Indian Journal of Marine Sciences
Vol. 30, June, 2001, pp. 57-64
Littoral transport studies along west coast of India – A review
Pravin D Kunte & B G Wagle
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa – 403 004, India
and
Yasuhiro Sugimori
CEReS, Chiba University, Inage-Ku, Chiba City, Japan
Received 24 April 2000, revised 18 December 2000
This article presents an overview of investigations that were carried out to determine the dynamics of littoral transport
along the west coast of India, during last three decades. Sedimentological methods, wave refraction diagrams, tracer tracking, geomorphic indicators etc. have been used for determination of littoral dynamics at various locations and along larger
areas of west coast of India. Wave refraction studies have been conducted to determine locations of wave convergence and
divergence, rip currents and to provide quantitative measurements of littoral drift and drift direction for local as well as regional areas. However, studies based on geomorphic indicators aided with remote sensing techniques were reliable to determine littoral drift cells and drift direction within each cell and net littoral drift direction along west coast of India. This review indicates that though littoral drift is variable, bi-directional and season dependent, long-term net littoral drift along
west coast of India is southwards. Efforts have also been made to highlight the neglected aspects, merits and demerits of
various methods used.
Littoral drift plays an important role in deciding the
areas of coastal erosion and accretion, in shaping and
orienting coastal landforms and finally in the
evolution of the coast. Hence, in the analysis of
coastal
erosion-accretion
problem,
for
the
development of harbour and construction of coastal
structures, the direction, amount and behaviour of
long-term average shore drift is of vital importance.
Littoral transport is defined as the movement of
sediments in the near shore zone by waves and
currents. Littoral transport is divided into two general
classes - transport parallel to the shore (alongshore
transport) and transport perpendicular to the shore
(onshore-offshore transport). The material transported
is called littoral drift. Primarily wave steepness,
sediment size, and beach slope determines the
onshore-offshore transport. Alongshore transport
results from stirring up of sediment by the breaking
waves and the movement of this sediment by both the
component of the wave energy in an alongshore
direction and the longshore transport, is directly
related to the direction of wave approach with respect
to the shore.
To understand littoral transport pattern along
Indian coasts, more than 70 investigations have been
carried out during last three decades. Out of these, 45
published studies, which determine littoral transport
along west coast of India, are examined and a brief
overview is presented here. It is noticed that these
studies fall in three categories, namely - covering
larger part along Indian coast (Fig. 1), covering larger
part along the west coast and study locations limited
to a state. And hence, these studies are discussed here
for west coast and then state-wise. Efforts have been
also made to highlight the merits and demerits of
various methods used.
Littoral transport studies
As of now, only three studies1-3 have been carried
out for estimating longshore sediment transport
covering larger part along Indian coast. Ship observed
wave data was utilized for these studies. To estimate
sediment transport, an empirical model was developed
based on longshore energy flux equation. These
studies1-3 indicates that annual gross sediment
transport rate is high (1.5×106 m3 to 2.0×106 m3)
along the coasts of south Orissa, north Tamil Nadu,
south Kerala, north Karnataka and south Gujarat,
whereas it is comparatively less (0.5×106 m3 to
1.0×106 m3) along the south Tamil Nadu coast. Coast
between Pondicherry and Point Calimere in Tamil
Nadu, and the Maharashtra coast experience
negligible annual net transport. The direction of
annual net transport along the east coast is towards
north whereas, along the west coast, it is towards
south except along south Gujarat coast.
58
INDIAN J. MAR. SCI, VOL 30, JUNE 2001
southward drift ranged between 0.75×105 m3 and
1.5×105 m3/y. At Mangalore, bi-directional drift is
determined, whereas at Ezhimala, northward and
southward drift rates were about 2.5×105 m3 and
2×105 m3/y respectively6. Field studies on beach
variation, littoral environmental observation and
longshore sediment transport between Ratnagiri and
Mangalore7 showed that the beaches are stable over
the annual cycle. The annual net transport direction
varies along the west coast showing southerly at
Ratnagiri, Tadri and Mangalore and northerly along
Vengurla, Goa and Coondapur. The state-wise
overview is presented below.
Fig.1Map showing important locations.
