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Selection, introduction and editorial content © Tomasz Kamusella, Motoki Nomachi and
Catherine Gibson 2016
Individual chapters © Respective authors 2016
Foreword © Peter Burke 2016
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First published 2016 by
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The Palgrave handbook of Slavic languages, identities and borders / edited by Tomasz
Kamusella, Motoki Nomachi, Catherine Gibson.
pages cm
Summary: “Languages are artefacts of culture, meaning they are created by people. They
are often used for identity building and maintenance, but in Central and Eastern Europe
they became the basis of nation building and national statehood maintenance. The
recent split of the Serbo-Croatian language in the wake of the break-up of Yugoslavia
amply illustrates the highly politicized role of languages in this region, which is also
home to most of the world’s Slavic-speakers. This volume presents and analyzes the
creation of languages across the Slavophone areas of the world and their deployment for
political projects and identity building, mainly after 1989. The overview concludes with a
reflection on the recent rise of Slavophone speech communities in Western Europe and
Israel. The book brings together renowned international scholars who offer a variety of
perspectives from a number of disciplines and sub-fields such as sociolinguistics, sociopolitical history and language policy, making this book of great interest to historians,
sociologists, political scientists and anthropologists interested in Central and Eastern
Europe and Slavic Studies”—Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978–1–137–34838–8 (hardback)
1. Slavic languages—History. 2. Languages in contact—Slavic languages.
I. Kamusella, Tomasz, editor. II. Nomachi, Motoki, editor.
III. Gibson, Catherine, editor.
PG45.P35 2015
491.8'09—dc23
2015003227
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India.
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Contents
List of Figures, Tables, and Maps
x
Foreword
xii
Acknowledgements
xiv
Notes on Contributors
xv
Introduction
Tomasz Kamusella, Motoki Nomachi, and Catherine Gibson
1 Cross-border Turkic and Iranian Language Retention in the West
and East Slavic Lands and Beyond: A Tentative Classification
Paul Wexler
2 Identity and Language of the Roma (Gypsies) in Central
and Eastern Europe
Elena Marushiakova and Vesselin Popov
1
8
26
Part I North Slavs and Their Languages
3 The Polish Livonian Legacy in Latgalia: The Confluence of Slavic
Ethnolects in the Baltic-Slavic Borderland
Catherine Gibson
57
4 Iazychie and Surzhyk: Mixing Languages and Identities in
the Ukrainian Borderlands
Andrii Danylenko
81
5 A Borderland of Borders: The Search for a Literary Language
in Carpathian Rus’
Paul Robert Magocsi
6 Rusyn: A New–Old Language In-between Nations and States
Michael Moser
7 The Czech-Slovak Communicative and Dialect Continuum:
With and Without a Border
Mira Nábělková
vii
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101
124
140
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viii
Contents
8 The Changing Lattice of Languages, Borders, and Identities
in Silesia
Tomasz Kamusella
185
9 ‘Our People is Divided, Yes, and Torn Asunder …’: The Sorbian
Language Community and Its Internal Divisions
Roland Marti
206
10 Fickle Nationalism: Slovakia’s Shifting Ethno-Linguistic Borders
Alexander Maxwell
230
11 From ‘Hungarus’ Patriotism to Linguistic Nationalism
István Fried
245
Part II South Slavs and Their Languages
12 Phonology and the Construction of Borders in the Balkans
Brian D. Joseph
263
13 Slovene Language after the Schengen Agreement: Will the Linguistic
Borders Also Disappear?
Andrej Bekeš
276
14 Borderlands and Transborder Regions of the Croatian
Language: How Far Back in History Is Enough?
