Participatory Action in Conflict
and Post-Conflict Rwanda
ELIZABETH HENDRIX
MELISSA WHEELER
ERI SAKAGUCHI
SUNDAR KHANAL
RJ KOSCIELNIAK
BACKGROUND
Colonialism in Rwanda
1918- Under Treaty of
Versailles former German
Rwanda now governed by
Belgium. Tutsi (14%) Hutus
(85%)
1957-PARMEHUTU (Party for the Emancipation of the
Hutus) is
formed
1926- Belgium made Rwandan citizens
carry ethnic identity cards
differentiating Hutus from Tutsis
* Timeline information provided by Amnesty International
1960- Hutus win municipal election organized by Belgian
colonial rulers.
1959- Hutus rebel against the Belgian colonial power
and the Tutsi elite flee to Burundi.
Rwandan Independence and Genocide
1963- Massacre of
Tutsis, an
estimated half of
Rwandan Tutsi
population flee to
live outside
Rwanda.
1961-1962- Belgium
withdraws. Rwanda
and Burundi are
two separate
countries. New
President (Hutu)
Gregoire Kayibanda
is elected.
1975Habyarimana’s
political party is
formed. Hutus
continue to be
given continued
preference. Tutsi
exclusion continues
through the 1970s
and 1980s.
1973- Outbreaks
of Tutsi
massacre still
occurring.
Pledge to
restore order
and make
Rwanda a oneparty state fails.
1989- Coffee prices
collapse causing
severe economic
hardship in Rwanda
1986- Rwandan exiles
in Uganda overthrow
dictator Milton Obote
and form the Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF) a
Tutsi dominated
organization.
* Information provided by Amnesty International
1990-1991 Rwandans
known as
Interhamwe (“those
who stand together”)
form. Multi-party
system stalls for
three years.
Throughout this time
thousands are killed.
1990- July- Habyarimana
concedes the principle of
multi-party democracy.
Oct- RPF invade Rwanda
from Uganda. A cease-fire
is not signed until March
29, 1991.
Feb 1993- RPF launches
a fresh offensive.
Fighting continues for
several months. August
1993- Habyarimana and
the RPF sign a peace
accord to allow for
refugees to return.
2,500 U.N. Troops come
into Rwanda to oversee
implementation.
1991- November Hutu
activist Dr. Leon Mugesera
appeals to Hutus to send
Tutsis back to Ethiopia via
the rivers.
1994- Impending calamity is
certain. Rwandan President
Habyarimana still refuses
power sharing government.
Many families flee to border
countries trying to escape.
President Habyarimana’s plane
is shot down. Tutsis are
suspected, that night the
genocide killings begin.
THE BREAKDOWN AND REBUILDING
OF INSTITUTIONS
Role of Institutions in Rwandan Conflict
 Dysfunctional institutions
 Unstable political system
 Misuse of formal media
 Non-existent institutions
 Community supports
 Very weak judicial system
Institutions and the Genocide
 In-group policing (Informal institution)
 Usually contributes to inter-ethnic cooperation
 Can backfire and create inter-ethnic divisions
 Social contract (Formal institution)
 Agreement between citizens and governments
 Expectations of protection by government
Participation and Rebuilding Institutions
 Participation was used:
 To assess community institutions (formal and informal) and
their ability to absorb independent children
 Participation could be used:
 To begin community dialogue and rebuild community
supports
 To identify resources still needed for health and mental health
PEACE AND RECONCILIATION
IN RWANDA
Imperfect Peace and Reconciliation
“In the wake of violence on a
societal scale, finding the right
balance between justice and
healing, retribution and
forgiveness, tribunals and truth
commissions, remembering and
„moving on‟ is a messy if not
impossible goal.”
(Zorbas, 2004 p.29)
 Peace and
reconciliation
processes are
messy at best
 Reconciliation is a
term used with
understandable
uncertainty and fear
Current Peace and Reconciliation
Strategies in Rwanda
 Gacacas
 Government of National Unities
 Poverty reduction
 National Unity and Reconciliation Commission
 Cultural reconciliation and collective memory
Participatory Methods for Peace and
Reconciliation
“Participatory research facilitates an environment
in which those who are engaging in the reconciliation
process lead the research agenda and thus their
increased sense of agency allows a stronger degree
of ownership.”
(Bowd, 2010 p.131)
Participatory Methods for Peace and
Reconciliation, cont’d
 Research in five sites around Rwanda on
reintegration of former combatants post-genocide
 PRA Methods Used
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


Landscape mapping
Institutional diagramming and analysis
Social networking mapping
Social capital indicators
 Successes of PRA Methods
 Increased feelings of solidarity
 Improved communication
 Intercommunity relations
 Conflict resolution mechanisms
REPATRIATION OF REFUGEES
Following the genocide,
an estimated:
63,000 refugees,
primarily Tutsis, fled
into northern Burundi
500,000 refugees fled
to Tanzania
170,000 Rwandan
Hutus fled to Burundi in
July 1994
2,000,000 Rwandan
Hutus fled across the
border to the
Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC)
Refugees flee from Rwanda after the genocide
Routes of Refugee Movement
(Former Republic of
Zaire)
Repatriation of Refugees
 Repatriation decision-making criteria:
 Return to their places of origin, ideally to their former homes,
villages and land
 Social Support, employment, health service
 Favorable structural conditions in home countries
The National Unity and Reconciliation
Commission’s Reintegration Strategies
 Community-building through dialogue
 Traditional practices to facilitate the dialogue among
residents in the community
Return of community mediators
 Diversity of approaches

