Computers & Geosciences 81 (2015) 93–100
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers & Geosciences
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cageo
Visualizing volcanic processes in SketchUp: An integrated geo-education tool
G.M. Lewis a,b,n, S.J. Hampton a
a
b
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
Department of Earth Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 14 November 2014
Received in revised form
2 May 2015
Accepted 4 May 2015
Available online 6 May 2015
Prominent eroded volcanic features often dominate landscapes and stimulate interest in the geological
processes that formed these landscapes. Trimble SketchUp (formerly Google SketchUp and hereinafter
simply SketchUp) can be used by educators as a comprehensive geological teaching tool to model the
complex processes, stages of formation, and key features of a volcanic region. This study outlines the
constraints and considerations which must be taken into account when developing a virtual geological
representation, the procedure of creating a model of the observed geology using SketchUp, and the
methods through which educators can convey the embedded information at various academic levels. In
developing a geological model, an understanding of the physical processes within the formation and
degradation of geological features is integral. This understanding requires field observations, measurements and supportive analysis. A hypothetical model (informed and constrained by geological information) is then formulated and visualized using the 3D SketchUp environment. By using the framework of SketchUp, a full spectrum interactive geologically accurate model of the formation can be visualized and interacted with via geospatial layers, enabling an understanding of intrusive, eruptive, and
erosional processes.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Interactive
Spatial
Virtual
Model
Formation
Degradation
1. Introduction
Critical spatial awareness and reasoning are essential tools in
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. These domains require external spatial representations such as 2D graphics,
3D models, and hand gestures (Liben et al., 2010). Both Liben et al.
(2010) and Colaianne and Powell (2011) found strong correlations
between spatial ability and academic success, with earth science
students having some of the highest average spatial test scores
(Colaianne and Powell, 2011). One hypothesis as to the superior
spatial awareness of geoscientists is that the discipline requires
exploitation of graphics, models, and gestural representations to
explain geological concepts (Liben et al., 2010). Earth science
students are able to practice and improve their spatial abilities by
participating in courses that also require 3D visualization and
manipulation such as fine arts and physics (Colaianne and Powell,
2011).
Technology now has the capability to virtually transport students to locations where they can observe regions they have never
n
Corresponding author at: Department of Earth Sciences, Dartmouth College,
Hanover, New Hampshire, USA.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G.M. Lewis).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2015.05.003
0098-3004/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
been to or are unable to visit or visualize without scientific tools
(i.e. Blenkinsop, 2012). Virtual globes and interactive maps, such as
Google Earth and EarthBrowser, have been shown to be very effective for communicating and teaching structural geology by
providing more intuitive and easy to grasp perspectives than traditional paper maps and cross sections (Whitmeyer et al., 2010;
Blenkinsop, 2012). Examples within the geological realm include
plate tectonics and of microcrystalline structure, processes that
occur on scales so far removed from most human experiences that
they cannot be directly observed and require abstract spatial
thinking abilities (Colaianne and Powell, 2011). In using 3D models
for spatial reasoning, students have an easier time interpreting
and exploring complex geological features and process than while
using traditional techniques (Blenkinsop, 2012; Monet and Greene,
2012).
Spatial models are underpinned by the quality and understanding of the data set. To correctly portray the development of a
geological sequence, one requires an accurate understanding of
the geological history. Therefore, this study begins with a review
of the geological formation of Panama Rock (a dike fed lava dome),
Banks Peninsula, New Zealand, uses SketchUp layers to portray the
geological processes in the formation of Panama Rock, and discusses methods by which educators can convey this geological
model at varying levels.
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2. Understanding the geology
Understanding the formation and degradation of geological
features is integral to the construction of a geological model. This
study focuses on Panama Rock, which formed between 9.0 and
8.4 Ma on the eroded flank of the Akaroa Volcanic Complex (Fig. 1)
(Hampton and Cole, 2009; Ring and Hampton, 2012).
Panama Rock (Figs. 2 and 3) is a 20–30 m high ridge crest,
which extends roughly 280 m east–west and 150 m north–south.
