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c h a p t e r
4
How does the acquisition of skill affect
performance?
activity 1
Figure 4.1
A beginner runner
trying to
understand all
the key points of
running
stages of skill acquisition
examine the stages of skill acquisition by participating in the learning of a
new skill, eg juggling, throwing with the non-dominant arm
Everything we do in life involves skill. A skill is something that a person must learn. By understanding
how skills are learnt athletes can improve their performance and develop from a beginner to a skilled
performer. There are many factors that influence how well an athlete can acquire a skill. These are defined
under three stages that an athlete will pass through when learning a new skill: cognitive, associative and
autonomous.
– cognitive
head high
shoulders down
chest out
legs high
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Sometimes this can be called the understanding stage, where the
learner is a beginner. It is called the cognitive stage as it involves
much thought and the focus is on what needs to be done in order to
execute the skill correctly. This stage involves little practice but rather
cognitive thought. The quicker the directions are understood the
quicker the athlete will move through this phase.
When learning tasks, the learner must make sense of old
habits or existing knowledge and transform these into new skills.
Improvements can be quite rapid but very inconsistent and with
little success. In many situations trial and error play a large role in
performance. There is a great amount of information given at this
time and coaches need to make the message as simple as possible
without overloading the athlete with information. Any reference to
other sports the athlete may be familiar with may help with learning.
Transfer of learning can be beneficial during this stage (though
this may not be the case at later stages of learning when it could lead
to poor technique and poor performances). This is where an athlete
relies heavily on a coach’s instructions—the clearer the instruction
given by a good coach, the easier it will be for the athlete to learn
the skill.
Coaches need to maximise feedback to the athlete when they
observe something good that will help their athlete’s learning process.
The feedback needs to be very specific and concise, so that the athlete
factors affecting performance chapter 4
keeps refining the skill that they are learning. At this stage the athlete is unable to self-correct their errors
and the main aim here is to achieve a rough idea of the final skill. The skill being performed here will
appear very disjointed and erratic.
– associative
A learner will progress into the associative stage when they understand how to perform a skill they are
learning. They may not necessarily perform it well but have an understanding of how to do it. The
associative stage is characterised by fine-tuning the skills through practice and it is where the learner
has more success with the performance. This also has more accuracy in performance as opposed to the
numerous errors from the cognitive stage.
In terms of response, the learner is able to start applying the skills when confronted with open skills and
respond accurately to closed skills. This is also known as the practice stage, as the athlete tends to learn more
about the rules of the games as coaches practise skills in a number of situations. This involves practising a
skill that resembles the competition more for closed skills; and for open skills, bringing other variables such
as opposing team players and or team mates into the practice session as the learner continues to improve.
Practice at this stage also starts to take the skill from a closed situation to encompass more open-style practice
Figure 4.2
sessions, which enables the athlete to receive a broader range of skill development.
Elite players need to
At this stage, it is starting to take the motor skill from a jigsaw of previous learnt skills to an organised
be aware of the
new skill ready to operate at any given time in a game situation. Simple skills are easily picked up and look
skills and other
smooth in their execution, whereas harder skills require more work. A key point of this stage is that the
external factors such
athlete starts to get a ‘feel’ for how to perform the skill with success. This is known as a kinaesthetic sense
as opposition
and is a major characteristic that separates elite performers
from average performers. It is here where the learner
begins to pick up their own errors and self-correct.
How well an athlete learns a skill depends on practice
and it is normally fixed in terms of drills repeated which
replicate some situation in a game. The type of practice a
coach uses depends on the type of skill and the progression
of the learner through the associative stage of learning. If
an athlete is encountering difficulty through this stage and
the execution of the skill is poor, then they may need to
go back to the cognitive stage and break the skill down to
basics and start again. Open skills require more practice
than closed skills because of their unpredictability.
