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William Du Bois and the liberation of black people: From the
origins of the modern African political thought
Dagbo Gode Pierre,
University of Cocody-Abidjan- Côte d‟Ivoire
[email protected]
Abstract
This paper presents the Modern African political thought which arises, above all, from the
position of the intellectuals of the Black world against slavery and colonization. This thought is
marked through the writings and speeches of African-American, Caribbean and African authors
(Garvey, Padmore, Anta Diop, Senghor, Césaire, etc.) This school of thought endeavored in
particular to bring Africans and their deported descendants, to cultivate in themselves the
consciousness of self-esteem; with the aim of rehabilitating the position Africa in the history of
mankind. William E. B. Du Bois is in the heart of this tradition. His works are written in a
context marked by racial segregation in North America, primarily in the United States. This
segregation was also ongoing in South America (Brazil, Guyana) and in the Caribbean. (French
West Indies, Jamaica and Santo Domingo) This was also the time of the widespread colonization
in Africa.
Keywords: Political Thought, slavery, colonization, liberation
Introduction
The history of the political thought draws it
source from the papers or the actions of
characters that dwelt, at different times, on
the evolution of their social background
(Nay, 2004). William E.B. Du Bois actually
sets himself in this tradition. His works were
written in a context characterized by racial
segregation that was raging in North
America, mainly in the United States. This
segregation was also current in South
America namely in Brazil, Guiana as well as
in the Caribbean precisely in the West
Indies, Jamaica, Santo Domingo. This also
was the time where colonization cracked
down on the African Continent; it was
indeed the time where colonization has
plagued Africa.
One can conclude that facts reported
actually come to the conclusion that, any
study related to the political thought, comes
within the scope of the historicity by
following a certain chronology subdivided
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into three phases: the antiquity, the Middle
Ages and the modernity. Having said that,
the history of the political thought can be
defined as "the history of the philosophical
projects, that includes political or social
doctrines; every witty views wondering
about the legitimacy of the global political
order, as well as the means to maintain it or
to change it" (Du Bois,2007).
In the case of Africa, the political thought
first of all results from this fundamental
standpoint of intellectuals within the black
world against the slavery and the
colonization. This thought is spotted in the
papers and speeches of Afro-American,
Caribbean and African authors, namely
Garvey, Pademore, Anta Diop, Senghor, and
Césaire etc. This vision in particular aims at
bringing Africans and their descendants
deported and dispersed across the Atlantic,
to cultivate within themselves, the
conscience of the self-esteem; as the
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objective is to rehabilitate and to position
Africa, in the history of the humanity.
American political thought, an integral part
of the African political thought.
In witness, the works of Edward William
Blyden and Jean Dard, derive from the ideas
related to the magnitude of the ancient
Egypt. Their works put a peculiar emphasis
on the real nature of the ancient Egyptians.
They bear witness of the fact that: Hérodote
wrote with the innocence and the
ingenuousness of an uninformed witness
who actually asserts that Colchidiens should
be lineal descendant from Egyptians,
because they had black skin and frizzy hair.
He praises Egyptians as being the greatest of
mankind and the civilizers of the world.
Moreover, Hérodote, on two occasions
mentions, that Ethiopians are the greatest
and the most beautiful of mankind. Homère
supports his view (Cornevin, 1968).
To this, it is proper to add that, the
presentation of Cheick Anta Diop in this
paper will clearly establish that one cannot
arise and think the history of humanity,
while overlooking more than 6000 years of
political history of the ancient Egypt as well
as the history of the Congo kingdoms, the
Songhai, the Mali, the Ethiopia, and Ghana
empires. From this perspective, the African
political thought is regarded as being part of
the history of the world with respect to
political ideas (Diop, 1967).
Blyden and Sting thus want to restore the
scientific truth, and to demolish the
justification arguments about slavery and
racial discrimination, that the black
community and race are subjected to. The
speeches of Marcus Garvey support and
amplify these convictions, thus putting the
emphasis on this fact:
the Negro is
marginalized everywhere, and forcibly
maintained at the bottom of the social ladder
of humanity as a result of the color of their
skin, without the slightest consideration for
his intelligence or for his rights. Negros do
not enjoy the least of human dignity
anywhere. Everywhere they are or go, they
are regarded as serfs or slaves.
From this reality, Garvey chooses to lead the
fight in order to return to black people,
everywhere in the world their pride, once
destroyed by the slavery and the
colonization ordeals. The slave trade will
indeed create a link between Africans of the
African Continent, and those of the
diaspora; this is what makes the Afro-
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William Du Bois is one of the founding
fathers of the modern African political
thought, we chose to focus on him for two
fundamental reasons. Firstly: he is a
privileged witness of the fight against racial
segregation in the United States, as well as
the colonization and the decolonization of
the African countries. Secondly: his act of
choosing to write in a bid to name and
shame these exploitation and oppression
systems of people, and his commitment in to
this move deserves distinction as it attracts
interest. This sets an example and leads the
way to the generations of today, the right
path to the liberation of black peoples.
William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was
born in February 23, 1868 in Great
Barrington, in the State of the Massachusetts
in the United States. From his father he is
bred from French Huguenots who basically
were slave owners, who established
themselves in the United States of America.