Larger areas along the west coast of India have
been investigated in four littoral transport studies4-7.
Wave refraction has been studied4 for the west coast
of India from Vengurla to Dwarka in order to
understand the nature of sediment transport along this
region. The study determined convergence and
divergence places as well as rip currents and revealed
that for waves from SW, the tendency of in-shore
sediment transport is mostly northerly from Vengurla
to Daman and is southerly from Gopnath point to
Dwarka except at a few places between Mangrol and
Dwaraka, where it is northerly. While studying
distribution and dispersion of turbid waters on the
western continental shelf of India5 using Landsat
images, it has been noticed that the nearshore waters
of the west coast moved towards the north.
Shore Protection Manual method found to
overestimate littoral drift when applied at locations
along the west coast of India6. At Mirya bay,
Maharashtra coast
Three attempts have been made to study littoral
transport along the Maharashtra coast. In two studies,
sediment transport direction was determined using
geomorphic indicators by remote sensing techniques,
whereas, in one study, sediment transport rates were
estimated at different localities along the coast.
Landsat images along with aerial photographs of the
southern Maharashtra coast were studied8 to mark
drift cells and determine shore drift within each drift
cell of the area. For this purpose, coastal landform
indicators like stream mouth diversion, spit growth,
recession of cliffs, beach width, mid-bay bar and
tombolos and man-made structures interrupting shore
drift were studied. As many as 42 drift cells were
marked. It is found that within some drift cells, drift
direction is towards north though net shore drift
direction of the area is towards the south. Along this
coast9, the longshore current velocity varied between
0.1 and 0.33 m/sec. The longshore current direction
was predominantly southward at Ratnagiri,
Ambolgarh, whereas it was variable at Vengurla.
Based on the field measurements9, the estimated
longshore sediment transport rates at Ratnagiri,
Ambolgarh and Vengurla were 1.19×105 m3,
1.9×105 m3 and 0.53×105 m3/y respectively and the
direction was southward. Remote sensing products
covering northern part of Maharashtra coast were
interpreted10 to study the sediment transport behavior.
The study determined shore drift within twenty-two
drift sectors and concluded that sediment transport
direction is bi-directional and season dependent, and
the resultant sediment transport is southward.
Goa coast
Out of fifteen studies11-25 that have been carried out
along Goa coast to describe sediment transport, 6
were carried out using wave refraction method, in
KUNTE et al. : LITTORAL TRANSPORT STUDIES ALONG WEST COAST OF INDIA
2 studies geomorphic indicator was used, and
remaining 7 studies were dealt with sedimentological
methods. Out of these, in four studies remote sensing
techniques have been used.
Veerayya11,12 investigated sediments of Calangute
beach along 5 sections. He studied textural
characteristics along with beach topographic changes
and inferred transport and distribution of sediments
along and across the beach. Longshore current
velocities were also determined by observing float
movements. The measurement varied from a few
centimeters to about 80 cm/sec and during NW
monsoon season, floats moved towards north. During
the rest of the year, floats travel partly towards north
and also in offshore-onshore directions and at times
towards south. From the above, it was predicted that
littoral transport is towards north. While studying
effects of dumping of dredged material from
Mormugao Harbour on to the nearby Baina beach,
based on the changes in beach topographic features,
variations in particle size distribution of beach
sediments etc, Veerayya et al.13 found that there is
very slow littoral movement along this beach.
However, it was concluded that dumped material
would not be influencing the Baina beach. Based on
grain size statistics, environmental conditions of
beach deposits and dune sediments from Calangute
beach, Veerayya & Varadachari14 explained sediment
transport across the beach. The study revealed the
usefulness of grain size parameter not only in
differentiating the beach and the dune sediment but
also in delineating the beach into foreshore and
backshore. The difference in grain size character of
the sediments in the environments indicates the
transport, erosion and depositional mechanism
prevailing in the area of study.