Anita Peti-Stantić and Keith Langston
309
15 The Language Situation for the Bosniaks on Both Sides of
the Serbian/Montenegrin Border
Robert D. Greenberg
330
16 Burgenland Croatian: An Old Language on a Do-it-Yourself
Border with a New Name
E. Wayles Browne
347
17 Identity Problems of the Gorani in Eastern Albania and Kosovo
Klaus Steinke
360
18 Borders in Bulgaria in the Light of Areal Ethnolinguistics
Irina Sedakova
376
19 The Rise, Fall, and Revival of the Banat Bulgarian
Literary Language: Sociolinguistic History from the
Perspective of Trans-Border Interactions
Motoki Nomachi
20 Conflicting Nationalist Discourses in the Balkan
Slavic Language Area
Jouko Lindstedt
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394
429
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Contents
ix
Part III A Glimpse into the Future
21 Speakers of Russian in Ireland: Where Borderless and
Bordered Languages Meet
Sarah Smyth
22 Central Europe in the Middle East: The Russian Language in Israel
Anna Novikov
451
477
23 Negotiating Goods and Language on Cross-Border Retail Markets
in the Postsocialist Space
Dieter Stern
495
24 Migration or Immigration? Ireland’s New and Unexpected
Polish-Language Community
Tomasz Kamusella
524
Index
549
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Introduction
Tomasz Kamusella, Motoki Nomachi, and Catherine Gibson
Languages, peoples, states
The Handbook is a fruit of labour by many hands. The authors, in one way
or another, agree with the editors that a quarter of a century after the fall
of communism and the breakups of the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and
Yugoslavia, it is high time to re-evaluate the imprint these processes have left
on the linguistic landscape and on the interface between the linguistic and
the political. The relevance of such an interdisciplinary reflection cannot be
emphasized more than by bringing to the reader’s attention that the break-up
of Yugoslavia was followed by the parallel split of the Serbo-Croatian language.
In this manner, each post-Yugoslav state (with the sole exception of Kosovo)
was fitted with its own specific national language, ideally, not shared with any
other state or nation.
These processes, though most distinctive in the Balkans, also unfolded
across Central and Eastern Europe. The disappearance of impermeable frontiers between the two ideological blocs characteristic of the Cold War decades
brought populations speaking different languages into direct and intensifying
contact. This was especially exemplified by the subsequent eastward enlargements of the European Union (EU) in 1995, 2004, 2007, and 2013. But, as in the
case of the post-Yugoslav states, while some borders faded away or disappeared
altogether, others were erected where there had been none previously. The most
obvious case is the EU’s eastern frontier that bisects the former republics of the
Soviet Union. In these cases, communication between populations is hindered.
In order to sift through and limit the catch of abundant subject matter, the
decision was taken to focus on the Slavic languages and their users. This is the
main topic of the Handbook’s contributions. However, the authors remain
acutely aware of multidirectional contacts that Slavic-speakers have with the
users of other languages; indeed many Slavophones are highly polyglot, or,
more correctly, diglossic. Symbolic of the scope of the changes experienced by
1
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Tomasz Kamusella, Motoki Nomachi, and Catherine Gibson
populations in Central and Eastern Europe during the span of one generation
is the sudden and quite unexpected emergence of large Slavic-speaking communities in Britain, Ireland, and Israel.
Between 1918 and 1989, in this short twentieth century, politicians were
busy implementing the nineteenth-century ideological programme of ethnolinguistic nationalism. The premise of this ideology was that ethnolinguistically defined nations should be housed in their own separate national polities.
To this end, the old borders and states were redrawn and destroyed, millions
were killed, and tens of millions were forced to leave their homes. The imagining and fitting of the artefacts of languages, states, and nations so that they
would perfectly overlap with one another was unprecedentedly bloody and
tragic. School education and policies of statehood legitimation and maintenance have typically overlooked the resultant ‘Bloodlands’ (Snyder 2010) and
continued to inculcate the population at large with the message of ethnolinguistic nationalism to such an extent that its ideals now appear to be ‘natural’
and ‘normal’ to most people in Central and Eastern Europe.