And from his mother, he takes roots of his
great grandfather a slave, freed during the
war of independence. William E.B. Du Bois
supported with great interest the just cause
of black people in America and Africa,
during the first half of the 20th century.
In 1895, becoming the first Black American
to earn a Ph.D from Harvard University,
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W.E.B. Du Bois, is the precursor of the
theory of the "Black question" in a white
post-slavery America, where a Black man
continued to be regarded as a "lesser man."
He spoke of himself as having, “a dash of
negro, and a streak of French with a few
drops of Dutch blood.” Du Bois equally
called himself “Black and proud to be.”
Even better, he committed himself to break,
by his actions, the „silent conspiracy‟ which,
in his time, surrounded the „Black question‟
in the United States.
To accomplish this, William Du Bois
reflected on this issue through several
writings. The most famous of his works
remains: "The Souls of the Black Folks,"
written in 1903.
Although the battle for Equal Rights may
seem to have been won in North America
with its coronation being marked by the
election of the first Black president in the
United States, Barak Obama, it is, it seems,
still far, with respect to Africa; Africans
continued to suffer, in this twenty-first
century, of unacceptable violations of their
rights on the part of their own governments,
with the support in some cases by external
powers.
The lessons of the past are clearly observed
at the risk of seeing subtle forms of
domination, as a substitute for the
colonization.
Du Bois‟ approach is built from the history
of the Black American. One can capture
why he writes that: The history of the Black
American is the history of this struggle, this
aspiration to be a man conscious of himself,
of this desire to melt his double me into a
single me a better one that is truer. In this
fusion, he does not want to lose any of his
former me‟s. He would not want the
Africanizing of America because America
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has too much to teach the world and Africa.
He would not bleach his Black soul in the
flood of white Americanism, convinced that
there is in Black blood, a message for the
world (Du Bois, 2007).
In a methodic manner, Du Bois expounds
his thoughts very coherently, beginning with
the situation in the United States, his
country, before turning his attention to the
entire American continent. Finally he turns
his attention to Africa, the motherland. This
maneuver brings him, above all, to make
systematic, the link between AfricanAmericans and Africans from the Dark
Continent. This train of thought aligns him
with the ideas of Marcus Garvey. Of course,
the logical effect of this commitment to the
unity of the Black peoples and for the
independence of African peoples, earned
him to be considered one of the fathers of
pan-Africanism.
The hypothesis posed at the outset by Du
Bois is very simple:
a large part of what is buried
in these pages can help a
patient reader to grasp, in all
its strangeness, what it means
be Black, here, at the dawn of
the 20th century. This meaning
is not without interest for you,
Noble Reader; the problem of
the 20th century is the problem
of the color line.
Unique in personality, devoted to Africa,
William Du Bois was born American, but
died under the nationality of his adopted
country, Ghana, where his body rests today
at the Du Bois Center in Accra.
How can one read or re-read Du Bois today
and not put it in the context of modern
African political thought? His writings, and
in particular, the testimonies of his
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contemporaries describe him, on one hand,
as a theoretician on the liberation of Black
people (1) and, on the other, as an activist of
the liberation of the Black peoples (2).
1. The theoretician on the liberation of
Black people
W.E.B. Du Bois structures his thinking
around one question, Why does the Black
man represent a problem in the world and,
particularly, in America? In response to this
dilemma, Du Bois uses a writing style full of
messianic imagery, shown by the metaphor
of the „veil‟ behind this image is translated
the submission and compromise of Blacks
(A) and in front of the veil, an awareness of
freedom and civic equality for Blacks (B).
A. Behind the veil: the submission and
compromise
Du Bois described, in a way, the attitude of
some slaves, refusing, either by ignorance or
by choices, to engage in the liberation
struggle of Black peoples, where the United
States was the main pole of attraction. With
freedom within their reach, "a sense of
doubt wins the sons of Freedmen", which
confines them in a sort of resignation to
submission?
i.
Acquiescence to submission
For Du Bois, by agreeing to be subject to his
master, despite the abolition of slavery, the
Black is caught up in the snare of the veil
that surrounds him. He flogs himself
remaining behind the veil, because he does
not dare to imagine, having equal rights with
Whites; even if this ambiguous attitude,
does not express the will of the Black to
revert back to the slave status. This being
said, this position taken, determines his
preference for the status quo, because, as
Booker T. Washington says: "The Black
man is unable to climb out of segregation.”
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In his exposé on the emancipation of Blacks,
30 years after the end of slavery, Booker T.
Washington argues his partisan theories on
the submission of Blacks to Whites; first he
advocated
submission
and
strongly
recommends that Blacks be silent about
claims and demands for civil rights. It is all
the more surprising that this vision emanates
from a Black icon. Thus, Booker T.
Washington chooses, and a segment of
Blacks with him, to stubbornly remain
behind the veil; behind the veil representing
the expression of an unintelligible world
which justifies racial segregation. In a
speech in 1895, Booker Washington tried to
elucidate and justify his philosophy, saying
"we can, in all facets of our social existence,
be separate as the fingers, but united as the
hand for anything critical to our mutual
progress.”(Du Bois, 2007)
The outcome, called "Atlanta compromise",
is more a concession than a compromise; its
goal was to gain sympathy from White,
former slave masters who were not willing
to accept to be on an equal footing with
Blacks. The program as presented in his
speech, therefore revealing Blacks, who
resigned almost to the alleged inferiority of
the Black race. This posture will naturally
promote racial prejudice against Blacks,
because this time, the justification for
racism, is not because of Whites, but it
received support from Blacks, themselves.