Antony15 worked out wave energy distribution
direction of longshore currents and volume of littoral
transport at 4 m depth contour along Calangute beach
from the wave refraction diagram. He demarcated
probable areas of rip currents and estimated that about
9×106 m3 of littoral drift takes place along this beach
annually. The net annual drift of 1.9×106 m3 was
directed northwards. Veerayya et al.16 carried out
wave refraction studies for waves of different periods
approaching the Colva beach. It was observed that
littoral flow is towards the north for deep-water waves
approaching from SW and towards the south for
waves approaching from WNW. It was also
concluded that waves approaching from W and WSW
generate inshore-offshore flows and converging and
59
diverging alongshore flows, giving rise to circulation
cells in the nearshore regions. The studies showed that
the sediments of Colva beach mostly get re-circulated
between the two promontories, under the influence of
the prevailing currents and the associated circulation
pattern in the surf zone.
Morphological variations of Calangute and Colva
beaches have been found to be cyclic over a period of
one year17. These beaches accumulate maximum
sediment storage during April/May. They are then
subjected to rapid rate of erosion with onset of SW
monsoon winds and wave conditions, followed by
slower rates during the subsequent period of the
monsoon. Erosion continues till August, when the
beaches have minimum sediment storage. The wave
climate during postmonsoon and winter months helps
the beaches in recovering gradually after passing
through a secondary phase of erosion associated
closely with the onset of northeast monsoon during
November/December. The field observations18 on the
longshore currents at Calangute and Colva beaches
over a span of five years revealed high variability in
their direction and speed. Wave refraction diagrams
for these regions indicated the close cellular patterns
of flows for waves of near normal incidence. The
sediments of this zone are brought into suspension
due turbulence generated by wave breaking processes
and get re-circulated in the area under the influence of
this circulation. These currents and associated
circulation of water help in maintaining the shoals in
the vicinity of river mouths.
The large embayment at the entrance of the
Mandovi estuary, Aguada bay has resulted in very
complex flow patterns of the tidal flow19. The main
mechanism causing siltation in the channel is
deposition of suspended sediments and sand
movement due to littoral drift. It was suggested that a
jetty on the southern side would reduce siltation due
to littoral drift and river borne sand to a great extent.
Anand et al.20 presented the results of the field
observations and theoretical studies on the coastal
processes along the entire Goa coast and calculated
longshore sediment transport. At Calangute, the
sediment transport was towards north during
September-December. The rate was relatively high
about 0.39×105 m3/month in July and August and it
was less than 0.04×105 m3/month during rest of the
months. At Colva beach the sediment transport has
been towards north throughout the year. The transport
rate was high about 0.43×105 m3/month in August and
it was less than 0.07×105 m3/month in January to
60
INDIAN J. MAR. SCI, VOL 30, JUNE 2001
April, July and September. The annual transport was
0.89×105 m3/year towards south at Calangute beach
and 1.59×105 m3/year towards north at Colva beach.
Using bathymetry and wave parameters from wave
atlas, Dholakia et al.21, constructed wave refraction
diagrams graphically by wave front method. The spits
extending to the north (at Querim) as well as south of
Morjim and Betul beaches indicate the prevalence of
longshore sediment transport in both the directions.
Kunte22, analysed Landsat images, aerial
photographs, and topographic maps of the Goa coast
to examine direction, amount and behavior of longshore drift and its contribution towards deciding
areas vulnerable to coastal erosion and accretion
along the coast. From landform indicator study, it
was noticed that during the southwest monsoon
period, strong southerly currents are eroding
protruded sectors and are depositing eroded material,
along varying sectors, whereas, during the rest of the
year, under the influence of a northerly current,
accretion is taking place along retreating sectors. It
was inferred that although sediment-transport is bidirectional, net major sediment transport is
southward. Kunte & Wagle23,24 studied dynamics of
sediment plumes along Goa coast utilizing Landsat 5
satellite images and determined sediment transport.
The second principal component image (PC2) was
used for studying nearshore turbidity pattern. Tonal
variation has been used as a measure of turbidity
concentration. Texture and pattern helped in
monitoring the distribution and movement. On the
satellite image, the sediment transport direction is
inferred towards south as sediment-laden plumes are
elongated and pointed southwards. Movement of
plumes towards south all along the coast during
March and towards north during October was
noticed. Orzech25, carried out detailed field study to
locate distinct geomorphic and sedimentologic field
evidences to define drift cell boundaries and to
determine net shore-drift on the Goa coast and
concluded that an overall south net shore drift
direction predominates on the Goa coast.
