International Journal of Sport Studies. Vol., 5 (5), 589-595, 2015
Available online at http: www.ijssjournal.com
ISSN 2251-7502 © 2015; Science Research
Exploring the Relationship of Emotional Self-Efficiency with
Cardiovascular Function Health
Zahra Hojabrnia1*, S.S Hasrani2, Abdollah Hozhabrnia3
1- Department of Physical Education, College of Human Sciences, Shoushtar Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Shoushtar, Iran
2- Former Principal of Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education, Kariavattom,
Thiruvananthapuram, 695581, Kerala. India
3- Department of basic Sciences, College of Engineering, Larestan Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Larestan, Iran
*Corresponding author, Email: [email protected]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in how emotional
intelligence reactions affect various areas of human functioning. The aim of the
present study was to investigate the relationship oftrait emotional intelligence
characteristics, such as well-being, Self-control skills, Emotional skills and
Sociability with cardiovascular function health. This study employs a crosssectional survey administered to a quota sample of 200 female university
students in Iran (M.age=23.78,±3.92). They were assessed utilizing
cardiovascular endurance / function step test to determine the cardiovascular
efficiency and Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form (TEIQueSF). All data collected were assessed by using Pearson Bivariate Correlations.
Statistical significance was conferred at P≤0.05. All statistical analysis was
accomplished using SPSS 16. The results of this study strongly showed that
there are positive significant relationships between trait emotional
intelligence (P≤0.009), well-being (P≤0.02) and Self-control skills (P≤0.01) with
better cardiovascular function. The findings are discussed in the context of the
importance of emotional self-efficiency on personal physical health. However,
longitudinal research designs are necessary in order to explore the long-term
effects of emotional intelligence development on physical health.
Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Self-Efficiency, Cardiovascular
Function, Physical Health.
Introduction
Maintaining a healthy cardiovascular system is important for overall health, wellbeing and longevity. One of
the greatest causes of death in the world is coronary heart disease. Coronary heart disease usually presents
warning signs, such as elevated blood lipids, hypertension, and disturbance in the heart rhythms. These risk
factors have been shown to be related to people’s lifestyles. Stress, cigarettes smoking, consumptions of fat and
physical inactivity are lifestyle habits that have a direct tie to coronary heart disease and its mortality. Also there
are many factors that can influence cardiovascular health including gender, increasing age or a family history of
heart conditions.
Cardiovascular health relates to the health of heart and all the blood vessels that transport blood around to
the organs and tissues within body. However, there are also many modifiable factors and positive steps can take
today to protect cardiovascular system for the long term. One key strategy to keep heart happy and blood vessels
fighting fit is exercise which is the gift that keeps on giving. It directly impacts cardiovascular health by
improving the strength and fitness of the heart muscle and blood vessels, as well as improving blood flow.
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Research suggests that by engaging in regular exercise and physical activity that improves the cardiovascular
system, the individuals can reduce many risk factors associated with coronary heart diseases. This is especially
true for young people. There is strong evidence that the onset and rapid development of coronary heart diseases
begin during youth, and may eventually become irreversible.
In most cultures, negative affect and stressful situations exceeding an individual’s ability to cope have been
implicated in adverse cardiac events (Lewis, 2005). Advances in psychology and the development of new
comprehensive models for the impact of emotions on health outcomes have facilitated research of this
unexplored area on the interface between psychology and medicine (Gallo et al., 2004).
Thus far there is a growing body of evidence linking cardiovascular system disease to mental diseases such
as overt anxiety and depression (Day et al., 2005; Denollet et al., 2006; Kubzansky et al., 2006; Panagiotakos et
al., 2002; Rugulies, 2002; Strik et al., 2003).
As indications towards the beneficial effects of psychosocial interventions in cardiovascular system
accumulate, the need for a concise theory around the cardiovascular function-emotions relationships emerges
stronger than ever. The present study is an attempt towards this end by examining whether the implications of
trait emotional intelligence (EI) can be efficient for the description of psychological determinants
ofcardiovascular function health.