– autonomous
The autonomous stage is the final stage of learning where
skills become largely automatic in their execution with
consistency. The skills have gone from the jigsaw stage of
a number of learnt skills to being combined into set skills
in set situations and committed to long-term memory by
the athlete. This may take a long time to achieve and an
athlete will know they are at this stage when they perform
a skill with a high degree of precision and consistently
maintaining accuracy. The athlete now does not need to
worry as much about their performance feedback and
due to developing kinaesthetic awareness they can feel
when they are doing something wrong and easily selfcorrect it and continue with their performance. Now that
the athlete can perform the skill automatically they have
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more time when performing the skill. This extra time can be used to focus on other things such as the
environment, opponents and tactics relayed by the coach.
Even though the athlete has reached this stage they must continue to practise to maintain this level
consistently and look for ways to further improve their performance. Practice at this level is characterised
by the ability to work on two things at once, for example, making a football pass and avoiding opposing
players at the same time. The learner applies the skill to different environments in practice, allowing the
skill to be further developed and the ability to adapt the skill to a range of different contexts. The skills
at this stage are so embedded in the athlete’s subconscious that it is very difficult to correct easily. If the
athlete encounters a recurring problem, the entire skill may need to be broken down so that the error can
be identified, and the athlete starts from associative or cognitive stage again. It will mean the creation of a
new motor program in the athlete’s memory.
Activity 2
Figure 4.3
Athletes wonder
whether they have
what it takes to
be a good
performer
characteristics of the learner, eg personality, heredity, confidence,
prior experience, ability
describe how the characteristics of the learner can influence skill
acquisition and the performance of skills
How quickly an athlete progresses through the three stages of learning the skills for their chosen sport
depends on a number of characteristics that they bring with them when they start a new skill. These are
personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience and ability. For some athletes this may happen quickly
while for others it may take years due to these characteristics.
– personality
A personality is a set of ideas that influence
a person’s behaviour or motivation. It can be
personality
based on interactions they have experienced
throughout their life. It is important for
confidence
coaches to note the type of personality
of their athlete as they plan their training
ability
sessions. For example, a characteristic such
as aggression is essential in a sport like ice
heredity
hockey. Sports that require more quick
thinking during performance may not be
prior experience
suited to those with a personality predisposed
to a high level of trait anxiety.
An athlete’s motivation level is important
too, as it would be difficult for a coach
to teach an athlete new skills and work
with them if they lack motivation. Other
personality types that may be helpful for
sports are the optimistic athlete where everything is good and positive. These people maintain high
motivation and high arousal levels, which will maximise learning for themselves and those around them.
Some learners may be perfect physically for the skill, but lack the mental capability to learn.
A willingness to learn and take risks is an essential part of personality and its effect on learning.
– prior experience
Prior experience is the experience a learner brings with them. It could be as simple as someone who has
seen the skill being performed and has some idea of what it looks like or is familiar with the rules. This
will help them in the cognitive stage of learning. If a learner has played a similar sport or a modified
version of the skill to be learnt, this will be advantageous to their learning the new skills because they are
able to transfer some of their knowledge to them.
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factors affecting performance chapter 4
– confidence
Confidence is the belief in oneself and the
abilities to complete a skill. The confidence
level can directly affect whether a skill is learnt
or not. A coach’s job is to maintain confidence
and/or instil confidence in their athlete. To
do this properly they must make all activities
achievable and aimed at the necessary skill level
of the learner. If this is not done the athlete will
see themselves as a failure when it may have
been a poorly set goal that led them to feel this
sense of failure.
A good coach needs to allow the learner to
see an area where they have learnt well in life
and transfer those same skills to the new task.
Increased confidence can be a result of heredity
and previous positive experiences.
– heredity
Heredity is seen as the transfer from one
generation to the next of a set of genetic
characteristics. There are many factors that are considered heredity factors and in the right environment
these could help a learner achieve the best of their ability.
Certain sports have specific body types, for example, high jumpers are tall and linear while
basketball players are tall and muscular. The ratio of fast-twitch muscle fibres to slow-twitch muscle
fibres are also part of the somatotype and apply to 100-metre sprinters. Sprinters have a higher
percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibres, which makes them exceptional athletes at sprints due to the
explosive nature of the fibres. The slower twitch white fibres lend themselves more to endurance
performance because of their myoglobin or oxygen-combining component. Another trait of
somatotype is height as this reflects limb length, which is very important in sports such as rowing and
swimming where long forearm length is seen as beneficial to good performance. This is part of a talent
identification scheme where young athletes are identified as having the necessary physical requirements
for elite performance and then taught the sport.