The feature slopes approximately 14° to the east throughout its
surface exposure. Its southern and western sides are covered in
dense native vegetation, with reasonable rock exposure on the top,
northern, and eastern faces. Its top is marked by a trough, approximate 20 m wide and 5 m deep, forming a core to the summit
(Fig. 2) and has been recognized as the interior core of a trachytic
dome (Hobden, 1990). Jointing patterns also reflect this origin and
are included in the model (Bahat et al., 1999). Extending westward
at 240° from Panama Rock is a 500 m long, 10 m high, 3–4 m thick
trachytic dike (Figs. 2 and 3). The lower slopes of Panama Rock are
defined by pyroclastic rich horizons with basaltic spatter clasts and
agglutinated layers outcropping in the lower slopes, which overlie
a 10–15° eastward dipping basaltic lava flow sequence (Fig. 3). A
later lava flow sequence is evident on the ridges further east.
The main modeled aspects of the geology are: the paleo-flank of
the Akaroa Volcanic Complex; the origin, extent, and erosion of the
basal scoria cone; the size, shape, and emplacement processes of
the lava dome; the orientation of the feeder dike; and the complex
relationships between the dike, dome, flank, and scoria cone.
The Panama Rock lava dome has two distinct regions, reflecting
emplacement and cooling mechanisms. The inner dome has a
platy jointing/foliation pattern that elliptically curves around a
massive interior (Fig. 3). The flow bands and trachytic texture, in
addition to relatively quick cooling upon effusion, explain the
concentric foliation pattern expressed at the surface (Hobden,
1990; Fink and Griffiths, 1998). This pattern indicates a viscous
lava dome in which the oldest extruded magma forms the outer
most layers and the newer magma inflates this rind like a balloon,
forming inner concentric layers with the trachytic dike acting as a
feeding system, part of which is exposed down slope (Hibberd,
1994; Fink and Griffiths, 1998).
The exterior of the dome, exposed on the north-western face
has near vertical columnar joints (Fig. 2). These columns are the
result of in-situ cooling (Fink and Griffiths, 1998) and indicate that
a force or substrate impeded the flow of this lava. We suggest that
this restriction was from the pre-existing scoria cone recorded by
underlying pyroclastic horizons, and that the dome erupted in the
eroding crater of the scoria cone. A similar process has been
documented in the Harrat Rahat, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Cronin
et al., 2013). The cone was breached to the northeast, resulting in
limited flow of the dome and the formation of an elongated crater.
2.1. Geological summary
Stages of volcanic activity which occurred at Panama Rock are
as follows:
1. Basaltic lava flows from central vents of the Akaroa Volcanic
Complex, forming outer volcanic flanks that dip 10–15°.
2. Eruptions of the basaltic scoria cone on the flank the Akaroa
Volcanic Complex, which were fed by a dike from the central
magma plumbing system of the Akaroa Volcanic Complex. (The
cone underwent subsequent erosion as the crater breached to
the northeast).
3. Rejuvenation of evolved magma in the Akaroa Volcanic system
resulting in the intrusion and extrusion of the trachytic Panama
dike and dome, respectively.
4. Occurrence of further central Akaroa Volcanic Complex basaltic
lava flows.
5. Cessation of Akaroa volcanism and continued erosion of the
volcanic slope and valley catchment.
6. Erosion resulting in undercutting of the lavas and pyroclastics
upslope of Panama Rock and in the unstable upslope facing
sector of the dome collapsing. (These remnant dome features
are preserved today.)
3. Modeling the geology
3.1. ArcMap methods
ESRI's ArcMap is the industry standard for manipulating and
displaying geospatial data and is used in this study to plot the
Fig. 1. Simplified geologic map of the Banks Peninsula showing the Diamond Harbor, Akaroa Volcanic, Mt. Herbert Volcanic, Lyttelton Volcanic, and Pre Lyttelton Volcanic
Groups as well as the Quaternary units. Panama Rock shown as black dot four kilometers south of Okains Bay (modified from Hampton, 2010).