Emotional intelligence is a relatively new construct in psychology which has attracted considerable attention
among the scientific community.The term, emotional intelligence, was first used in a doctoral dissertation by
Wayne Payne (1985), at an alternative liberal arts college in USA and Salovey and Mayer (1990) proposed the
first theoretical model, which defined the construct of EI as a “subset of social intelligence that involves the
ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Mayer and Salovey, 1997). A number of different definitions
of the construct followed -including Goleman’s account in his best-selling book (1995)-, which have failed to
provide a universally accepted operational model of EI. Instead, they distinguish between two types of EI: trait
(or trait emotional self-efficacy) EI and ability (or cognitive-emotional ability) EI on the basis of the measures
(self-report vs maximum performance questionnaires) used to assess EI (Petrides and Furnham, 2001; Petrides,
Frederickson and Furnham, 2004; Petrides et al., 2007). Petrides and Furnham (2001) after content analyzing
salient models of EI and cognate constructs in the literature, derived the sampling domain of trait EI which
consists of 15 (Happiness, Optimism, Self Esteem, Emotion Regulation, Impulse Control, Stress Management,
Empathy, Emotion Perception, Emotion Expression, Relationships, Emotion Management, Assertiveness, Social
Awareness, Self-Motivation, Adaptability) distinct facets (Petrides et al., 2004, see table 1), organized under
four-factors which are characterized as: (a) well-being (b) Self-control skills (c) Emotional skills (d) Sociability.
(Petrides, 2009, see table 2).
The studies focused on the implications of trait EI in the educational and occupational domains, which show
that EI is positively related to academic performance and behavior at school (Parker et al., 2004; Petrides et al.,
2004; Reiff et al., 2001; Mayer et al., 2008) and job performance and job satisfaction (Wong and Law, 2002;
Mayer et al., 2008) also attributedemotional benefits to regular physical activity (Li et al., 2009, Hellison, 2003;
Leith, 2002; Kerr and Kuk 2001; Baker and Brownell, 2000; Biddle, 2000 ; ASCM, 1998; Fox, 1990;
Sonstroem and Morgan, 1989).At a psychological level, trait EI has been, also negatively associated with
depression (e.g., Schutte et al., 1998; Ciarrochi et al., 2002; Saklofske et al., 2003), anxiety (e.g., Ciarrochi et
al., 2001; Mikolajczak et al., 2007a), phobic and obsessive symptoms (Mikolajczak et al., 2006), burnout (e.g.,
Mikolajczak et al., 2007) and enhanced positive and pleasant emotions (Turnbull and Wolfson 2002; Kerr and
Kuk 2001; Sonstroem and Morgan 1989; Berger and Owen 1988) and positive mood and more moderate
anxiety-reduction effects (Biddle 2000), also from previous studies, positive correlations were found with EI
and positive health behaviors (Tsaousis and Nikolaou, 2005) but only a few studies have examined the
implications of trait EI in physical health.
At a physical level, trait EI has been systematically linked to fewer self-reported symptoms and somatic
complaints (e.g., Dawda and Hart, 2000; Mikolajczak et al., 2006).suggest that future research should focus on
the implications of EI in physical health settings. The present study provides a step towards this direction by
examining relationships between trait EI and cardiovascular function health.
Focused on several components of trait EI such as well-being, Self-control skills, Emotional skills and
Sociability, the study aims to examine whether trait EI (emotional self-efficiency) are associated with
cardiovascular function health among female university students in Iran while taking into account already
identified significant risk factors for the cardiovascular health, namely, age, cigarette smoking, presence of
hypertension, obesity and family history of cardiovascular diseases. It was hypothesized that trait emotional
self-efficiency would be associated with increased cardiovascular function health.
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Table 1: The Adult Sampling Domain of Trait Emotional Intelligence
Facets
High scorers perceive themselves as…
Adaptability
…flexible and willing to adapt to new conditions.
Assertiveness
…forthright, frank, and willing to stand up for their rights.
Emotion perception (self and others) …clear about their own and other people’s feelings.
Emotion expression
…capable of communicating their feelings to others.
Emotion management (others)
…capable of influencing other people’s feelings.
Emotion regulation
…capable of controlling their emotions.
Impulsiveness (low)
…reflective and less likely to give in to their urges.