One example of heredity affecting a learner is Yao Ming, a Chinese basketball player who is
7 ft 3 in tall (his father was 6 ft 7 in and his mother was 6 ft 3 in). His mother was also the centre of
the Chinese National Women’s team. Yao Ming certainly has the somatotype or body shape required
for achieving success in basketball and has done so because he was placed in the right environment.
Trainability is also a factor which can make an athlete successful. Even if they don’t have the full
physical characteristics necessary for sporting success, they work hard to overcome any deficiency they
may have, such as being an elite basketball player at 5 ft 10 in.
Figure 4.4
Yao Ming at 2.2 m
(7 ft 3 in) is the child
of very tall parents.
The coach in this
photo is 1.75 m
(5 ft 9 in) tall
– ability
The ability to learn is seen as a way individuals understand new skills when exposed to them. How quickly
this occurs and the ability or intelligence the learner undertakes the learning is taken into account by
the coach when coaching. It is no use trying to teach 6-year-olds how to play offside defence in soccer,
because at that age, they don’t have the cognitive processes or ability to deal with the concepts involved.
It is essential that coaches always make skills age-specific. They must break them down and make them
appropriate for the age group with a fun emphasis for the younger age groups.
Talented young athletes often are mature above their years in using skills such as problem solving,
decision making and planning which contribute to a better performance.
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Activities
3–7
the learning environment
design a suitable plan for teaching beginners to acquire a skill through to
mastery. The plan should reflect:
– appropriate practice methods for the learners
– the integration of relevant performance elements
– an awareness of how instruction may vary according to characteristics of the
learner
– how feedback will be used as learners progress through the stages of skill
acquisition
Having looked at the characteristics of an athlete it is also necessary to analyse everything that is external
to them which is the learning environment. The learning environment consists of nature of skill,
performance elements, practice and feedback methods.
Coaches need to be aware of a number of factors when teaching learners new skills and by
understanding the learning environment they can use different methods to teach a skill.
The nature of the skill includes factors such as whether the skill is an open or closed skill,
self- or externally paced, involves gross or fine motor skills or is a discrete, serial or continuous skill.
Understanding these factors will help coaches determine how quickly a skill is learnt.
– nature of the skill (open, closed, gross, fine, discrete, serial, continuous,
self-paced, externally paced)
– the performance elements (decision-making, strategic and tactical development)
Open and closed skills
An open skill in a sport is where the surrounding environment is constantly changing and is unpredictable.
This can create doubt within an athlete because they are not in control of everything around them. This has
the effect of decreasing an athlete’s execution time when they are confronted with non-familiar situations.
Nearly all sports where an athlete has to play against an opponent involve open skills. Beginners who
try and learn open skills without the necessary training are likely to become frustrated. They will not learn
much because they are easily distracted by external forces. Experienced or elite athletes have the ability to
deal with the unstable environments, as they have their vast experience and the background knowledge to
be able to deal with any issue as it arises.
When the environment is constantly changing the athlete has to continually adapt to the stimulus
of the open skill. The pace of the event is also now out of the athlete’s control and it becomes externally
paced. This means that the pace of the performance is controlled by the environment or opponents. The
athlete must now attend to their own movement skill and take into account the external pace and to get
their timing right.
Figure 4.5
Not all skills are open
or closed but rather a
combination of both
fitting somewhere
on the continuum
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Open skills
Open/closed skills
Closed skills
Baseball
Responding to the start gun
makes hurdling more an open skill
T-Ball
A closed skill normally occurs where the environment is predictable. There is time for the athlete to
think and plan what to do without the same pressure as an open skill. The athlete also knows in advance
the activity, the wider environment and how they are going to perform within it. The athlete knows all
the parameters of the performance beforehand without being distracted. One example of a closed skill is a
floor routine in gymnastics.
factors affecting performance chapter 4
Closed skills can be performed without having to make major changes to an athlete’s technique as the
environment is not changing. Most closed skills are self-paced skills where the performer controls the rate
at which the skill is performed, such as a penalty kick in soccer or a shotput.