However, since 1989, in this age of new openness, in spite of some new borders thrown in, the holy grail of ethnolinguistic ‘purity’ in a single nation-state
has rapidly dissipated in front of our eyes. Where the aforementioned recent
frontiers began to isolate populations, their effect to this end has been reduced –
and often even nullified – by another unexpected development, that is, the rise
of the internet. Cyberspace offers ample opportunities for interacting and the
production of text, speech, and language outside direct state control, according to the wishes of members of speech communities themselves. The internet
thus provides a more democratic, or at least pluralistic, forum for the use and
development of languages as exemplified by the numerous Wikipedia articles
written in languages not in official use outside of cyberspace.
The Handbook takes stock of the developments as seen through the prism
of Slavic languages, speech communities, nation-states, and scholars’ research
itself on the issues. The contributors believe that without transcending the
traditional boundaries separating disciplines, especially those of linguistics,
political science, history, and sociology, it is impossible to understand the new
phenomena. Hence, an interdisciplinary approach is de rigueur in most of the
texts offered in the Handbook.
State languages between nation-states and the EU
The state in Central and Eastern Europe has played an important role
in making and breaking languages in fulfillment of the ideology of ethnolinguistic nationalism (it can be summarized in the following ‘equation’:
language=nation=state), as shown by the splitting of Czechoslovak into
Czech and Slovak, and Serbo-Croatian into Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and
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Montenegrin, following changes to state borders. These variously reimagined,
ethnolinguistically defined national communities have been institutionalized
through mechanisms such as state-controlled compulsory education and codified standard languages, as well as the ‘census, map, and museum’ (Anderson
1983), and military conscription for all males. Speech communities that traverse two or more state borders have been subjected to various national attempts
to ‘claim’ them in their entirety for this or that nation, as has been the case
regarding the Bosniaks, Goranians, Silesians, Rusyns, or the inhabitants of the
Bulgarian-Macedonian borderland.
The fact remains, however, that the ethnolinguistic reality continues to
contradict the neat division of peoples into ethnolinguistically homogenous
nation-states. As the discussions of Banat Bulgarian, Burgenland Croatian,
Polish and Belarusian in Latgalia, and Slovene in Austria, Hungary, and Italy
highlight, the historical legacy of previous borders continues to shape the linguistic landscape of Central and Eastern Europe, and these speech communities
have survived successive waves of nation-building, population transfers, and
border redrawing. Mental borders too have not always kept apace with this
neat division of territory and peoples. Whereas political borders are formalized
frontiers that can be marked as lines on a map, linguistic borders are porous
and cannot be instantly changed (such as the relatively recent formal division
between Czech and Slovak) unless the full totalitarian brunt of ethnic cleansing
and genocide is applied, which was the sad norm especially in the first half of
the twentieth century.
The dissolution of formal borders brought about by EU enlargement can be
viewed, from the linguistic point of view, as a partial return to the multilingual
Central Europe of the nineteenth-century Russian, Habsburg, German, and
Ottoman empires, except that now even the smallest official Slavic languages
such as Slovene are spoken in Brussels. In this aspect, the situation is similar to the use of all the republican and provincial official languages of Tito’s
Yugoslavia in the state’s parliament at Belgrade after 1974. Historical perspectives provide an important challenge to the dominant nationalist view that
the division of Central and Eastern Europe into nation-states is primordial,
as discussed in relation to the cases of the present-day territories of Slovakia,
Hungary, Silesia, and Latgalia. The Kingdom of Hungary, with its pre-national
Hungarus identity (comprising its Finno-Ugric-, Germanic-, Slavic-, East
Romance- and Romani-speakers) and official use of the non-ethnic language of
Latin, is a pertinent reminder of this.
Minority, sub-state, and transnational languages
Nowadays, globalization and migration have weakened the ties between
language and territory, and state languages are increasingly being physically
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Tomasz Kamusella, Motoki Nomachi, and Catherine Gibson
spoken (in addition to virtually in cyberspace) in new contexts outside of their
traditional areas, such as Polish and Russian as substantial minority languages
in Ireland and Israel, respectively. Moreover, as a result of language contact and
varying degrees of multilingualism between official Slavic state languages
and non-Slavic minority or cross-border languages, signs of language mixing,
language shift, creoles, and pidgins are discussed by contributors with regard
to Albanian, Chinese, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Iranian, Latvian/
Latgalian, Romani, Romanian, Tatar, and Turkic.