Relationships
…capable of having fulfilling personal relationships.
Self-esteem
…successful and self-confident.
Self-motivation
…driven and unlikely to give up in the face of adversity.
Social awareness
…accomplished networkers with excellent social skills.
Stress management
…capable of withstanding pressure and regulating stress.
Trait empathy
…capable of taking someone else’s perspective.
Trait happiness
…cheerful and satisfied with their lives.
Trait optimism
…confident and likely to “look on the bright side” of life.
Well being
Self-control
Emotionality
Sociability
Table 2: Dimensions of Trait Emotional Intelligence
Indicates how happy, positive and fulfilled a person is.
How able a person is, at regulating external pressure and stress as well as controlling
impulses?
Can they perceive and express emotions and use these abilities to develop and sustain close
relationships with others?
How good are their general social skills - can they listen as well as communicate clearly and
confidently?
Materials and Methods
In a cross-sectional study and using the random sampling method, 200 female university students between
19 to 47 ages (mean age = 23.78, ± 3.92 years) of Shoushtar Branch, IA University in Iran were recruited.
Considering extent statistical community and nature of research is used randomly selecting method for select
sampling. All subjects were full-time female students who were asked to sign an informed consent form before
filling in the demographic form and trait EI(Short Form) questionnaire. Before Skubic and Hodkins Step Test
were administered to measure the cardiovascular fitness. Prior to the administration of the test, the investigator
will meet with the subjects personally and the objective and purpose of the test will be made clear to them so
that they are aware of what they are expected to do.
Measuring instruments
Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire – Short Form (TEIQue-SF) and Skubic and Hodkins Step Test
were utilized in this study.
Emotional Intelligence
Trait emotional intelligence questionnaire–Short Form (TEIQue-SF), this is a 30-itemquestionnaire designed
to measure global trait emotional intelligence (trait EI). The TEIQue-SF was designed to yield primarily global
trait EI scores. It is based on the longform of the TEIQue (Petrides and Furnham, 2003). Two items from each of
the 15 facets of the TEIQue were selected for inclusion, based primarily on their correlations with the
corresponding total facet scores (Cooper and Petrides, 2010; Petrides and Furnham, 2006). TEIQue-SF provides
scores on four factors of broader relevance ‘well-being,’ ‘self-control,’ ‘emotionality,’ and ‘sociability’. Items
were responded to on a 7-point Likerts calefrom ‘Completely Disagree’ (number 1) to ‘Completely Agree’
(number 7). The TEIQue has been constructed with the aim of providing comprehensive coverage of the traitEI
domain (Petrides and Furnham, 2001).
Petrides (2008) claimed that TEIQue had overcome the limitations faced by the Bar-On EQ-I such as
structure problem, inadequate coverage of the construct, lacking of safeguards against dissimulation and socially
desirable responding, and scoring irregularities. In addition, TEIQue is available in multi-language with high
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reliability (typical Cronbach alpha > 0.80) and extensive validation evidence (Arora et al, 2011). Also on the
paper of “Testing and validating the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire (TEIQue) in a German-speaking
sample” by Freudenthaler et al., (2008) provides conclusive evidence that the TEIQue represents a reliable and
valid inventory for the comprehensive measurement of trait EI. Subsequently, in Iran, Ali AhmadiAzghandiet
al., (2006) examined the validity and reliability of Petrides and Furnham's trait emotional intelligence- short
form (2001) questionnaire (Persian translate) and confirmed the convergent validity among different scores of
Petrides and Furnham's TEIQ and Shrink' EI (1999) test with a high correlation and the internal consistency and
test –retest methods indicate scale reliability at 0.76 and 0.71 (N=936).
In current study Cronbach's alpha coefficient for TEIQue- SF Questionnaire was 0.74. Also, this paper
provides conclusive evidence that the questionnaire is reliable.
Skubic and Hodkins Step Test
Skubic and Hodkins Step Test were administered to measure the cardiovascular fitness.
The following formula is employed in computing the subject's cardiovascular efficiency score: (Phillips and
Hornak, 1979).
