Saikei or Penjing? A Review of Miniature Landscapes, Part 1
Milo Mietzner
This year the Minnesota Bonsai Society is adding two new categories to its
judged show at the State Fair: Suiseki and Landscapes. The first is an artful presentation
and appreciation of viewing stones and has its origins as garden stones in China, where
abstract shapes or those representing mountains, people, animals, or architecture were
mounted and displayed. The other broad category features miniature landscapes
composed of trees trained with bonsai or penjing techniques, rocks, and accessory
plants placed in shallow trays or on slabs. But not all miniature landscapes are the same,
and the artist should be aware of the deep tradition, and differences, between Chinese
penjing and Japanese saikei.
To understand what the terms bonsai, saikei, and penjing mean in relation to
miniature tray landscapes, we need to review the history and development of these
arts. Craig Coussins writes, “I came to realize that bonsai, penjing, Oriental gardens,
landscapes in miniature, and the appreciation of viewing stones, were inextricably
linked over the centuries that predate our modern understanding of bonsai.” Placing a
tree in a pot originated in the spiritual and medicinal practices of traveling shamans and
Buddhist monks in China who carried herbs planted in containers. Practitioners no
doubt observed the dwarfing effects of pruning a plant and the techniques were refined
and applied to other trees and shrubs. References to designing and arranging plants and
stones are found in China as early as 1800 years ago, and these creations are known as
penjing. Early evidence of penjing include two paintings, found in the
tomb of the Prince Zhang Huai who died in 706 BCE (before common
era), depicting servants carrying a miniature landscape and a tree in a
pot. Historically, miniature landscapes and mountains created in trays
or in gardens were used as places to burn incense and to invite spirits
to inhabit. These tiny representations of nature were also used by
Buddhists as “channels for the meditator’s devotion and focus.” Many
of us can relate to the meditative qualities of working on our trees as
time and care slip away.
Chinese penjing can be classified into two major categories that reflect the deep
traditions of creating both miniature trees and landscapes. Shansui, “mountain and
water,” are landscapes featuring mainly stones depicting
Courtesy Venus Communications
panoramic mountain vistas and may or may not include
trees. If used, they serve more as a foil to the rocks or as
embellishments. Shumu are “tree” penjing, also known as
pentsai, and feature a tree or trees. However, both are
called penjing. Rocks and figures are sometimes included in
shumu penjing to evoke a feeling to complement the tree’s style and attitude, but are
not landscapes—they seem to me like a moment of meditation focused on the
characteristics of a single tree. For example, several tree penjing depicted in Coussins’
book depict a clay or ceramic figure of a scholar contemplating a tree clasping a rock
formation he has just chanced upon.
During the 1970’s, Qingquan Zhao, developed a third category, shuihan (“waterand-land” style) based on gardens, landscape paintings and descriptions found in old
writings. Shuihan artists link trees, stones, soil, and water together in very shallow
containers or on marble slabs, and are a combination of shumu and shansui penjing.
Unlike shansui that uses rocks to represent distant mountains, water-and-land penjing
uses stones to represent stones and boulders in a near view. These compositions seem
to extend the chance moments with an imposing individual tree, as described above,
into the meditation of an entire landscape or garden, as
Courtesy Venus Communications
suggested by this inherently limited portal. In penjing the
hidden or what is left out of the scene is just as important as
what can be seen. Karin Albert, Zhao’s translator writes, “A
superior piece of art possesses the quality to transmit life, to
convey the very spirit inherent in Nature. In pursuit of this
goal, the artist concentrates on the essential, leaves out all
superfluous detail, eliminates anything that would distract
the viewer's attention.”
Water-and-land penjing are inspired by natural scenes yet “convey the
enchantment of nature poetry” while capturing the spirit of landscape paintings.
Indeed, Mr. Zhao likens penjing to 3-dimensional landscape paintings or wordless
poems. All three arts, along with garden-making, matured together in China and cannot
be separated. Written descriptions of water-and-land penjing date from the early 15th
century. “Since Chinese landscape paintings, poems, and gardens hardly ever depict
individual mountains, single water scenes, or individual trees, but instead show
combinations of these features, it is rather natural in penjing, too, tree penjing and
landscape penjing should combine to form water-and-land penjing.” And since Taoism,
Confucianism, and Buddhism, which combined to shape the metaphysics of Chinese
culture, emphasize communion with nature, it is only natural that humans are
inherently present in miniature landscapes—whether as actual ornaments or as viewers
and designers. An essential ingredient in penjing
is the artist and his/her emotions, imparting a
spirit to each piece while practicing sound
horticulture and a thoughtful balance of
dualities: dominant/subordinate, light/heavy,
soft/hard, solid/void, dense/sparse, etc. (see
Courtesy Venus Communications
Zhao, 1997, for more detail).