Indeed, it is unthinkable that a Black leader
decided on his own, to restrict the longawaited rights that came from the 15th
amendment of the U.S. Constitution to
former slaves, including, citizenship and
equality of rights. It is mind-blowing, even
surreal to hear a Black man, make an
apology for the separate development
ongoing in the United States, at that most
sensitive time. It is the same in the case of
Plessy against Ferguson, in which the U.S.
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Supreme Court allowed segregation "only if
the conditions offered to the two races are
equal and separate", a deliberation which
upset people's sensitivity at that time.
"Separate but Equal" is still seen as judicial
heresy, because the measure affirms in law,
the relationship of the master and the slave.
The context thus defined, equality between
citizens of the same country is impossible.
The way was now open to all kinds of
abuses against Blacks.
Consequently, Booker T. Washington
becomes an inadvertent ally of slave traders
and racist groups, who by him, maintain the
defeat of Blacks and affirm the recognition
the superiority of the White race in America.
Remaining thus to be exercised in broad
daylight, the institution of injustice against
Blacks, without hope for change. This new
situation reflects the fact that the slaves are
now tamed and forever forsaken. Therefore,
a deep doubt ravaged the Black
consciousness on the question of the place
and the status of Blacks in society.
Taking position behind the veil is therefore
parallel to regression. How could Booker
Washington
not
understand,
that
surrendering to the Whites, is equivalent to
relinquishing one‟s rights human, both
fundamental and superior, as a man and
citizen. Did not the American Constitution
of 1787 and the Declaration of the Rights of
Man and of the Citizen of 1789 in France,
assert that all men are born free and equal in
rights and dignity?
It is with these arguments that Du Bois took
a stand in opposition to that of Booker T.
Washington. His verdict was unequivocal.
Based on the history of race relations, in
general, and all other nations, in particular,
he concluded that "it is useless to civilize a
people who voluntarily relinquish its selfesteem or stop fighting for itself ".
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In his position, behind the veil, Washington
has put the Black man, according to the
analysis of Du Bois, as a lesser man to the
extent that, following his convictions, the
Black man is only intended for submission.
Washington may also ask without any
regards to Black opinion, to abandon for a
time, access to political power and to
relinquish the claim of civil rights. In the
epitome of indignity and indecency,
Washington even proposes that Blacks close
their eyes to the higher education of youth.
Booker Washington‟s philosophy had a
negative influence on the lives of Blacks
throughout the Americas, but particularly in
the United States. Indeed, it is at this point
that the confrontation between Whites and
Blacks, say, between slave-owners and freed
slaves took a decisive turn. Everywhere
Whites sought to break the Black spirit, by
denying them all rights. Washington,
promoted the establishment of a legal status
of the inferiority of Blacks, based on
submission and docility.
Blacks were thus denatured, humanly
stripped by one of their own. This feeds the
fire of slaveholders and in return, Booker
Washington enjoyed a great consideration in
the circles of power, dominated by Whites.
Booker Washington's propaganda expressed
itself in a rather peculiar approach in three
points: first, to convince Blacks to renounce
any abrupt disruption of the political order
in America, second, to accept a kind of
adaptation to their new condition as freed
slaves and third, to persuade Blacks not to
oppose their former masters, even if the
constitution recognized their rights to do so.
He advocated a transitional phase, a passage
prior to adaptation.
ii.
Adaptation
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For Booker Washington, adaptation is a
prerequisite to claim civil rights. It is a
synonym, he says, of self-promotion: a sort
of gradual evolution of the condition of the
Black in American society. Indeed, in
exchange, the Black subject must, work and
by education, move from artisan to that of
businessman and property owner before
wanting in the distant future access the
politician rank. These are steps that Blacks
must necessarily go through, before
claiming equal rights with White America.
What, however, Du Bois denounced: "it is
absolutely impossible with the methods of
modern competition, workers and owners to
defend their rights and simply exist without
the right to vote".
William E. B Du Bois thus appears both as
fighter and defender of freedom of Blacks.
He contends, in our view, to prove that any
social evolution, be harnessed to a legal
order also primary may be which gives the
same opportunities to all; this prior
provision has as nature, to protect the
prosperity and property of one another. In a
liberal society like the United States, the
Black can act as an American citizen. It is
this status which can, from now on, allow
him to make his voice heard in deliberations,
during the creation of the rules of law. This
act of progress will allow Blacks full
enjoyment of equal rights, with their fellow
Whites.
The affirmation of William Du Bois is
against the weight of thoughts like:
like it or not, Whites respect a
Black who owns a brick duplex
house or when will the humble
condition of a Black disappear?
When he becomes a competent
bank manager and his color
disappears before his reputation.”
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For him, these assertions have a crucial
weakness, namely: a man, who agrees to be
bound and despised, has no chance of being
recognized by society (Du Bois, 2007).