Open skills are difficult for a cognitive learner to practise and as a coach it is better if the skill is
practised as a closed skill when learning for the first time. Closed skills tend to be understood easier than
open skills by the athletes. If a skill is open, a coach can still practise it as a closed skill by removing the
element that contributes to it being an open skill. An example of this would be to practise archery indoors
in the beginning, where the wind does not play a role. The practise is then taken outdoors after the initial
skill has been mastered.
Gross and fine motor skills
Figure 4.6
Bowling is a gross
motor skill but has
fine motor skills
involved such as
spin bowling
Gross motor skills involve
the use of large muscle
groups and include basic
locomotor activities such
as walking, jumping,
running and kicking.
These skills are a critical
part of any primary health
and physical education
program as they will form
the basis for all movement
activities later in life. These
movement skills are not
very defined at a young
age and will become more
refined as the athlete
matures.
Fine motor skills
involve intricate
movements using smaller
muscle groups. These skills
require good hand–eye
coordination and control. For example, in cricket spin bowling is a gross motor skill yet it also involves
fine motor action of the hand on the ball.
Discrete, serial and continuous skills
These involve all types of skill and the difference between each of them is where the beginning and end
point is in performance.
A discrete movement skill has a definite beginning and end. They are normally single skills such as
throwing a ball.
A continuous skill is one that has no real beginning or end, but is repeated over and over, such as in
swimming or running. The end of one movement pattern is the start of the next. The coach can stop the
skill at any point in performance, if required, and start from approximately the same spot.
A serial skill requires a number of separate skills to be performed in sequence to achieve the set
movement required. One example would be the javelin throw where the run up, release and follow
through are all joined together into one whole performance.
When learning movement skills, continuous skills tend to be learnt faster due to their repetitive nature
and discrete skills tend to be learnt at a slower rate. The most difficult skills to learn are serial skills, as the
athlete needs to coordinate separate skills into an effective pattern.
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Figure 4.7
Swimming is a
good example of
a continuous skill
– practice method (massed, distributed, whole, part)
ta b le 4 . 1
Massed and
distributed practice
for a tennis player
How well a skill is learnt can depend on how well a learner has been taught in practice. Depending on the
activity to be learnt and the skill level of the learner practice can be organised in two ways—whole or part
practice or massed or distributed practice.
Massed practice involves the learning of one motor skill in a continuous, consistent and repeated
practise in a session with no variation until the skill is mastered or learnt. There is very little rest if any in
this session. This method is good for the highly motivated learner or the highly skilled athlete; however, it
can lead to boredom if the athlete receives no feedback on how their practice is going. If the motor skill is
a physically demanding activity, then it will be difficult to conduct it in a massed situation.
Distributed practice occurs when a range of skills are practised in a training session. It involves short
practice sessions interspersed with rest or intervals of other skills. This practice is better to use for cognitive
learners because it gives them time to rest, so that they don’t tire out. It also allows for regular feedback
from the coach and the opportunity for the learner to fully understand what is going on. The rest periods
also allow the athlete to think about what they are doing. This is good when motivation is low, the
learning task is complex or the athlete is bored. People do not become a skilled performer at an activity
just by undertaking repetitive practice of a skill. The type of practice undertaken by the athlete will play a
large role in the amount of learning and improvement that will take place. Table 4.1 shows how a series of
massed and distributed practice sessions may be organised for a tennis player.
Some learners find skills easy to learn while others experience more difficulty. Often the way a skill is
presented to a learner has an impact on how well it is received and learnt. A skill can be taught in parts
and then combined to form a movement, or it could be taught solely as a whole skill and not broken
down into parts.