 The Ingando (Solidarity Camp)
Traditional and reconciliatory
tool to provide a space for a
‘Civic re-education’
 Bring together different groups

Group
Discussion
As a refugee, what conditions are
necessary for you to be willing to
return to Rwanda?
REINTEGRATION OF CHILD
SOLDIERS
Child Soldiers
 Children Associated with Armed Forces and Armed
Groups (CAAFAG)
 Children under 18 years of age
 Not limited to combatant children
Child Soldiers, cont’d
 Voluntary or forced association
 Causes of association include:
 Poverty
 Domestic violence
 Political indoctrination
 Brainwashing
 Displacement
 Abduction
 Directly affected from conflict
 Living in a combat zone
Phases of Reintegration
 Disarmament
 Demobilization
 Reintegration
•Former CAAFAG are
required to return
their home
community
•Reintegration
programs aim to
prevent
re-association or rerecruitment
•Effective
reintegration requires
long-term as well as
short-term
interventions
Reintegration of Former Child Soldiers
Reintegration of Former Child Soldiers
 The ideal process of reintegration involves:
 Preparation of communities and families to accept and
welcome returning children
 Community sensitization and mobilization
 Assessment and mobilization of community support systems
 Family tracing and reunification
 Family mediation/conciliation
 Trauma counseling or psycho-social counseling
 Insure access to reintegration packages (formal education,
informal education, vocational/skills training, income
generation, independent living skills, etc.)
Reintegration of Former Rwandan
Child Soldiers
 Rwandan Demobilization and Reintegration
Commission (RDRC) formed with the following
purposes:



To help foster reconciliation among Rwandans after the 1994
genocide
Social and economic reintegration of former combatants
To contribute to poverty reduction and the strengthening of
peace
Reintegration of Former Rwandan
Child Soldiers, cont’d
 Implementation of the DDR process in Rwanda:
 Thousands of Rwandan former CAAFAG demobilized and
reintegrated
 Child soldiers separated from adult combatants in camp
during demobilization
 Reintegration package offered: family tracing and
reunification, formal education, vocational education, trauma
counseling and psycho-social counseling
 Most of the children returned to school--regular schools and
technical
 DDR process scheduled to continue until 2011
Participation and Reintegration of
Child Soldiers
 Participation of its stakeholders from planning to
evaluation phase of the reintegration program is
crucial
 Without participation of community people and
community based organizations and other social
support system; objectives and anticipated results of
reintegration could not be achieved
Participation and Reintegration of
Child Soldiers
 PRA methods can be used especially for assessing the
community and its existing social support
mechanisms, and welcoming CAAFAG back into the
community
 Community sensitization and involvement of
parents, neighbors, community groups, educational
institutions, teachers, and religious leaders in
reintegration process is necessary
Group
Discussion
As a child soldier, what conditions
are necessary for you to be willing
to reintegrate?
TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE
IN RWANDA
INKIKO-GACACA AND
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
Inkiko-Gacaca
in Session
Gacaca Video 1
Gacaca in Rwanda
 Gacaca translates to ‘in the grass’
 A traditional form of dispute resolution
 Resolved property/money issues
 Community members in judgment roles
 Penalties could mean payments or providing
community with wine or food
Inkiko-Gacaca
 Translates to ‘justice in the grass’
 Formed in 2002 by national government with goal
of 10,000 community tribunals
 Communities elected 19 Gacaca leaders
(Inyangamugayos)
 Nine judges per court (low legal knowledge)
Structure of Inkiko-Gacaca
 Three levels: Cell, Sector, Appeals
 Universal participation for all over 18
 Court committee comprised of president, two vice
presidents, and a secretary - all elected by judges
Gacaca in action
Tribunal Process
 Information gathered by community leader, and




presented to assembly for changes
Categorization of accused
Trial of accused, testimony from anyone is allowed
Trials take place in communities where crimes
were committed
Deliberations between judges are in private
Categories for Prosecution
 Category 1: Responsible for genocide
 Sent to sector level, then to ordinary criminal tribunal
 Category 2: Killers, accomplices, violent offenders, and
bystanders

Tried at cell level, appeal is possible
 Category 3: Property crimes
 Tried at cell level, no form of appeal if convicted
Rules and Sentencing
 Confessions are accepted
 No one under 14 at time of crimes is tried, 14 to 18
receive half sentences
 Category 3 conviction results in paying civil
damages, 2 and 1 can result in stripping of civil
rights, imprisonment, community services
 Capital punishment abolished in 2007
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Inkiko-Gacaca
Advantages
Disadvantages
 Reconciliation between
 Defendants'’ rights not

recognized
 Certain exclusions
from prosecution
 Not truly organic



victims and
perpetrators
Community
participation in justice
Reification of
community space
Embraces dialogue on
genocide
Lack of impunity
Group
Discussion
As a community member, under
what conditions would you be
willing to participate in a gacaca?
Discussion Questions
 What about the participation in Rwanda is
authentic? What aspects are not?
 Does reconciliation in this instance really mean
victor’s justice?
 Is there a real alternative in the transition from
genocide to peace?