G.M. Lewis, S.J. Hampton / Computers & Geosciences 81 (2015) 93–100
95
Fig. 2. Panama Rock from the west showing the dike and exfoliated “onion-skin” layers of the lava dome. Near vertical columnar jointing can be seen on the northwest face,
as well as a steeply sloped southern face. (A) Photograph of Panama Rock. (B) Annotated photograph of Panama Rock. LF, underlying lava flow sequence; FD, feeder dike
propagating from west to east to the interior of the dome; PD, pyroclastic deposits; CJD, columnar jointed dome; BD, brecciated dome; PJD, platey jointed dome; DC, dome
core; and ET, eroded trough.
strike and dip values of foliation planes. Our joint plane orientation database was collated from field data and enhanced by
measurements from Hobden (1990). A geological map was also
compiled that traces the contacts of the inner and outer lava dome,
dike, scoria cone deposits, and Akaroa lava flows (both pre and
post dome emplacement) on an orthophoto (Fig. 3).
3.2. SketchUp methods
SketchUp methodology is discussed in terms of the Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) framework and geological sequence.
3.2.1. DEM framework
In a blank SketchUp file, a DEM and orthophoto of the area
surrounding Panama Rock were imported and georeferenced. The
geological map was also imported, providing constraints on features to be rendered. Three dimensional planes were plotted as
defined from joint plane locations from field GPS measurements
using a Garmin eTrex GPS (accuracy of 3–5 m). Joints were approximated to be constant over a short distance and were plotted
as 15 by 15 m planes, which were then rotated to the corresponding strike and dip of each joint (Fig. 4B) (Whitmeyer et al.,
2010; Blenkinsop 2012).
3.3. Geological sequence
3.3.1. Lavas of Akaroa Volcanic Complex
The flank of the Akaroa Volcanic Complex near Panama Rock
dips gently east at a relatively shallow angle (10–15°; Sewell,
1988). To represent this pre-dome lava flow surface, a large
100 km2 plane was drawn dipping at approximately 10° east
(Fig. 5B). This approach was also used for post dome lava flows.
3.3.2. Scoria cone
Field data provided constraints on the size and scale of the
scoria cone (Fig. 3). Using Vespermann and Schmincke (2000)
cone height, slope, and height/width ratios, with the assumption
of flank slopes of 30°, the scoria cone can be reconstructed in
SketchUp measuring 1 km in diameter, 300 m in height, and
containing a central crater 200 m in diameter (Fig. 5D). In
SketchUp a regular sided octagon was used to construct a pyramid
approximating the size of the cone and the base of this was adjusted to fit the projected flank of Akaroa Volcano. An interior
octagon was constructed and placed below the surface of the
Fig. 3. Geological map of the Panama Rock region. Key volcanic features are the inner and exterior dome, as well as the remnant scoria deposits, dike, and other lava flows
surrounding the dome.
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Fig. 4. Structural data sets of Panama Rock and depiction of information. (A) Strike and dip data set for Panama Rock platey joint planes and dike. (B) Three dimensional
rendering of joint planes in SketchUp, hovering placement is due to quality of Google Earth DEM.
octagon to represent the central crater (Fig. 5D). A basaltic dike is
also rendered following a similar orientation of the later larger
trachytic dike (Fig. 5C).
3.3.3. Lava dome
The formation of the lava dome structure was constrained by
plotting joint plane measurements (Fig. 4A). The planes provided
information about the morphology of the lava dome and served to
constrain the time of formation (Figs. 4B, 5E and F). The inner core
of the dome was drawn by incorporating the circular joint plane
pattern, which formed the outline of an ellipsoid measuring
1.82n106 m3 (Fig. 5E). The exterior of the dome provided constraints to draw another ellipsoid (volume 13n106 m3; Fig. 5F),
indicating the full extent of the lava dome before erosion.
3.3.4. Dike
The surface expression of the dike was traced from the DEM
and aerial photograph. Like the dome, rotated planes were produced, and then the feature drawn along strike and extended 75 m
below ground surface to depict the vertical extent of the dike
(Fig. 5E and F).
4. Conveying the information
Our study accurately models the lava dome formation, complicated volcanic structures, and underlying stratigraphy using
multiple layers within SketchUp, creating an interactive model of
the volcanic processes. In selecting which layers the user wants
active, individuals can visualize geological structures that would
otherwise be much more difficult to perceive (Karabinos, 2011).
Using SketchUp, the model can be saved as a KMZ file and easily
imported into Google Earth using the Add Model feature. After the
model has been downloaded and imported into the Google Earth
G.M. Lewis, S.J. Hampton / Computers & Geosciences 81 (2015) 93–100
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Fig. 5. Geological stages of formation of Panama Rock as modeled with SketchUp. (A) Current topography of the eroded Akaroa Volcanic Complex, with Panama Rock as a
resistant high. (B) 3D joint planes of dike and dome, the dip slope of the Akaroa Volcanic Complex is not depicted in this representation. (C) Initial intrusion of basaltic dike.