The taxonomy of Slavic languages is not set in stone and the debates about
what constitutes a language, sub-language, and dialect ranges far and wide.
The theme of the internal variation within standard languages as constructed
out of a dialect continuum resonates throughout the Handbook, ranging from
the dialectal borders and convergence in the Balkans and territories of former
Czechoslovakia, to the parallel Ukrainian linguistic hybrids of the nineteenth
century.
A substantial portion of the Handbook is also given over to speech communities, such as the Goranians, Rusyns, Silesians, Sorbs, and Banat Bulgarians, who
have been variously described as speaking (and sometimes writing) dialects of
state languages, while on the other hand at times their dialects are seen to constitute languages in their own right. Factors such as religion, script, geographical barriers (for instance, mountain ranges), and distance from the part of the
dialect continuum from which the standard language is codified, are shown to
play important roles in determining their divergence and convergence from
the standard under whose ‘roof’ they are gathered by political fiat.
Since the 1980s, the new field of research devoted to, especially Slavic,
(literary) microlanguages has come into its own (cf. Dulichenko 1981). They
are variously defined as ‘regional’, ‘minority’, ‘immigrant’, or ‘non-state’ languages or dialects. A similar degree of attention, however, has not yet been paid
to non-national and non-official languages that are used in areas larger than
states, such as Yiddish and Romani in the case of Central Europe. The former
was extinguished during World War II as a result of the Holocaust, after which
most survivors left the region for Israel or the West. Although a similar fate was
prepared by Nazi Germany for the Roma and their language of Romani, Roma
communities survived and Romani in its many varieties can be heard across
Europe.
Yiddish and its Hebrew script-based literacy has been connected to Europe’s
languages in many ways since the early Middle Ages, and especially to the
Slavic languages, given that most of Europe’s Jews lived in the territories of
Poland-Lithuania and historic Hungary between the fourteenth and midtwentieth centuries. Roma inhabit mostly the same area, though they are
demographically concentrated in the Balkans. Their language, Romani, was not
committed to paper in any regular manner until the late twentieth century and
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5
its interactions with Europe’s Slavic and other languages have been mostly oral,
spawning pidgins and creole-like forms.
Language-making and destruction
Of the making, changing, and destroying of languages, there is no end as long
as there are human groups. Groupings of humans, because we are endowed
with the capacity for language, are always anchored in speech communities.
In the scheme of human history, it is only relatively recently that people have
begun to consciously reflect on the linguistic, which has led in some cases to
attempts at controlling and altering it. This novel approach became possible
with the invention of writing, which in Europe also spawned the idea of languages as discrete entities. The linguistic is continuous in its nature, as is well
noted in the telltale name of the heuristic device of ‘dialect continuum’. People
move from one place to another, changing groups and countries, and their
languages follow them. Despite this, the spread of Andersonian ‘print capitalism’, combined with the ideal of full literacy, which was achieved in Europe by
the mid-twentieth century, has underscored the tendency to construct discrete
languages. Their boundaries are set by the choice of script, spelling, and grammar norms, the official way of pronunciation, dictionaries with the state seal of
approval, and the rapidly growing corpus of writings and publications in this
‘standard’ language.
In Europe, but especially in the central part of the continent, the state’s
official language, in its character, is a reflection of the polity itself, almost its
embodiment or ‘spirit’ as national writings tend to refer to it. In agreement
with the model of the nation-state, all the population legally residing in its territory must be of the same kind, be it the case of enjoying the same citizenship
and political privileges and/or sharing further features, for instance a language.
Clearly demarcated and tightly controlled boundaries separate the state’s territory in its highly ideologized union with the ‘correct’ population from the
‘outside world’ composed of other national polities (seemingly, or said to be)
organized in the very same manner.