(Number of seconds completed × 100) ÷ (Recovery pulse × 5.6)
Statistical analysis
SPSS version 16 was used to undertake the analysis. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to
investigate. The descriptive statistics were: mean, Variance, standard deviation and also Pearson correlation
coefficient was computed to examine the relationship between trait EI and cardiovascular function health. Level
of significance was fixed at 0.05 level of confidence.
Results
As in Table (3) is considered the Pearson correlation coefficients and significance levels, the results of this
study strongly showed that there are positive significant relationships between trait emotional
intelligence (P≤0.009), well-being (P≤0.02) and Self-control skills (P≤0.01) with cardiovascular function.
Table 3: Trait Emotional intelligence and cardiovascular function (n = 200)
cardiovascular
function
WB
SC
E
S
Trait IE
0.165*
0.166*
0.040
0.101
0.185**
0.020
0.019
0.573
0.156
0.009
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
WB= ‘Well-being’, SC=‘Self-control’, E= ‘Emotionality’, S=‘Sociability’ and EI=‘Emotional Intelligence’
Discussion and Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between trait emotional intelligence (trait Emotional
Self-Efficiency) with Cardiovascular Function Health. It was evident from the analysis of data that higher
cardiovascular endurance of university female students in Iranwas associated with more favorable scores ofwellbeing, self-control and universally trait IE.
High scores on well-being factor reflect a generalized sense of well-being, extending from past achievements
to future expectations. Overall, individuals with high scores feel positive, happy, and fulfilled. In contrast,
individuals with low scores tend to have low self-regard and to be disappointed about their life as it is at present.
Consistent with our hypotheses, Galper (2006) has been suggested that a high level of cardiorespiratory fitness
is associated with better psychological well-being
On the other hand, Donatello (2005) foundmany benefits of cardiorespiratory fitness which can reduce the
risk of heart disease, lung cancer, stroke and other diseases. Cardiorespiratory fitness helps improve lung and
heart condition, and increases feelings of well-being. Although, it is known that psychological well-being and
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cardiorespiratory fitness are both associated with survival, little research has looked at their interaction
(Ortegaetal, 2010).
Endurance exercise boosting cardiovascular health and thereby improving mood and lessens anxiety,
depression, stress, anger, and hostility. On the other hand performing physical activities provides proof of skill
mastery and self-control. Also, sticking with an exercise program increases people’s belief in their ability to be
active, thereby boosting self-efficacy.
The reported findings come to add down to a growing list of bibliography striving to shed light on the
mysterybehind heart-mind relationships (Kubzansky and Thurston, 2007; Kubzansky et al., 1997; Kubzansky
and Kawachi, 2000; Ong and Allaire, 2005; Rozanski et al., 2005; Scheidt, 2000; Smith and Ruiz, 2002;
Wittstein, 2007). They also support and expand the empirical basis of the EI construct and underlie its relevance
in the clinical arena thus pointing to potentially fruitful applications that might be of interest to cardiologists
(Kravvariti et al., 2010).
An indirect association between psychosocial factors and cardiovascular system expressed by the claim that
positive emotional orientation helps individuals maintain a healthier lifestyle has also been proposed by other
researchers (Krantz and McCeney, 2002).
It is worth mentioning that the link between acute and intense emotional experiences and cardiovascular
events has long been described by epidemiologists (Trichopoulos et al., 1983). The usual claim is that when
individuals are incapable of using their emotions to achieve desired social functioning they are in a constant
state of stress and unpleasant realization (Lipp et al., 2006; Thurston and Kubzansky, 2007). Thus, they might
be continuously harming their cardiovascular system by the same mechanism that would occur on an acute
event but on a much smaller scale.
The present findings provide support for the relationship of trait EI with cardiovascular function health, but
greatest limitation of our study was its cross-sectional design, which prevented us from establishing causality or
directionality. Although we found positive relationships between cardiovascular endurance and some domains
of trait EI, we cannot state that cardiovascular endurance causes good trait EI or domains of trait EI, because it
is equally possible that cardiovascular endurance is the effect of good trait EI, as people with good EI may
simply be more likely to be active. Future research should aim to clarify this issue. Furthermore, to explore
whether EI is a mediator of cardiovascular function behavior is also suggested for further study.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest
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