(D) Scoria cone growth, note elongation of crater to NE and basaltic dike feeding the scoria cone system following a similar pathway as later dike. (E and F) Intrusion and
growth of the dome. Note in (F) the elongate outer dome, which underwent some rheomorphic flow, with the core of the dome as a more spherical body closely connected to
the trachytic dike.
environment, the end user can observe how Panama Rock relates
to the surrounding geology, topography, and erosional features. By
providing a framework in which students can easily view and
share spatial data, this model becomes readily available and easily
accessed by anyone with an Internet connection (Bailey et al.,
2012).
Fig. 5 depicts Panama Rock's geological development in the
different stages of formation. The combination of multidimensional figures demonstrates the main geological processes
regarding Panama Rock much more effectively than would traditional methods. Fig. 4A is a 2D image of Panama Rock showing the
strikes and dips of joint planes. For comparison, Fig. 4B is a 3D
rendering of the joint planes and lava dome to contrast the way in
which information is typically conveyed. With multi-dimensional
models and figures, detailed information further enables the
viewer to perceive how these measurements correlate to the original formation processes, not just to an exposed outcrop. In allowing the user to interact with the model as a set of 3D virtual
objects, he can obtain a greater understanding of the physical
processes at play and the sequence in which events occurred.
These aspects are often more difficult to convey in conventional
static 2D models.
A model in itself still requires a level of information for understanding and conveyance, which in the instance of this geological model is based on geological context, processes, terminology,
and the level at which this information is presented. Table 1
summarizes how several teaching outcomes or guided interpretations of the model can be directed at primary, secondary, and
tertiary levels. Note the level of information required increases
substantially with expertize, and that which is presented for the
tertiary level is limited due to table formatting.
5. Discussion
Various user interfaces have been used in geoscience education
throughout recent history, from overhead projectors and textbook
maps to 3D relief models and interactive wooden block cross
sections. The use of 3D visualization software provides a tool that
users can manipulate to increase their understanding of geological
features. This study displays the inner and exterior lava domes,
dike, scoria cone, joint planes, and flank of the Akaroa Volcanic
Complex in a 3D SketchUp interpretation, allowing students to
select which layers they want to see, rotate, move, and zoom to as
they please. By adjusting the viewing angle and transparency of
each layer individually, this model allows the user to visualize
processes from underneath the earth's surface.
In the creation of a complex geological model, there are many
assumptions made as to which processes and features played
critical formational roles. The verifiably geologically accurate data
described herein allow for a complete and accurate virtual representation throughout many educational levels. In approaching
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Table 1
Varying academic levels (primary, secondary, or tertiary) of geological information and descriptors to accompany the three dimensional model of Panama Rock. Concepts
introduced cover broad geological and volcanic features, as well as specific details of features at Panama Rock.
Feature/Process
Primary School
Secondary School
Tertiary
Akaroa Volcanic
Complex
A large volcano which formed around nine
million years ago.
A large basaltic volcano that erupted between
9.4 and 8.0 million years ago.
A large volcanic complex, made up of multiple
overlapping volcanoes. Eruptive activity began
9.4 million years ago at the center of Akaroa
Harbour, as small basaltic and trachytic eruptions.
Eruptions ceased around 8.0 million years ago.
Panama Rock
A football stadium sized lava dome linked to
the magma chamber of Akaroa Volcano by a
dike.
A 25 m high by 200 m wide lava dome which sits
on top of a feeder dike. Deposits of trachyte rock
and scoria are visible, as well as several features
important in the formational processes at this
location.
An elliptically shaped lava dome between 20 and
30 m tall and between 150 and 280 m diameter.
This dome is made up of fine grained equi-granular porphyritic trachyte fed by a trachytic dike.