M a s s ed p r a c t i c e
D i s t r i b u t ed p r a c t i c e
(35 minute sessions)
(35 minute sessions)
Training session1
75 Serves (35 minutes)
25 serves (10 minutes)—2 minute break
25 forehands (10 minutes)—3 minute break
25 backhands (10 minutes)
Training session 2
75 forehands (35 minutes)
25 serves (10 minutes)—2 minute break
25 forehands (10 minutes)—3 minute break
25 backhands (10 minutes)
Training session 3
75 backhands (35 minutes)
25 serves (10 minutes)—2 minute break
25 forehands (10 minutes)—3 minute break
25 backhands (10 minutes)
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factors affecting performance chapter 4
How a skill is taught also depends largely on how difficult or complex the task is. If it is a simple closed
task, then teaching the skill as a whole may be easy; however, if it is a complex task, then breaking the skill
into parts may be necessary for good learning to occur. Skills that are neither difficult nor easy, and lie in
the middle, can be taught using a whole–part–whole routine where the task is presented and practicsd this
way briefly before it is broken down into parts and then recombined at a later stage.
Once each part is learnt individually the hard task is to recombine these parts into a smooth cohesive
activity. A good example of this is in long jump, where timing jumping off the board is difficult, so the
skill is broken down into run up, take off, and landing. These are then combined and the whole long
jump occurs.
–feedback (internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results,
knowledge of performance)
Feedback is an essential component of learning a new skill and
involves a performer receiving information from internal and
external sources about the performance of a skill. It gives guidance
to a learner and is important for motivation and reinforcement;
in particular, it is most important for the beginner to acquire the
ability to correct errors in performance.
By the time the athlete reaches the autonomous stage of learning
they have developed kinaesthetic awareness to intrinsically recognise
errors and self-correct easily. As a coach when giving feedback, it is
an important part of learning to observe what the athlete thinks and
ask for their feedback first, to see if they recognise the same things.
Coaches should start with a large amount of feedback, especially in
the early stages and then decrease as the learner perfects the skill so
that they become more self-sufficient.
The timing of feedback is important and can be concurrent,
that is, during performance or delayed after the performance.
Feedback should be:
• constructive and accurate, so that athletes are motivated to improve
• timely, so that athletes can learn from it and apply in the future
• given without delay, so that the athlete can apply feedback immediately
• positive, so that learning does not become a negative experience.
Figure 4.8
External feedback
such as video
is important
to improve
performance
Internal and external feedbacks
The type of feedback used will depend on the athlete and the skill being learnt. Feedback can be supplied
internally or externally. Internal feedback is supplied by the athlete and comes from the body’s own
senses—namely sight, sound, touch and smell—all of which are related to the movement. This type of
feedback is known as kinaesthetic or internal feedback and is how the body senses the performance.
External feedback is also known as augmented feedback and refers to information based on
performance given from an outsider’s perspective, which contributes to the athlete learning the skills. This
could be in the form of video analysis or coaches comments, or it could even be information not related to
the movement but given to boost internal feedback.
Feedback will only be effective if it is aimed at the ability of the performer and their stage of
development. The crowd yelling out is another indicator of external feedback.
Concurrent and delayed feedbacks
External concurrent feedback could be in the form of coaches giving advice on lap times and positions in a
race which the athlete then acts upon if they have to. Delayed feedback is given after the completion of the
performance and can be as simple as the referee telling the performer that the basketball missed the basket
indicating a negative outcome, or it could be watching a video some days later and analysing performance.
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Knowledge of performance and results
Figure 4.9
South Sydney
Rabbitohs coach
Jason Taylor gives
feedback at a
quarter time break
144
Knowledge of results (KR) is concerned with the task outcome. If the result of a performance was
successful, for example, a swimmer’s time at the end of a race, it can be used to motivate the athlete
further in the learning stage.
KR is always an external form of feedback and can come from scoreboards or coaches. This can
provide information on the way the skill was completed. If the result is going to change, then the skill
execution will need to change the next time. KR is usually objectively measured.
Knowledge of performance (KP) is information about the performance. This can be provided
internally or externally. Externally, a coach can give verbal feedback or use a video for feedback. A video of
performance is an excellent tool, but is only as good as the coach drawing attention to specific aspects of
performance that affected the athlete’s overall result. The same feedback should not always be given, as the
athlete then comes to rely on that method and will find it hard to perform without it. The reliance then
becomes on the KR at the expense of kinaesthetic awareness developing in the athlete.
KP can come internally from the athlete’s kinaesthetic sense. It is important as it is concerned with
the quality of performance and is good for activities where there is a set skill of doing something, such as
vaulting in gymnastics. By developing kinaesthetic awareness the athlete can self-correct and then achieve
a good KR without the coach intervening.