Karanataka coast
At twelve study-areas along Karnataka coast,
littoral transport investigations have been carried
out26-35. Two are carried out using wave refraction
method, in four studies geomorphic indicator was
used, and remaining six studies were dealt with
sedimentologic methods. Two of these studies were
carried out using remote sensing.
Survey of the outer approach channel of New
Mangalore Port26, brings out the presence of sand
accumulation south of the northern breakwater in an
otherwise essentially clay domain. The southern
boundary of this sand deposit is lobate with fingerlike protrusions towards south. Such an abrupt
occurrence of a sand body in an essentially clay
domain,
the geometry and sedimentologic
characteristics of the sand accumulation and its
localisation just south of the western tip of the
northern breakwater are suggestive of a net southerly
movement of sediment, and the possible deflection of
the currents carrying the sediments by the breakwater.
The southern part of coastline from Kapu to Talapady
was studied27 to understand the beach morphological
changes. Study showed that the erosional areas are
migratory in character and are due to anthropogenic
causes like – i) the seawall near Mulur, ii) the
construction of breakwaters for New Mangalore Port
and iii) the seawall built at the tip of Bengre. Studying
above, they concluded that there is a southerly littoral
drift and any obstruction to this drift results in
erosion.
Kunte & Wagle28 based on remote sensing
techniques, determined spits evolution and shore drift
direction along south Karnataka coast using spit
growth as indicator. Totally 14 drift cells were
determined and concluded that net shore drift is
towards south. Narayana & Pandarinath29, employed
grain-size statistics to study sediment transport. Off
Manglore, the alongshore transport of sediment in
shallow regions is towards north whereas in the
deeper regions, it is towards the south. This onshoreoffshore sediment transport study reveals that the
sediment transport direction is towards onshore where
fluvial influence is absent and the direction is towards
both onshore and offshore where the fluvial influence
is prevalent.
The results of monthly beach profiles, monthly
longshore currents, daily littoral environmental
observations, and monthly beach sediment size
distribution off Karwar and Bhatkal along the North
Karnataka coast, on the west coast of India suggests
that beaches are all stable during the annual coastal
processes. Distribution of longshore current is bidirectional and is season dependent. The annual net
sediment transport rate was 0.69×105 m3/y and
1.42×105 m3/y towards north at Karwar and Honavar
respectively. Whereas, it is 0.4×105 m3 /y towards
KUNTE et al. : LITTORAL TRANSPORT STUDIES ALONG WEST COAST OF INDIA
south at Gokarna30. A systematic study31, on monthly
variation of currents and suspended sediment load
over a tidal cycle period in the Sharavati estuary and
nearshore waters off Honavar revealed that the
circulation in the estuary was mainly controlled by
river flow in the south-west and postmonsoon months
and by tides during the north-east and premonsoon
months. The surface currents in the nearshore waters
off Honavar followed the general circulation pattern
along the west coast of India.
To understand the erosion and accretion behaviour
of Aligadde Beach, Hanamgond & Chavadi32 carried
out monthly measurement of beach profiles over a
period of three years. Empirical Orthogonal Function
(EOF) analysis and volume changes have been compared to understand the on-offshore sediment
movement. Monthly observations revealed a net gain
of 34.6 m3/m sediment, and showed a net gain of
58.0 m3/m. During the southwest monsoon season,
however, major loss of sediment was observed. Accumulation or removal of sediment on or offshore is
ascribed to waves and tides, and longshore to convergence or reversal of longshore currents. The observed longshore currents revealed bi-directional
trend, i.e, towards east during monsoon seasons and
east to west during the rest of the year. Landsat images, aerial photographs, and topographic maps of
north Karnataka were interpreted to delineate sediment-transport sectors23. Thirty-six sedimenttransport sectors were identified from landform indicators and patterns of sediment transport. Although
sediment-transport direction is bi-directional, net
major sediment transport is southward. The sediment
balance is positive overall, and is reflected in large
spits in the southern part of the study area. Field
study33, between Bhatkal and Ullal indicated that the
beaches along this segment of coastline are essentially stable except seasonal fluctuations. Longshore
sediment transport rate was relatively low at Maravanthe and Ullal compared to Malpe and Padubidri.