The dome overlies scoria deposits and lava flows
of the Akaroa Volcanic Complex
Rock Type
Rocks of Panama Rock are runny basalt (lava
flows) and sticky trachyte (domes and dikes)
Composition of rocks of Akaroa are primarily
Volcanic rocks have different properties based
basaltic, however intermediate to felsic rocks
on chemistry. Trachyte is an intermediate volcanic rock, which is more evolved than basalt, a occur such as trachyte. Trachyte is composed of
alkali feldspar phenocrysts in a groundmass of
mafic volcanic rock.
alkali feldspar with minor plagioclase, biotite,
hornblende, augite etc. Basalts are typically
composed pyroxene, plagioclase and olivine.
Lava Flow
Lava flows are molten rivers of lava erupted
from a vent. Lava flows on Akaroa have rubbly
tops and bottoms, with solid “rock” interiors
that form after the lava cools. Lava flows now
look like stacked layers in valleys.
Lava is the hot material erupted from a volcanic
vent. Lavas on Akaroa Volcano are basaltic, have
a rubbly top and bottom and are known as a’a
flows. Lava flows are best seen in valley sides and
on ridge tops as cliff forming layers.
Lava flows on Akaroa Volcano are primarily basaltic a’a flows. Flows dip shallowly ( 12°) away
from the center of the volcano. Basal breccias
commonly baked the underlying material forming a red horizon. Lava flow sequences form
stacked cliff on ridge tops and along valleys, acting as the surface on which scoria eruptions took
place.
Scoria Cone
Scoria cones are small volcanoes on the side of
a large volcano.
A scoria cone erupted on the side of Akaroa
Volcano, later the dome of Panama Rock
would erupt in the crater.
Scoria cones are small eruptions that are fed by
dikes from the main magma chamber of the
volcano. Scoria cones form through explosive
eruptions, blowing apart fragments of lava.
A scoria cone formed on the slopes of Akaroa,
as a 300 m tall feature. It had a central crater
which was eroded to the northeast.
Scoria cones on the flanks of Akaroa are dike fed.
Forming due to explosive eruptions (Strombolian
to Hawaiian) ejecting hot fragments, scoria,
blocks, and bombs.
Scoria deposits ring Panama Rock, and are basaltic in composition. This scoria cone erupted
prior to dome emplacement, forming a 1 km
diameter, 300 m high cone. The crater was breached to the northeast, into which later dome
eruptions were constrained.
Dike
Dikes form from magma squeezing towards
the surface through cracks.
Dikes are injections of magma away from the
center of the volcano. They commonly form a
radial pattern like the spokes on a wheel.
The dike at Panama Rock brought the magma up from depth to form the dome.
The dike at Panama extends southeast towards
the center of Akaroa. This dike fed the lava
dome and solidified after the dome formed.
A dike is a discordant sheet-like body of magma,
commonly near vertical, which cuts the country
rock as it intrudes. The dike is formed by injection
of magma into a thin fracture which fills and
propagates through cracks.
The dike at Panama Rocks curves slightly as it
approaches the dome, due to pressure differences
underneath the flank of Akaroa. Flow banding
within the trachytic dike indicates magma was
moving toward the dome as it cooled. Cross cutting and geochemistry (trachyte) reveal that the
dike formed later in the volcanic cycle than the
scoria cone.
Dome
Domes form when magma is sticky and cannot erupt freely at the surface, clumping together like water droplets on top of a coin.
The rocky exposure of Panama Rock is trachytic dome.
Lava domes are the accumulation of viscous lava
at or near the surface. Lava is too viscous (sticky)
to flow freely away from the vent.
Panama Rock consists of two trachytic lava
domes, inner and outer. The outer dome has a
platy layers and areas of columnar jointing.
Domes intrude at depth or erupt at the surface,
with the dome characteristics controlled by emplacement conditions.
Panama Rock is defined by an inner and an outer
dome. The inner dome is smaller with random
jointing. The larger outer dome contains platy
joints/foliation relating to inflation of the dome,
columnar joints on the outer margins indicating
slower cooling.
Erosion
Rocks start to break down at the surface when
rain, wind, and frost break off small pieces.
How fast this occurs depends on the rock type
such as hard (dome) or soft (scoria cone).
Erosion rates of different rock vary greatly, with
looser rocks (such as scoria) weathering much
faster than coherent rocks (like trachyte and
basalt) because of composition and structure.
The trachytic dike and dome are more resistant to
erosion than basaltic lavas, and scoria cone.