On the contrary, if you „act the ass in order
to receive the hay,‟ as says Wisdom, there is
risk to remain an ass. Furthermore, instead
of hay, an ass most often receives the whip.
Thus, beyond the legal status of inferiority
of Blacks in comparison to Whites, of which
Booker Washington is the vocalist, places
Blacks, in an „economy of misfortune,‟ an
economy characterized by dependence,
oppression and arbitrariness.
We then find ourselves in a democratic and
liberal America, with two peoples, two
nations, and antagonistic interests. Indeed,
how can we on the market, guarantee a
contract between Whites and Blacks, if the
latter must agree to be in a situation of
inferiority compared to the former?
In the area of education, how is it possible
for Blacks, to have access to knowledge, all
knowledge, as taught in universities, should
they be limited to training institutes, by
renouncing access to higher education. All
this highlights the paradoxical nature of the
reasoning of Booker Washington: speaking
of correctness and dignity and yet advised at
the same time Blacks, to submit silently to
civil inferiority. This reasoning depreciates
the image of the Black elite, seen as one that
flees its historical responsibility to its
people, fighting for freedom.
Faced with this kind of argument, Du Bois
concludes: “it drains the virility of the whole
race.” The Black American historian
Clarence Walker pointed out that among the
four thousand Blacks lynched between 1889
and 1946 in the United States, many had
been, for having applied the philosophy of
intellectual and economic self-promotion of
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Booker Washington. He concludes in saying
that: “this philosophy stirs hatred and
violence of some white racist groups, who
think that Blacks must remain in their place,
exclusively, that of the slave.”
To give a sense of meaning to their dignity
as human beings, Du Bois invites Blacks to
resolutely move in front of the veil. This
requires serious self-examination, before
engaging in the struggle for equal
citizenship.
B.
In front of the veil: self-awareness
and equal citizenship.
As a philosopher, Du Bois knew that it was
in conflict what affects men closely and to
heart is revealed. For the Black American
freedom and equal rights in the country in
which he is a citizen is hardly negotiable.
Only, to get there, it is fundamental that he
be aware of himself, of his full value as a
human being.
i.
Self-awareness
How to get Blacks to be aware of
themselves and realize that they are
American citizens with the same rights as
Whites? The answer to these two questions
provided by Du Bois make him, the
charismatic leader of the Black American
political thought. To accomplish this, Du
Bois put at the heart of his approach, the
concept of race, formalized in a political
perspective.
Indeed, in a segregated America, to take
such a position leads to incalculable risks.
Despite this, the concept of race must be
reinvented in relation to the racist
conceptions that dominated American
society at that time. Therefore, Du Bois
sought to build a common identity for
African Americans, from different African
countries and sharing the need to assert a
single common identity: that of being
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African-American,
Black
American,
enjoying the nationality of the country
where they live.
It was one of the principle means for Blacks
to assure their claim to equal rights with
Whites. To achieve this, the position of Du
Bois is unambiguous: therefore rethink the
concept of race in order to make it possible
for Blacks, to establish a notion of
themselves which contributes to their social
and political elevation, as a group.
In this way, Du Bois raised the larger issue
of race which, in reality, is related to the
problem of discrimination against minorities
in the United States. At that time, he was
one of the first to pick up on the solution for
America that injustice is eminently political.
William Du Bois did not hesitate to refer to
the Declaration of Independence of 1776 to
illustrate his demonstration of the
coexistence of different races, former
masters and freed slaves, in an America that
wants to be the champion of freedom and
democracy.
American Whites were thus forced to
comply
with
the
Declaration
of
Independence of 1776, which states “all
men are created equal and are endowed by
their creator with inalienable rights.” Now,
the same rights apply to all: Black and
White. Blacks in America must become
aware of and live as Black and as American.
Du Bois urged Blacks to confront and meet
the challenge of espousing classic AngloSaxon culture, with that of an emerging and
vibrant Black American culture. However,
one condition is essential: the commitment
of Blacks, despite the violence to which they
are subjected on a daily basis.
Du Bois, a sophisticated man, knew that the
quest for freedom was full of pitfalls, but
this could not be a reason for abdicating,
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like Booker Washington and his allies. Also,
while inviting Blacks to embrace the
Declaration of Independence, Du Bois says
that it is time to write Black culture, so that
Whites can also access and equally add this
(Black) voice the famous voices of the
White culture.” Prior to all this: Black must
merge and make homogenous "double
nature".
Indeed, self-awareness, the fact for Blacks to
be convinced of and to maintain their pride
in being 'Black' and 'American', represents
the fundamental intellectual contribution of
Du Bois. He therefore leans on this
sentiment of building and giving a precise
identity to the descendants of slaves from
Africa. From now on, his vision contrasts
with that of Booker Washington. This is
where the point of rupture between the two
men lies.
To show the way forward, Dubois keeps
hammering the idea with conviction, that,
each one of us constantly feels his dual
nature: as an American, as Black; two souls,
two thoughts, two irreconcilable struggles;
two ideals that war in one Black body, that
only his own unwavering inner strength,
prevents the divide.
Moreover, [Du Bois contends that] there is
no better way to bring Blacks to build their
identity, to become aware of themselves and
their belonging to American society. He
enriches the debate by showing that the
origin of the American Negro, drawn from
slavery and Africa, should only be regarded
as a starting point.