KR and KP are used to motivate the learner and reinforce what is being learnt. Knowledge of results is
most critical at the cognitive and associative stage, because without good feedback and success the learner
doesn’t really know what is happening. Coaches should give KR more frequently in the early stage and as
the athlete’s skills develop the frequency of feedback becomes less. By reducing this frequency, the athlete
is forced into learning what is right or wrong themself and self-correct as these skills improve.
The KR should be at the highest comprehension level of the athlete, so that it will help them to
quickly learn the skill as they are challenged. The most important aspect of feedback is that the knowledge
of results should be given before the athlete practises another skill. If they practise a number of skills
and then the coach offers feedback, it then could hinder learning because the athlete doesn’t know what
the coach is talking about. KP is more difficult for the athlete to learn, as they are not watching their
performance.
How does a coach use this information?
A coach can use any number of practice methods or feedback when an athlete is learning a skill, but
certain stages of learning will respond better to different methods. Assuming that athlete is keen to learn, a
coach needs to focus on the message they give.
Especially during the cognitive
stage of learning, a coach should give a
maximum of two or three key coaching
points to the learner and clarify the skill
for them. Even at this cognitive stage
coaches can start to incorporate decision
making and tactics by posing questions
such as: What would you do here? This
starts to get the athlete thinking of what
is happening in the skill.
The difficult part for the coach is
identifying which key coaching point will
work best with the learner. For example,
providing information to an intermediate
cricketer about how to grip the ball
for different types of bowling may be
appropriate, but to give the same tips to a
factors affecting performance chapter 4
beginner who cannot yet work out the correct run
up technique may be counterproductive.
The use of external feedback is good for
the associative and cognitive stage. There are a
few points to remember when using this. The
model being presented—either by video or in
person—must have a sound technique, and if
the demonstration is given with quality verbal
instruction, from the learner’s point of view it
will achieve greatly in the way of skill learning.
The model can be used prior to practice, but to
maximise its effect it should be available at practice
and at the game situation. The more feedback is
available through training and in the game to the
learner will enable them a deeper understanding of
the skill being learnt.
Figure 4.10
A common trait among elite athletes is to
A coach can show
practise for long periods of time and often repeating the same skill, for example, basketballers shooting
tactics and strategies
baskets from the free throw line for an hour. This massed practice can also have the effect of reflecting the in a number of ways
game situation by training when tired which is beneficial to a learner at the associative or autonomous
prior to a game
situation
stage of learning.
Coaches can choose to do either massed or distributed practice. Massed practice can tire the athlete
out and contribute to low motivation when compared to distributive practice. However, the end result
after about a week of training is that there is no detrimental effect on performance for the learner going
through either form of practice. Coaches need to be aware that they can squeeze more training sessions
in using massed practice, but should not use any data from these sessions as it will be poorer than if they
used distributive practice.
Coaches should try and make practice as specific as possible to the real skill situation. This can be done
by:
• training at the same time of performance, so that the athlete can get used to the environmental
conditions
• practise wearing all the equipment the athlete would use when performing, so that they get used to it
• having break times at the same time as during a performance.
All of this is extremely important when training for open skills, because it has the benefit of making the
athlete adapt to conditions when subtle changes occur when performing. Mental practice is used extensively
but only at the autonomous stage when the athlete has a good idea of what is happening with the skill.
The performance elements
There are many performance elements that coaches need to include as part of a training session. Decision
making, strategic and tactical development all form part of the training session with autonomous learners.
Video and external feedback devices can be used to analyse strategic and tactical development.
The inclusion of the athlete when decision making will give them a level of ownership in the training
session and as such will allow them to play a bigger part in the skill learning. It will also heighten their
motivation and challenge them to perform at their best.
The whole part method of practice is an essential time to practise certain strategies that will be used
at specific times of the game in team sports. For example, near the end of a basketball game with only
5 seconds to go and the team is 1 point behind; which play do they go with to try and score a basket.
Setting up different scenarios at training will give the team practise, so that each player will know what is
happening and mistakes are minimised. This type of training is especially evident in American football,
which comprises a number of different plays where each athlete has a role in that play.