Weathering has also highlighted variances in internal structure of the dome, separating the core,
G.M. Lewis, S.J. Hampton / Computers & Geosciences 81 (2015) 93–100
99
Table 1 (continued )
Feature/Process
Primary School
Secondary School
Tertiary
inner, and outer.
The underlying scoria cone was much more perceptible to erosion, with the southern and eastern
sides undergoing substantial erosion. Combined
with valley erosion the upper section of Panama
Rock became unstable resulting in collapse of the
upslope section.
the model of Panama Rock, all geological considerations and
constraints were extensively reviewed so that the resulting model
was produced as accurately as possible. This model not only depicts an accurate geological representation, but one that can be
explained throughout various levels of education and scientific
interests without losing or simplifying the complex geological
relationships.
In developing a complete 3D geological model, the visual aspect remains static while the supporting information (i.e. interpretive text, geological information) changes for the specific educational level (Table 1). These detailed observations and interpretations involved in defining processes also need to be correlated with varying levels of detailed model explanations. In light of
this, the background, geological setting, geological processes, and
detail of geological stages must be presented at a level relevant for
the end user, i.e. primary, secondary, or tertiary formal education,
or informational education (Table 1). These explanations result in
the validated portrayal of geological events/processes for all levels,
and not an over simplification of geological models, a common
trait typically observed in geological texts and displays. The interactive aspect of layers and perspective viewing further enables
an understanding of timing and geological contacts, critical spatial
attributes that are typically overlooked.
It is perceived that this model would be utilized in a similar
approach as that of context-aware ubiquitous learning (Tan et al.,
2007; Wu et al. 2013). In following this approach the SketchUp
model would be presented via mobile or wireless devices either in
the outdoor environment or after a field trip visit. The interactive
SketchUp model acts as a learning tool in which users can interact
with the model supplemented by guided text (Table 1). Supporting
interpretive text presented in Table 1 is at three varying educational levels, accounting for knowledge of users. Contextual information is presented as it provides a level of context relevant for
the user to interact and understand the presented model (Dey
2001). Detailed interpretations (Table 1) supplement the interactive model and guides users via experts' knowledge to achieve
learning targets. It is acknowledged that Table 1 is a limited expression of supporting information for education providers.
Although lacking many features necessary for numerical
modeling, 3D animations, and geophysical analysis, SketchUp is
excellent for educators wishing to visualize and model geological
processes. Limitations exist within the constraints of Google
Earth's DEM due to the 30 m resolution throughout Banks Peninsula. This lack of resolution is evident when representing relatively precise field measurements (73 m for locations and 75°
for recorded measurements), and the resulting rendition of strike
and dip of joint planes either floating above the ground surface or
deep below, when in reality they were on the side of a
steeper section of Panama Rock. If a higher resolution DEM were
available, it would better constrain the extent of geological features, making the model even more accurate.
Even without these additional features, this study presents a 3D
geologically accurate representation of volcanic process that
formed Panama Rock to be used as a geo-education tool. Looking
forward, it is likely that models similar to this one will be widely
exploited in graduate and undergraduate, secondary, primary, and
informal education. Using a relatively simple, yet underutilized
process, this model hopes to serve as an example for other type of
3D geological models in the future.
6. Conclusions
An understanding of the processes involved in formation and
degradation of geological features is integral to developing a 3D
geological model. This understanding requires detailed inputs
from field observations, measurements, and supportive analysis to
define or create a model that is scientifically viable and a true
geological model. A 3D model in itself is not a useful geo-education tool, unless supported by relevant and appropriate supporting
resources.
To create a successful 3D geological model for the purposes of
geo-education, it not only needs to depict a factual geological
model, but must be accompanied by detailed information and
resources that explain the concepts at various levels of education
and scientific interests, without losing or simplifying the complex
geological relationships.
This study proposes that in the development of an educational
3D geological model, the visual aspect should be geologically accurate and remain constant for all educational levels, while the
supporting information (i.e. interpretive text and geological information) changes for the specific audience.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Frontiers Abroad for this research opportunity, the Josef Langer Trust for access to Panama
Rock, and Lorelei Curtin for assistance in the field and formulation
of geological processes.
Appendix. Supplementary material
Supplemantray data associated with this article can be found
in the online version at 10.1016/j.cageo.2015.05.003.
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