William Du Bois structured this identity and
this recognition in “The Souls of Black
Folks”, highlighting the fact that identity has
never been a simple gift of nature; it is
above all the product of historical and
cultural influences. Consequently, the Black
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American should no longer consider himself
as a African, but fully American, without
inhibition before the Whites of this country
who themselves no longer feel European:
Black and White are all part of the history of
the United States of America.
ii.
Equal Citizenship
The issue of the claim to equal citizenship
between Whites and Blacks evokes in Du
Bois, a decisive question: How does one live
out this equal citizenship, since awareness
depends on their membership in this new
American nation?
Witness to his period, the philosopher Du
Bois realizes that freedom from the bonds of
slavery, undoubtedly, give Blacks a sense of
independence, but also it condemns them
also to isolation, undermined by doubt and
anxiety. The American Negro must face his
new status of freed man and the
responsibility arising there from. Only
anxiety and doubt bring him into turmoil
and lead him, largely, whether consciously
or unconsciously, towards new forms of
submission howbeit the purpose of the
Declaration of Independence of 1776.
That said, for Du Bois, the system in vigor,
should in practice; touch every aspect of
social life, of all the inhabitants of the
United States of America in order to shape
the personality of every American citizen.
But, in practice, he explains that Blacks are
legally emancipated, but there remain
obstacles to overcome. Citing as example, in
southern States, where Du Bois points out,
the adoption by some White leaders, „Jim
Crow laws‟ that reduce the economic and
social effects of the 13th amendment of the
Federal Constitution, abolishing slavery.
As proof, Southern leaders continued to give
themselves freedom to write laws, requiring
Blacks to be at the service former White
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owners; one way to regain the former power
of dependence of Blacks, with the objective
of continue to make them subserviently
serve white populations, despite the
existence of a new and more liberal and
egalitarian legal framework.
At this point, Du Bois finishes by believing
that Blacks must fight again and again to
help themselves achieving equal citizenship
is a daily conquest and Blacks must accept
to engage in this fight. Blacks must reject all
ideas of compromise and defend their rights
recognized by the Federal Constitution of
the country to which they now belong. Du
Bois also invites the American ruling class
dominated by Whites to engage in this fight
because this burden is that of the whole
nation. None of us have clean hands, if we
won‟t mobilize all our energy to redress this
catastrophic situation. The conquest of equal
citizenship thus lies with us all. It is a call to
all America, both White and Black.
Du Bois thus invites all to reflect on an
American society critical to bring the white
ex-masters of the South to fulfill their
obligations towards the Black people
deliberately harmed by their illegal actions.
He also addressed the leaders of the North,
which he considered just as guilty, saying of
them, "they do not save their souls by is
forging a gold-plated conscience because
one cannot solve the problem of equality
between Whites and Blacks, by diplomacy or
by the sweetness of simple civility."(Clark,
1988)
For, Du Bois, in the event of noncompliance of laws against racial
discrimination, the Federal State has the
monopoly of legitimate power, must curb
disobedience. It was by an indispensable
coercion that the 15th amendment, adopted
in 1869, put an end to the debate on civic
equality and somehow was respected.
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Curiously, it is at this moment where Du
Bois theorizes on citizenship equality,
calling Blacks to live fully, that widened the
paradoxical process of racial segregation.
Are Blacks able to live as equal citizens, in
an environment that is hostile to them?
Dubois, a committed intellectual, quickly
takes measure: Let's move away from
thought to engage in action. It is no longer
time to only describe or suggest a reality,
but to take action. It is from this awakening,
William Du Bois moves away from abstract
analysis to become a political activist.
2. The Activist of the liberation of Black
people
The activism of Du Bois manifests itself,
first, through his commitment to the
establishment of the first civil rights
movement in America (A), then moving
towards the liberation of all Blacks all over
the world, mainly in Africa from under
colonial domination; this, through the
movement of pan-Africanism (B).
A. Civil rights movements
Du Bois‟ course puts in focus, two key
instruments of struggle for the recognition of
the civil rights for Black Americans:
movement pioneer, called the „Niagara
movement‟ and the movement's maturity, the
“National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People" (NAACP).”
The Pioneer Movement: “The
Niagara Movement”
Indeed, under the 13th and 14th
amendments to the U.S. constitution, Blacks
gained their well-earned freedom, that
Whites deny them, refusing to consent to
equality between the two races. To Du Bois,
the struggle for the recognition of Blacks as
Americans must move out of theory, to take
shape in practice.
i.
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With a group of friends including William
Monroe Trotter and Frederick Mc Ghee, he
created the Niagara Movement in 1905, in a
Canadian hotel in the State of Ontario.
In this regard, of the rest, one reveals
differences of opinion of the small group on
the choice of Canada. For some, the
preference of Canada as a meeting place was
due to the refusal of the authorities of the
region of Buffalo in the United States, to let
them meet there. For others, their choice is
motivated by the urgent need to retreat to a
quiet reflection place, conducive to and
stimulating fruitful discussion. The small
assembly's debates focused on methods for
the conquest of civil liberties, the end of
racial discrimination and recognition of
human brotherhood. This last aspect of the
meeting was inspired by the philosophical
approach of Du Bois.