Likewise, the official language must be of the same kind (homogenous,
standard), irrespective of who is speaking it and of where it is employed. Its
internal homogeneity formalized through grammars, dictionaries, and other
aforementioned technological choices, is imparted to (or rather, imposed on)
a target population through mass education and ubiquitous mass media. In
turn, this strenuously manufactured homogeneity liquidates dialects and the
very continuity within non-state related dialect continua, and is translated
into hardening boundaries of increasing difference between official languages.
Ideally, this difference should become as pronounced as to prevent mutual
comprehension, providing for the tight spatial overlap of the boundary of a
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speech community, often construed as a nation, with the political frontiers of
‘its’ nation-state.
This has been the typical organization of the political and the linguistic in
Slavophones’ polities at the turn of the twenty-first century, notwithstanding
the existence of multilingual states such as Russia and Belarus. Many borders
(open, courtesy of European integration) and the internet undermine the
homogeneity of nation-states and of languages. But while multiculturalism
and multilingualism are now accepted as desirable or impossible to prevent,
the homogeneity of languages, construed as their ‘correctness’ or ‘purity’, is
still jealously guarded. Prescriptivism dominates in continental Europe, leaving precious little space for non-state languages that continue to be consigned
to the margins as ‘dialects’ or ‘minority languages’, or are still disparaged as
‘incorrect speech’. This sad fate is suffered especially by Romani-speakers in
Central Europe, where official languages double as metonyms for their nations
and as the main instrument of statehood legitimation.
We believe that democratic values and freedoms require depoliticization of
religion, ethnicity, and language. Language should not be treated as a destiny.
Revealingly, no English politician or thinker seriously claims that Americans,
Australians, or Scots must be English, because they speak the English language. Nevertheless, most politicians, alongside the public at large in Central
Europe, disagree and persist in the belief that if one speaks Polish one must
be Polish. By extension, if Poland is to survive as a legitimate nation-state all
the population must speak or must be compelled to speak this language. As a
result, some speech communities residing in Poland who see their languages as
separate from Polish are discriminated, their languages redefined from above as
‘dialects’ that ‘naturally belong’ to the Polish language. Until 2005 it was the
fate of the Kashubians and their language of Kashubian, while the disability is
still suffered by the Silesians, whose language of Silesian remains unrecognized
in Poland.
The logic of ethnolinguistic nationalism is still alive in Central Europe,
though its ideological edge seems to be gradually blunted by European
integration, as shown by Poland’s recognition of Kashubian as a language.
However, quite worryingly, after Russia’s annexation of Crimea, in April
2014 the Russian Duma passed a law that equates all Russian native-speakers
with the Russian nation and opens an easy path for them to Russian citizenship. And now, at the time of writing in late November 2014, the Israeli
Knesset is deliberating the bill on the Jewish nation-state that proposes to
ban Arabic in the polity and equates Israel’s nation exclusively with Hebrewspeakers who profess Judaism.
The recent events fully justify the need for a better comprehension of how
languages are made and used for defining and dividing human groups and
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7
their states. This volume aspires to shed more light on the important processes
and their mechanisms.
Editors, November 2014
References
Anderson, Benedict. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of
Nationalism. London: Verso.
Dulichenko, Aleksandr D. 1981. Slavianskie literaturnye mikroiazyki [Slavic Literary
Microlanguages {in Russian} {in Russian Cyrillic}]. Tallin: Valgus.
Snyder, Timothy. 2010. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. London: Bodley Head,
an imprint of Random House.