The styles of penjing relate directly to China’s geography. China spans an
enormous range of growing conditions and regional geologies, and several major
schools have developed regional styles—some more naturalistic and others more
symbolic. Each school specializes in local species and incorporates local stones into
shansui landscapes inspired by the often bizarre and beautiful geology of each region.
Pinnacles of rock reach toward the sky, and jagged formations overhang water features.
Artists from the Shanghai School, one of the major schools, create two types of
landscapes. The first uses local hard rocks, often cutting them to create flat bases,
arranged in ‘near’ views of peaks dotted with trees and the bases with lush plantings.
The second uses soft rocks carved into ‘flat’ or ‘deep distance’ views of mountains, small
grasses, and ample “water” space reminiscent of the lake and river landscape south of
the Yangtze River. Regardless of the type of penjing or style employed, the penijing
artist should ultimately draw from a personal intimacy with real landscapes.
Miniature Landscapes in Japan
The art of bonsai (from the Chinese word pentsai, another name for tree penjing) and
other arts were introduced to Japan from China around 900 years ago. The Japanese
were into everything Chinese at the time yet made bonsai their own by drawing on their
indigenous traditions and then developed it to its current level of sophistication. A
related art form, bonkei, uses rocks, artificial materials, and paint to create miniature
landscapes, that last a short time and may or may not have living plants in them.
Another development went in the opposite direction. Interestingly, miniature
landscapes were modeled on the less diverse geography of Japan when compared to
China, and as result tended to be more plant oriented. Couple this tendency with the
“beauty in severe austerity” of Zen Buddhism, a development from the native naturehonoring Shinto religion, and you get a bonsai tradition that focuses on a single tree or
trees in classical styles without rocks and ornaments. “In Japan, the epitome of dwarfpotted landscapes representing the interplay of the natural with the supernatural
became those that were distilled into a single, ideal tree.” And that is the current export
idea of what a bonsai is, and yet its roots lie in the recreation of entire landscapes.
Through the centuries, however, abstract and grotesque forms of the “single, ideal tree”
came to dominate until the late 19th and early 20th centuries when enthusiasts went
back to nature—and Chinese tradition. “Classical” styles based on natural forms are a
relatively new re-development, as is the word bonsai, which was adapted from the
Chinese characters for pentsai. Yes, what we think of and call ‘bonsai’ in its modern
form is a little over a hundred years old.
Soon afterwards, American GIs in Japan
following WWII were embracing bonsai and bringing
Courtesy Kodansha Intl.
the art home, and a resurgence of creating miniature
landscapes was born of necessity. Following the
ravages of war and the post-war economic depression,
mature plant material was
difficult to find in Japan.
Toshio Kawamoto, the son
of a bonsai expert, began
experimenting with applying bonsai techniques to young
seedlings and immature material and incorporating them
into landscapes that he called saikei, (“living landscapes”).
Courtesy Kodansha Intl.
He took the techniques of short-lived, artificial bonkei and
applied them to his living landscapes. In addition, group
plantings and rock-grown bonsai were becoming popular at
the time, and saikei was based on those two styles. He
encouraged the popularization of bonsai in this way as
something that everyone can do, not just the wealthy, sons of masters, or the retired
scholar, and these small worlds could sit on the balcony of a city apartment.
Although the use of symbolism is employed to a lesser extent than in penjing,
saikei are more realistic representations faithful to actual landscapes. Kawamoto
stressed the importance of creating a perspective to give the landscape realistic depth
and to integrate the four essential components: primary tree(s), rocks, secondary plants
(grasses, moss, etc.), and water, usually represented as sand or fine pebbles. The root
crowns of the trees also had to be above the rim of the container. Regarding clay
figures, Kawamoto writes, “In saikei we are attempting to express natural landscapes, so
it is permissible to include human figures, animals or buildings. Use ornaments of this
nature sparingly and only when you feel they would help to stress the theme of your
saikei. They should also be small and in proportion to the rest of the scene.” The
landscapes, while true to nature, are also artistic compositions. The Japanese versions of
the Chinese dualities mentioned above are also employed to create a pleasing, balanced
saikei. The creations entice the viewer to enter and explore them for themselves, just as
a real scene entices us into them to experience nature. Penjing, on the other hand,
entice the viewer in with a mysticism, mystery, and sense of wonder beyond the
physicality of nature.
Penjing or Saikei?
The landscape artist has much to draw on when composing a piece—nature, available
plant and rock material, his or her own inspiration, and a deep tradition of different
styles in China and Japan. In part 2 of this article, I will introduce other styles, old and
new, from different parts of the world, as well as changing tastes and hybrid forms that
push the boundaries, such as Su Chin Ee’s work. (And how else can you categorize Nick
Lenz’s creations?!)