The Niagara movement was primarily in the
United States of America, but extended
itself to the rest of humanity. Therefore, a
call to all people of goodwill convinced of
brotherhood of man and categorically
opposed to any form of racial
discrimination. By this sounding bell, Du
Bois underlines distinctly the difference and
the clear incompatibility of his vision and
the theses of compromise of Booker
Washington.
Black Americans have the distinction of all
the peoples of the United States, of being
those that did not chose to come freely to
settle; and for good reason: their presence on
American soil was prompted by the needs of
European slavers and organized under the
form of kidnapping. According to Du Bois,
one must never lose sight of this original
dimension of Black history if one is to
understand the nature of relations between
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Whites and Blacks on the whole American
continent.
Another ambition of Du Bois remained to
bring Blacks to successfully assimilate, if
not to urge them to blend, like other
populations, in the corpus of American
society. A return to Africa, rather guided by
melancholy and nostalgia, would be painful,
even catastrophic, because the missing links.
At every occasion, Du Bois made it a point
of honor to recall 1863, the date on which
Blacks earned their right to freedom, with
the Emancipation Proclamation of the of
slaves by President Lincoln, despite protests
by the white population, of equal between
the two races.
The Niagara movement then, offers itself as
an appropriate instrument for the promotion
of Blacks. The members of the movement
deployed a large canvas, well structured,
creating in all Federated States and at the
risk of their lives, of the committees and
sections to propagate their message.
At their second meeting, the first held on
American soil, was at Harp‟s Ferry in West
Virginia, the mobilization was massive.
According to many African-American
historians, this gathering, which lasted three
days, from 15 to 18 August 1906, was one
of the largest that Blacks of the time were
able to organize (Walker, 2004). It was a
great meeting whose opening was marked
by a symbolic, remembrance, a march to the
John Brown Fort, where, in 1863, four
million slaves were released. That day,
Blacks were determined to walk barefoot to
honor the land of John Brown, which had
become, for them, the sacred land of
freedom.
That said, the key event was the declaration
issued at the end of the second meeting of
the Niagara Movement. This manifesto was
called the "Declaration of Principles" a
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document that deeply bears the imprint of
Du Bois. While recognizing the progress
made by the Black community, since the
abolition of slavery in 1863, the statement
calls, however, the American nation, to
apply the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments
to the constitution of the United States to the
letter. In addition, the declaration insists on
the pursuit of equal justice for all, in the
American judicial system.
For
the
Niagara
movement,
all
segregationist practices were intolerable,
especially if it emanates the Government,
businesses, or even the Christian Church.
Also the declaration puts forward, at the
level of political rights, recognition of the
right to vote for all: men and women, Black
and White. In terms of social rights, the
statement claimed equality of economic
opportunity, free access to education, decent
housing and neighborhoods in order to get
Black people of the ghetto.
Finally, in terms of freedom of association,
the declaration called for unions to put an
end to the boycott of Black workers. As for
the Army, the statement demands the
cessation of discrimination against Black
soldiers; it also reclaimed with insistence,
the granting of a just and fair reward to
Black American military for services
rendered to the nation. The various acts of
the Niagara movement eventually enlisted in
the vision of Tocqueville, that democracy
should essentially prepare a society of peers.
It is this approach that seduces Mary White
Covington. In 1908, she is the first White
person to officially register in the
movement, as a member, to engage openly
alongside Blacks. But, very quickly, the
pioneer civil rights movement established by
William Du Bois, gave way to a more
mature, more structured organization: the
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National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP).
ii.
The mature
movement: the
National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People
It was in 1909 that the National Association
for Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP) became the successor of the
Niagara movement. Favoring the strength of
arguments,
the
NAACP
advocated
moderation and non-violence. Its main
objective was to fight in the legal arena for
Blacks to enjoy the same rights as Whites.
Still calling to mind the Declaration of
Independence according to which “all men
were created equal,” Du Bois felt comforted
in his action. Also he believed this would
lead to the inevitable dialectic of human
history one that results after phases of
controversies and conflicts to the freedom
and dignity of men.
It is at the NACCP Du Bois showed the
dimension of his intellectual genius. The
movement invited Blacks to engage in the
idea of an America, both equal and one. The
American Negro has no alternative but to be
American. His emancipation fit into the
historical dynamics of the progress of, not
only of the United States, but of humanity.
As Gordon Wood, one of the instigators of
William Du Bois said: "blessed be the State
that puts everyone on the same level”. The
NAACP advised Blacks to use their spiritual
genius to convince themselves of the need to
be fully men in this new America. Moving
from a humanity advocated by religion to
equality based on the law. It is a basic
requirement of modern life.
The vision of the NAACP is simply evident.
Emphasis was placed on the equality of all
citizens. It begins with equality in law and in
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dignity. It is a reality that Du Bois
consolidates with certainty. To the political
authorities, the NAACP brings, every day,
into evidence that slavery and segregation
against Blacks was absurd and intolerable. It
is therefore important for the NACCP to see
that the promise of the Declaration of
independence materialize in reality and a
Constitution under which all Americans
would be able to live in freedom.
The Hegelian approach of the NAAPC
highlighted the maturity of Blacks in the
struggle for their recognition in America.