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activity 7
assessment of skill and performance
develop and evaluate objective and subjective performance measures to
appraise performance
– characteristics of skilled performers, eg kinaesthetic sense, anticipation,
consistency, technique
Sample
student
answer
Figure 4.11
The skilled
performer will
bring many positive
characteristics to
their performance
146
When spectators watch any sporting event they will notice different skill levels of all of the players.
Some will be the best players and others will make more mistakes than their team mates. Following are
some characteristics that are specific to better players within a team, which make up the components of
skilled performers.
• Skilled performers are usually more physiologically advanced than an unskilled performer because of
their experience, which gives them more heightened perceptive abilities to contribute greatly in their
skilled performance.
• Coordination is better in a skilled athlete as the neuromuscular pathways have been trained.
• The skilled performer has composure under pressure to respond with a positive result, but can cope
with negative consequences of performance.
• A skilled performer is able to select the correct responses to environmental demands and allow themself
sufficient time to complete the task.
• Skilled performers react quickly to a response, but are unhurried; and their movements are always
smooth and efficient.
• A skilled performer is well organised, reads games
well and can adapt to any situation.
Skilled performers perform advanced skills and
make them look easy and sports commentators will
verbalise how easy skilled performers make things
look. However, there are fundamental differences
between skilled and unskilled performers.
The skilled performer is much more efficient in their
performance than the unskilled performer. They use less
energy doing a given task because they have learnt to
work more efficiently from their experience; whereas the
unskilled player may fatigue easier due to an inability to
pick up on set cues and information.
The skilled performer through training can use
selective attention to monitor what information they
need to interpret and that which they can ignore. They
possess a higher level of kinaesthetic sense, or body
awareness, than unskilled performers which can take
years to develop.
A skilled performer can read a game and by using
various cues, the athlete is able to ‘anticipate’ a certain
action will take place, such as intercepting a pass
in soccer. As a consequence, the skilled performer
is able to be in the right position at the right time.
Anticipation leads to better timing, than unskilled
performers, taking into account the movement time of
the body, execution time of the skill and reaction time
of the athlete.
factors affecting performance chapter 4
A skilled performer is able to be more consistent in their performance and maintain good technique
that is repeated consistently with accuracy; whereas an unskilled athlete will have trouble repeating the
same performance. An unskilled performer is more likely to be easily distracted and suffer from anxiety
due to the inexperience of knowing how to deal with it.
Although a skilled performer has many more characteristics than an unskilled performer, the unskilled
player can achieve all of these skills through practice.
– objective and subjective performance measures
A measure is a way of evaluating something. Measures are used by coaches to gauge performance in
training and by judges in actual competition. They use these performance measures to appraise or pass
judgment or give an opinion on something. Coaches and judges use performance measures to compare all
performers against each other and finally come out with the most skilled performer based on the score or
measure that they use. The two types of measures that are used are objective and subjective measurement.
An objective measure in performance is something that can be measured, such as by time using a
stopwatch or a distance using a tape measure. In terms of the final result there is no doubt what the result
was and all judges are in agreement. This measurement is an impartial way of judging as it involves facts
about the performance not opinions. It is claimed that by using objective measures there is no avenue for
bias in this form of judging. However, objective judging still has an element of subjectivity involved, but
this is minimised due to the use of checklists, rating scales or criteria.
Subjective measures in performance are based on personal opinions and do not allow easy
comparison of set criteria or numbers. These measures could be as simple as the coach saying that a certain
player appeared everywhere and as such played well. The coach has not really based their opinion on
anything. As a result this form of assessment is not very accurate or reliable.
– validity and reliability of tests
As a coach the use of data can help with planning. Any test that is used to gather this data must be reliable
Figure 4.12
and valid to the skill to be tested.