As you experiment with landscapes, how do you know what your landscape
should be called? The easiest way to answer is to know the differences and reasons
behind making a saikei, water-and-land penjing (shuihan), or landscape penjing
(shansui). To distinguish between them, I found it useful to emulate the works, found in
books by experts, that are explicitly called saikei or penjing. In addition to the histories
above, I have included a chart showing the basic differences and characteristics of these
arts distilled from my research for this article. Any omissions or errors are my own.
Aside from a list of technical differences, perhaps the best explanation comes from Herb
Gustafson:
The most important distinguishing characteristic that separates [penjing]
from its Japanese counterparts is found in its spirit or intent. Penjing
exists in the minds of its creators. It is not a reproduction or a
photographic image. Each portrays a mystical, wonderful land where one
might want to go….More impressionistic than still life, the penjing moves
one’s emotions somehow. The cliffs are somehow more precarious, the
rock ledges narrower, and gorge walls more precipitous than in actual
life. Penjing are larger than life, even in their “miniature” size; actual
container sizes range between three and five feet…. In saikei, capturing a
moonlit, starry sky on distant mountain peaks might be comparable to a
photograph by Ansel Adams or Ray Atkeson. A penjing of the same scene
might capture a spirit more like Van Gogh’s Starry Night.
References
Adams, Peter. 1999. Bonsai Landscapes. New York: Sterling Publishing Co.
Albert, Karin. “Mountains and Water in Chinese Art.” Bonsai Clubs International,
Sept/Oct 1988.
Behme, Robert Lee. 1969. Bonsai, Saikei, and Bonkei: Japanese Dwarf Trees and Tray
Landscapes. New York: William Morrow and Co.
Buller, Lew. 2005. Saikei and Art: Miniature Landscapes. Self published.
Coussins, Craig. 2003. Bonsai School: The Complete Course in Care, Training and
Maintenance. New York: Sterling Publishing Company.
Ee, Su Chin. 2003. Creating Bonsai Landscapes: 18 Miniature Garden Projects. North
Adams, MA: Story Publishing.
Gustafson, Herb L. 1994. Miniature Living Bonsai Landscapes: The Art of Saikei. New
York: Sterling Publishing Co.
Kawamoto, Toshio. 1967. Saikei: Living Landscapes in Miniature. Tokyo: Kodansha
International Ltd.
Yoshimura, Yuji and Halford, Giovanna M. 1957. The Japanese Art of Miniature Trees
and Landscapes. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle and Co.
Zhao, Qingquan. 1997. Penjing: Worlds of Wonderment. Athens, GA: Venus
Communications.
For further information:
Saikei
http://internationalsaikei.blogspot.com/
http://www.saikei.co.uk/
Penjing
http://www.venuscomm.com/index.html
http://www.manlungpenjing.org/eng-main2.html
Miniature Landscapes—Compare and Contrast
Courtesy Venus Communications
Water-and-land Penjing
(shuihan)
Landscape Penjing
(shansui)
Panoramic vista of
‘Philosophy’
Realistic yet poetic near view mountains and/or seashore;
or Intent
of stream, lakeshore, or
island. Sense of the mystical.
Tree
material
Secondary
plants
Rocks
Water
Trays
Ornaments
Medium to large, usually
mature with immature for
perspective. Near perfect
tree for single, tree piece.
Double, triple, and Multiple
tree piece can use trees w/
flaws—hidden.
Small and in scale. Moss
prevalent. Other tree species
can be combined with main
trees.
Represent stones and
boulders. Plain stones
suffice; flaws can be buried.
Stones often cut to sit flush
on trays and cemented
down.
Actual, or represented by
bottom of container.
based on Chinese geography
and paintings. Sense of the
mystical.
Optional, as foil or
embellishment. Small,
usually immature to
emphasize size of
mountains.
Same as above.
Represent mountains.
Interesting, near perfect
stones, cut flat, if needed.
Several can be cemented
together and to tray.
Actual, or represented by
bottom of container.
Marble trays or infrequently
shallow suiban (waterholding, shallow pots). Long
oval or rectangular. Rarer,
short oval.
Marble trays or infrequently
shallow suiban (waterholding, shallow pots). Long
oval or rectangular
Frequent. If present,
minimal or moderate and in
perspective.
Frequent. If present,
minimal or moderate and in
perspective.
Courtesy Kodansha Intl.
Saikei
Realistic near view of
stream, lakeshore, or island.
Small to medium sized,
immature. Often 3-5 years
up to 20. Flowering trees
rare (except azaleas) due to
perspective. Multiple trees
are the norm. Flaws can be
hidden.
Small and in scale. Moss
prevalent. Other tree species
often combined with main
trees.
Represent either mountains
(single ‘far’ stone) or stones
and boulders. Plain stones
suffice; flaws can be buried.
Represented by sand or fine
pebbles.
Shallow pots with holes for
drainage; specialty halfsuiban half pot w/ holes.
Short oval, rounded
rectangular or angled
rectangular
Very rare. If present,
minimal and in perspective.