With Du Bois, Blacks eventually realized
that to be a citizen, included implicit
recognition of a human status civilized and
rewarding, regardless of the community. An
idea he has espoused in his book “Strivings
of the Negro People.”(Du Bois, 1897)
The NAACP was strongly marked by the
talent of Du Bois which still, appends
another idea: that of promoting Black
Nationalism
to
participate
in
the
construction of American nationalism.
Assimilationist and integrationist, Du Bois
and the NAACP, marched in the footsteps of
Frederick Douglas (1817-1895), precursor to
this idea.
Du Bois died in 1963. A year after his
disappearance, America adopted, in 1964,
the Civil Rights Act, a victory as the
consecration of the thought and the
culmination of the work of W.E.B. The Civil
Rights Act found a favorable echo
throughout the American continent,
particularly in Latin America, Brazil,
Guyana, Jamaica and Haiti. In Africa, where
the colonization of peoples by European
powers at the time had taken hold during the
struggle of Black Americans at the end of
the 18th - early 20th century, was not to be,
outdone.
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The struggle for the civil rights of Blacks
became the reference for all peoples
colonized and oppressed of the world. And
for good reason: the strength of the writing
and especially activism of Du Bois,
eventually convince more than one on the
fact that one can equate slavery to the
situation of all oppressed peoples, subject to
the whim of a master. The U.S. State or the
European colonizer in Africa, are a patent
illustration. Wood and many AfricanAmerican intellectuals, affect finger this
concern of the reality of the Black world as
a dispersed reality, need to gather.
Therefore, this obviously paves the way to
pan-Africanism.
B. The Way of Pan-Africanism.
The construction of pan-Africanism is the
logical continuation of the movement
against racial discrimination and for the
liberation of Black people. Born in the
Americas, the Pan-African idea represents in
a unit will bridge the gap between Africa
and its Diaspora. Pan-Africanism has a
dimension to both community and universal.
i.
The Community Dimension of PanAfricanism
William E.B. Du Bois very quickly
undertook the Pan-African fight. Secretary
of the first Congress of the same name, held
in London, in 1900 (role which he is played
with Henry Sylvester William), W. Du Bois
crossed and brand all congresses. (Paris,
1919, 1921, 1923, 1945).The Pan-African
fight was, foremost, an intellectual struggle
for the recognition of Negro as a man to
respect fundamental rights (Lara, 2003).
William Du Bois and the promoters of the
Pan-African fight had only a single refrain
to mouth: „Gather to Resist‟. The refusal of
Blacks
to
undergo
the
“internal
colonization” that of the Americas, found its
prolongation in opposition in Black Africa
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of European colonial conquests on their
continent. Also pan-Africanism presented
itself as a movement, to confront and
overcome the obstacles to the development
of Blacks in North America, in the South,
the Caribbean and Africa.
With this recognition, Du Bois and his
contemporaries decided to pan-African
project, the instrument determining to work
towards the rehabilitation of the Black race.
Antenor Firmin of Trinidad writes and then
sets the intellectual framework of the PanAfrican project; and later, as follow-up to a
match that he addresses another Black
Caribbean leader, Benito Sylvain, Antenor
Firmin wrote this:
certainly, it is an absolutely new and
very beautiful idea that that you
issue to cause a Congress of
scientists of the various nations of
the world to discuss, during the
Paris universal exhibition, in 1900,
the issue so controversial and so
exciting: equality or inequality of the
human races. Thus, the 20th century
would open, with light on a problem
whose solution must powerfully
influence the direction of policy and
philosophy (Antenor, 2003)
The conclusions of such an epistemological
approach have for purpose to encourage and
facilitate the friendly relations between
Black and white. They are intended for the
protection of the interests of all Blacks of
African descent. To do this, the flow of
appropriate information, on all issues
relating to their rights and privileges,
anywhere in the world, is continuous and
sustained. Blacks also have interest to join
together to make themselves, their projects,
despite the solicitude and the nobility of
intentions that may come from the other.
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It is on the basis of this promise that was
being held in London, in 1900, the first PanAfrican conference on the theme: light and
freedom (light and liberty). Other
conferences are working to keep turning on
the light. The first conference offers the
opportunity to attract and raise the attention
of the world opinion on the conditions of
Blacks in the United States, the Brazil, the
Caribbean and Africa. It is also the occasion
to gather "these men of African ancestry", of
various origins, coming from different
countries with the same vision: defend
against any form of oppression.
The first Pan-African including William Du
Bois assigned itself the duty to provide light
and freedom for all men of their race. With
their contribution, they promote hatching
and the realization of a dream, to build a
bridge between Africa and the Americas.
The project motivated the unintentional
dispersal of Blacks, through two vast
continents separated by a vast ocean and
dominated by the white nations of Europe
and America.
The first Congress of London gave the
opportunity to see the deep crystallization of
Africa, in the consciousness of Black
America. They continue to wear it as “a
lighthouse at the end of the night of their
suffering.” The testimonies and other
interventions of the participants agreed to
refine the Pan-African concept, heard
position it, later, as an ideology of struggle.
