The Argument
A Primer
Definitions
!   Statement: Something that can be proven true or false,
or agreed or disagreed with.
!   Argument: A set of statements in which one or more
try to prove or establish the truth of another.
Practice
!   I like homework.
!   Really hard homework.
!   She knows a lot about homework so you should study
with her.
!   Dogs eat homework.
!   When my dog ate my homework.
!   Nobody should ever own a dog.
Definitions
!   Claim: The statement in the argument to be proven.
!   Reason: A statement offered as proof of the claim.
Practice
!   I’m worried about my best friend. He’s been burning
all of his sister’s stuffed animals. He lit his garage on
fire. His screen saver is a picture of flames. I think he
needs professional help.
Definitions
!   Evidence: Statements offered to establish the truth of
reasons. These are also called support.
Practice
!   You should always floss your teeth. First, it prevents
gum disease by getting rid of the junk between your
teeth and dislodging bacteria. Second, it makes people
want to kiss you because seriously, who wants to kiss
someone with stuff stuck between his teeth?
Definitions
!   Connection: The explanation that connects a reason to
a claim. This is also called a warrant.
!   Valid: An argument is valid when its reasons support
the claim.
Practice
!   High school should start later. School districts that
have moved their start times to later in the day have
seen their test scores rise and student learning increase.
The purpose of high school is to educate students and
help them become better learners, and higher test
scores demonstrate this. Moving the start time of
high school would help it accomplish its purpose.
Definitions
!   Counterargument: An attack against an argument,
sometimes called an objection or counterclaim.
!   Generally, a counterargument will either attempt to prove
that a reason or piece of evidence is untrue or attempt to
disrupt a connection by demonstrating that a reason or
piece of evidence does not actually support the claim or
reason.
!   An argument may be strong enough to withstand these
kinds of counterarguments, and if this is the case, the
counterarguments may try and show problematic outcomes
of the original argument.
Practice – Attacks on Reasons
!   Argument: Chocolate is the best ice cream. It contains
flavonoids that are good for your health.
!   Ice cream isn’t very healthy; it has large amounts of
cream and sugar.
!   Some people are allergic to chocolate.
!   Vanilla tastes better than chocolate.
!   That’s so dumb. Everyone knows butter pecan is best.
Practice – Attacks on Connections
!   Argument: Chocolate is the best ice cream. It contains
flavonoids that are good for your health.
!   Why is health what determines which ice cream is best?
Flavor is more important than healthiness. If people
are thinking of health, they probably aren’t going to
choose ice cream anyway.
Definitions
!   Refutation: A response to a counterargument.
Refutations defend reasons by either showing that the
counterargument’s attack on them is false or by
providing additional evidence to strengthen the reasons
against the attack.
!   Refutations defend connections by clarifying the
connection between reasons and claims or by providing
additional connections.
Practice – Reason Refutations
!   Argument: Chocolate is the best ice cream. It contains
flavonoids that are good for your health.
!   Counterargument: Ice cream isn’t very healthy; it has
large amounts of cream and sugar.
!   It is true that ice cream isn’t healthy, but ff you’re going
to eat ice cream, you might as well eat the kind that’s
least likely to do you harm.
Connection Refutations
!   Argument: Chocolate is the best ice cream. It contains
flavonoids that are good for your health.
!   Counterargument: Why is health what determines
which ice cream is best? Flavor is more important than
healthiness. If people are thinking of health, they
probably aren’t going to choose ice cream anyway.
!   Health is an important consideration along with taste.
All things being equal, the healthy choice is probably
the best one.