the same terminology have for a view on the constitution of the Matilda Hellman, Researcher, PhD student Nordic Center for Welfare and Social Issues, NVC Annegatan 29 A 23, FIN-00100 Helsingfors Finland E-mail: [email protected] Note REFERENCES 1) Inter-rater reliability showed a high degree of consistency regarding text selection (see Hellman, in print, for details) Alexander, A. & Roberts, M.S. (2003): High Culture. Reflections on addiction and modernity. Albany: State University of New York Press Barthes, R. (2000): Mythologies. Viborg, Denmark: Vintage Books/ Random House Beck, U. & Beck-Gernsheim, E. (2006) [2001]: Individualization. Institutionalizes Individualism and its political consequences. 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