The distribution of grain size parameters along
beach sediments between Majali and Karwar,
reveals34 that the mean grain size exhibits a marked
decreasing trend on either side of the mouth of the
Kali River. Average standard deviation values for
different months decrease from river mouth on either
side. These variations in the size parameters are
attributed to the drifting of sediments on either side of
the river, possibly due to cellular flows, which
develop in the river mouth region. Jayappa35, studied
longshore currents and sediment transport along the
61
beaches of Mangalore over a period of one year. The
sector-wise average longshore current velocity was
high (0.18, 0.16 and 0.17 m/s in the northern, middle
and southern sectors respectively) from March to
November. Net sediment movement was towards
south in all the three sectors and maximum (4.10×105
m3/yr) in the southern sector. Radiotracer experiments
were carried out36 to study the movement of bed load
near Anjadeep Island off Karwar coast to select a
suitable dumping site for disposal of dredged spoil. In
this location, radiotracers were used successfully to
measure the general velocity of transport as 0.6
meters per day and sediment transport rate of the
order of 30 kg per day per meter width of the bed.
Kerala coast
Distribution of wave energy and variation in wave
height and direction of longshore currents have been
estimated37 from wave refraction diagram for
predominant wave approaching the shore. The
direction of littoral current is towards north for waves
approaching from 220°-240°, whereas, it is southerly
for waves approaching 280°-300°. The probable
volume of littoral sediment transport at 2 m depth
contour along the shoreline between Munambam and
Anthakaranazhi was computed38 for waves
approaching the shore from directions varying from
220° -300° with periods varying from 6 to 14 sec. It is
estimated that approximately equals 9×106/m3 of
material drifts towards south annually between
Munambam and Vypin while approximately equals
7×106 /m3 of material drifts towards the south between
Fort Cochin and Anthakaranazhi. Machado & Baba39,
studied movement of beach sand in Vizhinjam bay,
using the tracer (rhodomine B) technique. Rates of
depletion of tracer after 60 and 180 min were 1.6 and
0.85%, respectively. Grain velocity was 1.82 m/min.
A general westward movement of sediment was
observed. Considerable sediment transport in the
offshore direction and the trapping of these sediments
in the offshore bar were indicated. The longshore
transport direction in relation to the premonsoon,
monsoon and postmonsoon seasons was studied40
utilizing the textural parameters of the foreshore
sediments along a 41 km stretch of the ParavurPurakkad coast. The seasonal grain-size variation and
sediment budget along the coast was also examined.
The sediment transport direction that deduced from
both statistical methods and field measurements are in
agreement for the southern sector, signifying the
availability of sediment for transport, in contrast, in
62
INDIAN J. MAR. SCI, VOL 30, JUNE 2001
the northern sector, no correlation was found except
during the premonsoon season.
The onshore-offshore sediment transport study41
between Kuzhipalli and Chawghat indicated transport
trends both in onshore as well as offshore directions
in sectors where fluvial action is prevalent. The
alongshore sediment transport study, based on 4
profiles parallel to the coast, showed a strong
northerly trend of sediment movement at a depth
beyond 20 m isobath and movement in north and
south directions in shallower (< 20 m) depths of the
shelf. The movement of sediments in shallower
portions of the shelf is influenced by the interaction of
waves, currents, and fluvial processes. Sediment
movement in deeper portions mainly results from
wave turbulences. The transport trends derived from
the progressive changes in the grain-size
characteristics show42 relatively better correlation
with the measured trends where they are not
influenced by the input of sediments from multiple
sources. The obliquely approaching swell waves,
which generate intense northerly longshore currents
during non-monsoon season, favour accretion of the
beaches.