Skilled performers
Reliability refers to the reproducibility of a measurement. A test is reliable if completed using similar
can anticipate
conditions, equipment and procedures. It is deemed reliable if at each time the test is given to an
the outcome of a
individual, the results are approximately the same for all subsequent people of that skill level in the future performance to their
and the results are within the expected range of results and not drastically different.
advantage
Validity means that a test measures what it was
designed to measure. For example, a 12-minute
run test does not measure anaerobic power but
rather cardiovascular endurance. The validity is
reinforced by comparing the measurements with
expected values. This can be done by referring to
a set criteria or percentile bands of that particular
test and the athlete being tested. As a coach it is
also valid if the test being measured is in line with
the expectations of the test. For example, after
three months of doing the beep test one would
expect to see the athlete improve if the test was
done under reliable conditions.
When measuring a skill using a test it is valid
if it measures what it was designed to measure.
For a test to be reliable it must give precise results
that are consistent when the test is next given.
A test can be reliable without being valid, for
example, it gives consistent results but doesn’t
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PDHPE in focus hsc course
measure what it claims or was intended to measure.
It cannot be valid if the test is unreliable. If a test is
unreliable then any other information is meaningless.
– personal versus prescribed judging criteria
Personal judging criteria relies on the judge passing
their impression on what they have seen. For example,
a judge thought that number 4 player participated well
in the event because he seemed to be everywhere. This
is not based on any data other than an impression of
the judge. It can also be thought as being subjective as
it represents an opinion on behalf of the judge. Rating
scales or checklists can make personal criteria more
creditable because it gives some guidance as to the
opinion that has been given, however, this may only be a
personal checklist of what the judge is looking for.
A prescribed judging criteria refers to a set checklist
normally provided by the governing body of that sport.
For example, a gymnastics routine which must include
an aerial somersault as part of the floor routine. The
judge is now looking for that particular element to give
an opinion of the performance. Judges will look for
certain components worth a certain amount of points
in a routine. Depending on the execution of the skill
judges may deduct a set amount of points if the skill was
executed poorly.
Figure 4.13
The vertical jump
test is a valid test
for leg power for
basketball
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factors affecting performance chapter 4
Activities
Activity 1 (Page 136)
Complete the table by identifying seven summary points of each stage of skill acquisition.
C o g n i t i ve
A s s o c i a t i ve
Autonomous
Frequent large errors
Learner starts to recognise errors
Skill is practised under varying
conditions
Activity 2 (Page 138)
Describe how awareness of characteristics of learner may alter instruction.
Activity 3 (Page 140)
Outline the nature of the skill.
Activity 4 (Page 140)
Demonstrate an understanding of the process of skill acquisition by teaching a skill of your
choice to a group of younger students.
Activity 5 (Page 140)
Complete the table below by identifying suggested practice methods, feedback methods
for each stage of skill acquisition.
S ta g e o f
S u g g e s t ed
S u g g e s t ed
Relev a n t
le a r n i n g
practice method
practice method
pe r f o r m a n c e
ele m e n t s
i n c l u ded
Cognitive
Associative
Autonomous
Activity 6 (Page 140)
As a coach what type of feedback and practice methods would be useful to an athlete
learning to do a forward roll? Define what the nature of the skill is.
Activity 7 (Page 140)
Select a sport of your choice and describe a valid and reliable test a coach could use to test
their athletes.
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PDHPE in focus hsc course
Review
Questions
1.Examine each of the stages of skill acquisition and
relate it to how a basketball player moves through the
three stages.
2.Select a sport of your choice and propose a program
plan to take beginners through to skilled performers.
3.Analyse how the nature of skill can effect skill
acquisition.
4.Think of a training session you have participated in and
analyse the session in terms of nature of skills, practice
and feedback methods and performance elements.
5.Describe how the characteristics of the learner can
influence skill acquisition and the performance of skills.
6.Distinguish between a skilled and unskilled performer.
7.Olympic diving judges use prescribed marking criteria
when judging. There are eight judges who all give a
mark for performance but only six results are counted
towards the athletes score. Evaluate the judging
procedures for Olympic diving.
8.Discuss the difference between prescribed marking
criteria and personal marking criteria.
9.Develop a case study outlining the various aspects of
the learning environment.
10.In groups, design a marking criteria for an aerobic-style
lesson or a gymnastics floor routine. As a class, judge
each performance using the developed criteria. Discuss
how the experience felt and any difficulties that you
encountered.
Chapter
summary
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