University of Manchester
Academic Writing
David Ellis
University Language Centre
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The Writing Process
Topic
Planning
Drafting
Revising and editing
Characteristics of academic writing
Stylistic features
Formality
Concision
Tentativeness
Signposting
Attributing to sources
In-text citation
Match the reporting verbs
below with their definitions
Argue Mention Conclude Point out
Suggest Claim Show Maintain
State Identify
.to say that something is true or correct while
firm evidence for this may be lacking
•to give information about something which
is clear and convincing to other people
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Notes
•to say that something is true or correct and
give reasons for this
•to offer a plausible explanation for something
•to discover or notice the existence of something
to refer briefly to something or somebody, in
spoken or written text
•to decide that something is true using the facts
you have as a basis
•to hold certain views or opinions strongly even
if other people disagree
•to write or say something in a formal and
certain way
•to draw someone’s attention to a fact or a mistake
Attributing to sources
Reference lists (bibliography)
Common Errors
Passives
Look at the following examples and rewrite them:
1. There have been concerted efforts made by government agencies to monitor and effectively manage the use of
the radio frequency spectrum since the early 1970s.
Begin with: Government agencies …
2. There is evidence to suggest that aids researchers are unlikely to discover a vaccine in the near future.
Begin with: Evidence suggests …
3. It has been proposed that the identified improvements to the inspection system may be achieved by applying
computerised decision theory.
4. It can be seen that there are a wide range of manufacturing processes which introduce and transform
defects.
5. An insight into the positive and negative implementation of maintenance can be offered by existing
maintenance research.
6. The measurement apparatus is shown in Figure 1.2 in simplified form.
Nouns
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Removing Nouns
Academic writers tend to overuse nouns (nominalisation) and this can produce academic text which is
difficult to read.
Look at the following examples. What is one outcome of changing nouns to verbs?
In the following sentences agents are in italics and nominalisations in bold.
1. a) There were predictions by members of the Administration that the nominee would receive quick
committee approval. (16 words)
b) Members of the Administration predicted that the com mittee would approve the nominee.
(12 words)
2. a) The author’s analysis of our data omits citation of sources that would provide support for his
criticism of our argument. (20 words)
b) The author analysed our data but did not cite any sources to support his criticism of our
argu ment. (18 words)
3. a) The low rate of encounters was a reflection of population density reductions.
(12 words)
b) The low rate of encounters reflects a reduced population density. (10 words)
Now consider the following. Try to rewrite them.
4. A reduction in the number of full-time employees was the result of a decline in sales due to the lack of
market research.
Begin with: Sales declined…
5. There must be thorough preparation of the specimen sections by the laboratory personnel. (14 words)
Begin with: Laboratory personnel …
6. There is public opposition to nuclear power plants near population centres because of a widespread belief
in their threat to human health. (23 words)
7. Any contradictions among data in any result require an explanation of the reasons for the inconsistencies.
Style - Sentences and words
Look at the following sentences which are too informal for academic writing. Try to reduce the informality of
each sentence.
1. What are the causes of deformation? Many possibilities exist.
2.
You can clearly see the difference between these two processes.
3.
A small bit of ammonium dichloride was added to the gelatine solution gradually.
4.
These special tax laws have been enacted in six states: Illinois, Iowa, Ohio etc.
5.
The subjects didn't have much difficulty with the task.
A further problem can be encountered when a person's writing is too verbose. Try to reduce the following
examples to three-word-sentences. Do not change the meaning.
1.
2.
People whose professional activity lies in the field of politics are not, on the whole, conspicuous for their
respect of factual accuracy. (22 words)
It is by no means easy to achieve an accurate understanding of that subject of study which is concerned
with the relationship between numbers. (24 words)
Sentence fragments
Error types
1. Sentence frag ments: These are incomplete sentences - often a dependent clause without a simple sentence.
Sentence fragments are common in writing, possibly because the writer has made a mental connection between
two ideas but has not made the connection in the writing.
•
Most multinational companies have adopted the principles of Total Quality. Another development that has
included the workforce in decision making.
2. Run-on sentences: Here the most common problem is often with incorrect punctuation. Two sentences are
joined with a comma but without a conjunction, or the conjunction is used with incorrect punctuation.
•
Check the troubleshooting chart before you call a technician, many of the problems that can occur are easily
corrected in house.
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3. Dangling modifiers: Modifiers are words, phrases or clauses that limit or restrict other words in the
sentence. These often produce errors in Academic Writing due to the overuse of the passive voice. However,
these errors are frequently overlooked as the meaning of the sentence is usually understood, even though it is
grammatically incorrect. To edit for this type of error look for sentences that begin with a present participle
('ing' word) or sentences that begin with a preposition followed by a present participle.
•
While pouring the volatile mixture, the test tube must be maintained at 15 ° C.
4. Subject/verb agreement: The subject and the verb must agree in number. A plural subject requires a
plural verb e.g. Organophosphates are toxic. A singular subject requires a singular verb. e.g. Malation (an
organophosphate) is toxic.
This may seem obvious, but it is a common error due to the following:
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There may be several words between the subject and the verb: A range of frequencies were selected. OR A
wide spectrum or particles were produced.
•
The subject and verb are often separated by dependent clauses: Notwithstanding this, actions within
various departments at the factory actually damages the production schedule.
•
OR: singular words are assumed to be plural: The problem of parts supply is due to a number of factors.
Each are interrelated, and the system is self-perpetuating.
7. Pronouns and pronoun/antecedent agreement (Unclear pronoun reference) Pronouns are used in
place of nouns (often to avoid repetition). They usually refer back to a noun or a clause in the previous
sentence. The noun and its pronoun must agree in number and the pronoun must refer clearly to its antecedent.
There are many types of pronouns and so it is impossible to deal with them all here. However, problems often
occur with the use of the following relative pronouns: 'who/whom/which/that' and 'its/it's'.
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The Nile flows through Africa which is the largest river in the world.
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The students which have been working hardest will find this problem simple.
•
Old fillings, that are made of amalgam, should be taken out of the teeth because they can cause serious health
problems in pregnant women.
•
The FBI was founded in 1908. In it's early days, there were few federal crimes.
•
If you cannot correct the 4 examples above, then you will probably be making similar mistakes in your
writing.
Examples of paraphrasing and summarizing
1) Paraphrasing
The failure of boiler tubes has always been of serious concern
in most of the process industries including petrochemical
plants. Since tubes are normally made of carbon or low alloy
steel and handle various phases of water at high temperature
and pressure, there is potential for corrosion occurrence at
their wet surfaces.
a) A major concern in many process industries is the failure of boiler tubes which are made of carbon or low steel
alloy. As these tubes are exposed to water at high temperature and pressure, their wet surfaces can corrode.
2) Summarising
India has recently been ranked as the second largest road network in the
world, overtaking China. Preceded only by the USA, with 6.4 million
kilometres of road network, India with its 3.3 million kilometres has
overtaken China (1.8 million kilometres). The roads in India can be
categorised as national highways (NHs), state highways (SHs), district
roads and rural roads. The NHs are intended to facilitate medium and
long distance intercity passenger and freight traffic across the country.
The SHs help carry the traffic along major centres within a state. District
and rural roads help smaller locations transport agricultural produce to
nearby markets, as well as meet their social needs.
a) India now has the second largest road network in the world covering 3.3
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million kilometres. The main types of road are national highways for
interstate traffic, state highways for intrastate traffic, and district and
rural roads used for local business and social purposes.
Contact:
[email protected]
0161 275 3426
[email protected]
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