Landsat images were analyzed43 to examine
direction, amount and behaviour of long-shore drift
and its contribution towards deciding areas vulnerable
to coastal erosion and accretion along the coast of
Kerala. Two approaches were adopted while utilizing
the remote sensing data. Net shore-drift direction is
determined firstly by studying various coastal
landform indicators and secondly by studying
offshore turbidity distribution patterns. Landform
indicator study suggests that during the southwest
monsoon period, strong southerly currents are eroding
protruded sectors and depositing eroded material,
though partially, along varying sectors. Whereas
during the rest of the year, under the influence of a
northerly current, accretion is taking place along
retreating sectors which has been reflected in the
development of beach ridges. It was concluded that
shore-drift direction is season-dependent and plays a
significant role in deciding the areas of coastal
erosion and accretion. Longshore sediment transport
at three different locations with varying littoral
environmental characteristics along the SW coast was
computed24 using the wave energy flux method. The
highest transport is computed at Vizhinjam, Kerala,
India with a net southerly transport of 2.95×106 m3.
The lowest value of 0.07×106 m3 was obtained for the
northern station of the Chavara region. The huge
quantum of sediment transport obtained for the
southern coasts is partly due to the higher breaker
angle at these shorelines for the predominant westerly
waves during monsoon. The relatively low transport
off Chavara appears to be set by the reduced breaker
angle and wave energy level when compared to the
southern coasts.
Discussion
Reviewing above studies, it is found that along
various locations, longshore littoral transport is
variable depending upon wave climate, availability of
sediments etc. and is towards north as well as south
depending upon wave approach direction and
configuration of the coast. However, studies covering
larger areas have pointed out net shore drift was
towards south, though bi-directional littoral transport
was noted.
It is also noted that at almost all locations, onshoreoffshore littoral drift follows a same pattern. During
April/May (premonsoon), on-shore littoral transport
accumulates maximum sediment storage. With onset
of SW monsoon winds and wave conditions (during
June-September), offshore littoral transport allows
erosion at rapid rate and off-shore transport continues
till August when beaches have minimum sediments
storage. Later, the wave climate during post-monsoon
season encourages on-shore littoral transport after
passing through a secondary phase of erosion
associated closely with the onset of NE monsoon
during November-December. At locations, favourable
recovery enables excess on-shore transport of
material. On the contrary net coastal erosion was
observed.
From on-going discussion, it is observed that
coastal engineers, physical oceanographers and
geomorphologists using various methods such as
wave refraction studies, geomorphic indicators,
sedimentologic methods and remote sensing
techniques etc. have attempted littoral transport along
the west coast of India. Majority of these
investigations were carried out using sedimentological
field studies, wave measurements or tracer tracking
techniques are limited to small area coverage and are
short-term studies. To cover long coastline of west
coast of India, such studies will be laborious, time
consuming and uneconomic. Moreover, short-term
studies of net littoral drift are prone to errors. Such
investigations tried over a few months time only
record seasonal drift and not long-term net littoral
drift. However, these studies are very useful to
KUNTE et al. : LITTORAL TRANSPORT STUDIES ALONG WEST COAST OF INDIA
understand seasonal variability, rip currents and
erosion-accretion pattern locally.
Computer-aided wave refraction studies determine
places of wave convergence and divergence, rip
currents and provide quantitative measurements of
littoral drift and direction for local as well as regional
areas. Such measurements are well trusted and used
by coastal engineers. However, the data are collected
for short duration and hence no long-term drift
evidences can be determined. Long term (for more
than 100 years) data on wave energy, wave period,
and wave height for specific beaches are not
available. Additionally, drift determination based
upon wave hind casting and the construction of wave
orthogonal is subject to the vagaries of judgment and
calculations of the investigators. Serious mistakes can
be made by utilising these methods without adequate
verification of geomorphology and sedimentology of
the coastal stretch under consideration.
Coastal landforms respond to all the variables of
shore drift and record evidences during their course of
formation and hence systematic study of these
landforms provide reliable long-term littoral drift
information. Hence such studies when carried out
with the help of remote sensing provide reliable
results in short duration. Studies based on geomorphic
indicators, as mentioned above have determined
littoral drift cells and drift direction within each cell
and net littoral drift direction along west coast of
India.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to Dr. E. Desa, Director,
NIO, for permitting us to publish this material. Kunte
P. D. gratefully acknowledges Japan Society of
Promotion of Science (JSPS) for awarding
RONPAKU Fellowship under which this work was
carried out. This is NIO contribution No. 3627.
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