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Index
Abyssinia mahalla, 36
Adoptivstamm (adopted tribe), 195
Ak méne još ima (If I Still Exist), 417
Alans, 8, 14, 20
Albania
Albanian Helsinki Committee (AHC),
360–1, 362
Albanian Human Rights Group (AHRG),
361–2
Albanian language, 4, 27, 265, 266, 268,
269, 270, 271–2, 332, 339, 344,
365, 367–9, 372, 439
Albanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 37–8, 49
Goranians, identity problems of,
360–73
situation of ethnic minorities in, after
fall of communism, 360–3
Slavic minorities in, 371
Aliyah, 478, 479, 483, 486, 487, 491n4,
492n10
Aliyot, 478
Alphabet War, 126
Andalusian, 9
Angloromani, 14
Antiqua (Latin) script, 57, 191, 199n10, 215
Antolopologiata na balgarskata poezija ud
Banata (The Anthology of Bulgarian
Poetry of Banat), 412
Arabic, 6, 9, 10–12, 17, 21, 318, 482,
492n13
Ardelan, 42
areal ethnolinguistic studies
of Bulgarian language territories, 378–9
at Moscow academic school, 376–8
Arli, 29
Aškali, 38, 39, 49
Asparukhovi Balgari, 35
Aurari, 40
Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen
Sprache (Comprehensive Grammar
of the Czech Language), 158
Aussiedlers (‘re-settlers’), 527
Austria
Austrian State Treaty, 284–5, 304n8, 353
functioning local media in minority
language, 298
language of instruction in minority
schools, 296
language policies towards ethnic
minorities, 293–4
Slovenes minority in, 283–4, 287–8
Austria-Hungary, 42, 43, 109, 112, 126,
128, 187, 188, 191–3, 256, 278,
279, 283, 286, 300, 349, 401, 524
ethnic distribution in, 279, 280
ethnic groups of, 349–50, 351
Austrian-Hugarian Compromise
(Ausgleich) of 1867, 145, 253, 349
Auto-Emancipation, 479
Babylonian Talmud, 15
Bachyns’kyi, Andrii, 85–6, 89, 126
Bacsinszky, András, 85
Bajaši, 41, 42
Bakšev, Petar Bogdan, 399, 420n11,
421n16
Bálgarsći-madžársći krastijansći-katoličansći
kalendar (The Bulgarian-Hungarian
Christian-Catholic Calendar), 405
Bâlgàrskutu právupísanji (The Bulgarian
Orthography), 403
Balkan Albanian, 266
Balkan Egyptians, 37–9, 49, 362–3,
438
Balkan Hellenic, 35, 266
Balkan Indic, 267
Balkan Insight Reporting Network, 343n2
Balkan Romance, 267, 270, 429
Balkan Romani, 13
Balkans languages, 264–8
genealogical classification and
affiliations of, 265, 266
ideology, role of, 270–2
local phonological convergence in,
268–70
549
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Index
Balkan Slavic language area, conflicting
nationalist discourses in, 429–43
domestic nationalism, 429–31
cross-border nationalism, 8–23,429–31
Exarchate, legacy of, 431–4
linguistic conflict, 401,435–6
linguistic minorities, 74, 206, 219, 283,
289–90, 296, 301, 362,436–9
nationalist discourses, analyzing and
dismantling, 439–42
Balkan Sprachbund, 265, 268, 273n6
Baltic ethnolects, linguistic Russification
impact on, 63–6
Banat Bulgarian, 394–423
changing identity due to fall of
Habsburg Empire, 404–5
as dialect, 396–8
historical background of, 398–9
identity
change, 406–7
effect of, 418–19
literary language as device for, 407–8
immigration to South Western Banat,
400–1
as language, 396–8
literary language
fall of, 408–10
need of, 401
revitalization, 416–18
Stár Bišnov, settlers of, 399–400
sociolinguistic changes around
in Romania, 410–12
in Yugoslavia, 412–13
trans-border collaboration, beginning
of, 416
Vinga, settlers of, 398–9
Banatsći balgarsći glásnić (Banat Bulgarian
Herald), 404, 407
Banatsći balgarsći kalendár (Banat