This will be a system of thought, developed
to be of great assistance to the militants in
their fight against colonial and imperialist
powers. This broad view to unite Blacks in a
unique community with similar interests
does not hesitate to open up to the world to
give a universal dimension.
ii.
The Universal Dimension of PanAfricanism
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William Du Bois played an important role in
the direction of the movement towards the
universal. From his experience in the United
States, he drew the lesson not to give
community character to a struggle for
freedom; freedom within the dynamics of
the progress of mankind.
Therefore clearly and unanimously,
participants in the Congress entrusted to Du
Bois, the responsibility to write “address to
nations of the world. By this Act, Blacks are
opting instead for the development of their
own talents for the benefit of all mankind.
This, now, goes beyond the bleak
observation of the participants at the
Congress of London for whom:
by a cruel fate, on (Whites) had
deprived Blacks of their role in the
dynamics of the progress of
mankind.” Great (Black) men had
little place for the development of
their powers and abilities, but they
were consolation and coaching, in
the spirit of a growing body (Lara,
2003)
In his address to the League of Nations at
which Du Bois was the chairman of a
steering committee, highlights, the influence
and the share taken by Du Bois, in the
debates on the emerging pan-African
movement. It includes this phrase became
famous for posterity and included in his
book the “Souls of Black Folks”: the
problem of the 20th century is the issue of
color, relationships between races of the
darker men with lighter, in Asia and Africa,
America and the islands of the ocean. The
unwavering observation is cruel. Yet this is
the time where racial segregation in the
United States and throughout the American
continent, tends to be unmarked. It is
applied with the same lightness and the
same cynicism in the African colonies;
Blacks are victims of massacre, on the
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pretext of a "civilizing mission" by the
European powers.
The address to the nations is therefore,
naturally, intended, first, to the Great
Powers of the civilized world: USA, France,
Belgium and especially, Great Britain, alone
holding, the largest number of Black
subjects.
The world should then face the question of
racial discrimination and unacceptable
colonial derivatives. The aim of this
decision is to encourage the different
European national opinion to put pressure on
their Governments, so that Black people and
all peoples victims of racial discrimination,
is recognized within their inalienable rights
humans.
The history of Europe, very well known of
Du Bois, is marked conquests of the rights
and freedoms recognized in human beings
humans: the Magna Carta of 1243 and then
the Bill of right of 1623 in Great Britain, the
Declaration of independence of 1776, and
the declaration of the rights of man and of
the citizen of the United States. These are as
many texts and declarations of universal
door, which are limited in their
implementation, to the only white men of
the time. Drawing the consequence of this
intimately discrimination on race, the
address to the nations requires recognition of
equality of treatment among all men,
everywhere in the world.
Specifically, the address to the nations
emphasizes the autonomy of peoples of the
colonized territories of Africa. America
North, South America and the Caribbean,
the address is committed to obtain the
recognition of the right to vote, the safety of
property and persons to Blacks. All these
ideas are included in the Congress to follow.
Du Bois played a role, occupying
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permanently, the post of Secretary General
at all such meetings.
of humanity, transcending the pattern of skin
colors.
Under his leadership, from 1919 to 1945, the
five consecutive Pan-African congresses,
see intensify the struggle of civil rights in
the United States, in addition to the
emergence of anti-colonial activists, in
Africa and in the world. Petitions,
declarations and manifests are sent to the
League of Nations newly created; we are in
1933. The new institution brings together all
the powers of the world. The Pan-African
movement incorporates the era of time; what
is valid in Europe, must be for all men,
everywhere where they are located.
CONCLUSION
Since the work of African anthropologists:
Cheick Anta Diop and Harris Memel Fote,
to refer to the African pioneers of political
thought, the idea of freedom for Blacks, is
addressed in Africa, under various factors:
political, economic, cultural and social. The
path for the current progress and identity
comfort of Blacks was long and strenuous,
dotted with sweat and blood.
Between 1945 and 1962, Du Bois meets
African leaders including Kwame Nkrumah.
He started with these, the so-called "panAfricanism in action" phase for the
independence of African countries. This
phase one could also call „African phase of
pan-Africanism‟, because that exclusively
African is fulfilled in the post-independence
period, in 1963, with the establishment of
the Organization of African Unity (OAU).
Despite the deviations, submissions and
other compromises of some African elite,
who replaced the masters of yesterday, and
that corrupt the noble fight of freedom,
engaged for centuries to afford a life, based
on the desires surface power, modern
African political thought continues to assert
itself and to build with for main lever, the
idea of 'freedom '. The final objective of this
fight is to get rid of any form of
enslavement, and spray the rictus of the
exploiter, in order to make the African,
permanently free and master of his fate.
An organization supposed to be the engine
of the unification of all Blacks in Africa and
African Diaspora. Ultimately, the origins of
modern African political thought, bear
footprints of famous characters of the world
political and intellectual Black. Each having,
according to his vision and his methods
work to rehabilitate Black, in the history of
humanity. The contribution of AfricanAmericans is undeniable in the development
of this thought. William Du Bois is part of
this line. By the pen and the action, it prints
a meaning to freedom of all, men, women,
minorities or marginalized, in general, and
especially to the freedom of Blacks in
particular. Ultimately, Du Bois defines
freedom as an issue inherent to the progress
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2. Clark, J. H. (1988), A brief history
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