Bulgarian Calendar), 407
Banátsćija balgarsći dialekt i pismenus
(The Banat Bulgarian Dialect and
Literacy), 415
Banjaši, 41, 49
Bathory, Stephan, 60
Batskaushchina (Homeland), 69
Battle of Mohács, 147, 349
Beaš, 42
Beaši, 40, 43–4, 49
Becoming Bulgarian, 439
Béla Kun’s Hungarian Soviet Republic,
136n7
Belarus, 67, 467, 526, 544n1
Polish minority, 531, 533
Belarusian
border with Latvia, 72
border with Lithuania, 73, 526, 531
border with Poland, 73, 526
Jews, 9
minority in Latvia, 72
national movement, 67
Tatars, 10–13
Belarusian Cultural and Educational
Society (Uzdim), 71
Belarusian language, 57–80, 126, 524,
531, 544n1
belorusskiı̆ iazyk, 65
ethnoreligious identification, 531n2, 544
prosta mova, 61, 72, 84, 97n4
publications, 69
Ruthenian, 10, 58, 60–2, 65, 75n5, 84,
91, 95, 97n4, 126
schools in Latvia, 67, 69
in Latvia, 57–80
tarashkevitsa orthography, 72, 76n24
trasianka, 73, 93
Belarusian People’s Republic, 67, 76n29
Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic
(BSSR), 70, 76n20
Belarusian Tatars, 10–13, 21
Belarusians/Belorusians/Byelorusians,
57–80, 124
Ruthenian identification, 85, 124
Belaruskae zhytstsë (Belarusian Life), 69
Belić, Aleksandar, 434
Beneš, Edvard, 129–30
Benkovski, Georgi, 408
Berecz, Imre, 402–3
Bernolák, Anton, 147, 156, 234–5
Beskyd, Antin, 129
Biblija i kátaćizmus za dicáta (Bible and
Catechism for Children), 413
Bilu, 478
Birets’kyi, Ivan, 125
Bishop of Munkács, 85
Blagoveshchensk-Hei He, 502, 516
Bojaš, 42, 43
Bosniak Cultural Community (Bošnjačka
kulturna zajednica or BKZ), 337–9,
344n11
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Bosniak National Council of Montenegro
(BNCM, Bošnjački Nacionalni Savjet
Crne Gore), 340, 343n5
Bosniak National Council of Serbia,
336–8, 343n5
Bosnian language, as minority language
(in Serbia), 334–9
Bošnjačka riječ (Bosniak Word), 335,
336
Botev, Hristo, 408
Breslau, 74n4, 186, 189, 191, 192
Bridge at Andau, The, 353–4
Brodii, Andrii, 130
Buddhism, 16
Bulgaria
Bulgarian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 35–6
language territories, areal
ethnolinguistic studies of, 378–9
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 40–1
Tatar-speaking Gypsy communities in,
34–5
Turkish-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 27–8, 29–31
Twelve Days, 379–88
Bŭlgarski dialekten atlas (Bulgarian
Dialect Atlas, BDA), 430, 431, 436
Burgenland Croatian, 347–57
Č ̌akavian (čakavski), 314–7, 348, 353
Čalgadžii, 30
Čarale [‘ash’], 30
Carpathian Rus’
defined, 101–7
dialects in, 104
ethnic and national identities, 107–11
ethnographic divisions in, 105
language question before 1989,
111–14
language question since 1989, 114–19
Carpathian Ukraine, 130
Catholicism, 60, 63, 72, 73, 86,
156–7, 189, 192, 209, 212, 214,
540, 541
Bulgarian, 398–400, 402
Greek, 85, 106, 112, 125, 126, 131
Latgalian, 65
Poles, 65
Slavophone, 191, 200n14
551
Slovak, 156, 157
Upper Sorbian Catholics, 226n50
Česko-německý slovník (Czech German
Dictionary), 171n28
Českoslovanská jednota (Czech-Slavic
Unity), 147
Českoslovanská vlastivěda (Czechoslovak
Studies), 142, 155
Chinatown (kitajskii gorodok), 500, 503
Chinesenmärkte, 497
Chomiak, Mirosława, 133, 135
Chopei, Laslo, 112
Christianity, Nestorian, see Nestorian
Christianity
Cigany, 44–5
see also Roma (Gypsies)
Čiprovci Uprising, 399–400
Codeswitching, 96–7n3
Committee for the Standardization of the
Serbian Language, 334
Common Educational-Cultural Muslim
Organization of Mutual Aid
(Istikbal), 31
Common Muhamedan National Cultural
and Educational Union, 31
Congress Poland, 63, 64, 75n15
Constitutional Act on the Federation,
149
Constitutional Court of Serbia, 334
Constitutional Project for Corsica, 249
Constitutional Project for Poland, 249
Cooltura, 541
Council of Europe
European Charter for Regional or
Minority Languages, 8, 9, 206, 286,
304n7, 331–2, 335, 338, 413
Framework Convention for the
Protection of National Minorities,
283, 361
Croatia
Croatian Academy of Sciences and
Arts (Hrvatska akademija znanosti i
umjetnosti), 314
Croatian Labour Party (Hrvatski
laburisti – Stranka rada), 322
Croatian language, 309–27
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 41–2
speech communities, 312–15
cross-border nationalism, 429–31
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Index
cross-border retail markets
language choice, 505–9
pidginization, potentials for, 511–12
in postsocialist space, negotiating goods
and language on, 495–520
professional talk, 512–15
shop talk, 509–11
topography of, 498–501
Zabaikal’sk-Manzhouli, 501–4
Csák, Matthew, 146
Csopey, László, 126
cuius regio, eius lingua, 188
Cultivated Central Slovak, 158, 170n24
Cumans, 8, 14, 20
Cygane Voloxi, 42
see also Roma (Gypsies)
cyganskij surzhik, 47
see also Roma (Gypsies)
Cyril, Saint, 23, 84, 144, 435
Czecho-Slav Society, 235
Czech-Slovak dialect continuum, 151–2,
153, 154
classification of, 152–61
innovations in, 161–4
relations in trans-border
communication, 164–6
Czecho-Slovak ethno-tribalism, 236
Czecho-Slovak Reciprocity, 236
Czechoslovakia, 140–73
Second Czechoslovak Republic, 149
Czech Republic, 140–73
ethnolect-speaking Roma communities
in, 47
and Great Moravia, between, 144–8
independence of, 150–1
period ‘without a border’, 148–50
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 42
Dash War [pomlčková válka (in Czech)/
pomlčková vojna (in Slovak)],
168–9n12
Daugavpils, 57, 60, 65, 68–9, 71–3
Battle of, 67
De Europa (On Europe), 185
De institutione grammatica pro illyricis
accomodata (A Grammar Book for
the Illyrians), 399
de’Piccolomini, Enea Silvo see Pope
Pius II
Deutsch-böhmisches Wörterbuch (GermanCzech Dictionary), 171n28
dialect continuum, 5, 140–84, 188, 199n8,
264, 312, 315–16, 429
dialect-to-standard advergence and
non-standard varieties, contact
between, 161–4
Diasystem, 345n20
Dimitar, Hadži, 408
‘divide and rule’ principle, 248
Dobrians’kyi, Adolf, 109
Dobrovský, Josef, 158
Dobrudženi, 40
domestic nationalism, 429–31
Domowina (Homeland), 217
Ðorgovci, 36, 37
Dugáždinata ud madžárskata daržavina
(The History of the Hungarian
Kingdom), 404
Dukhnovych, Aleksander, 109, 111,
117n8
Ðuro II Pejačević, 399
Dwu-Tygodnik Polski (The Polish
Fortnightly), 68
Dziennik Polski (Polish Daily), 541
Džorevci, 36–7
Džudžević, Esad, 337, 338, 340, 344n11
Dzwon (The Bell {in Latvian and
Polish}), 68
East Austrian Silesia, 186, 187, 193, 196
Eastern Aramaic, 8, 9, 14, 23n1
Eastern Silk Road, 16
East Moravian dialects’ (východomoravská
nářečí ), 152, 159, 160, 162–4,
172n41
Einstein, Arik, 481
Ekipe, 32
Eneïda, 81
Epistle upon Our First Written Language, 84
Eretz Israel, 478–80
Erlii, 30
Estonia, 67
Russian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 46
Ethnolect(s)
defined, 58
Slavic, in Baltic-Slavic borderland,
57–76
-speaking Roma communities, 47
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ethnolinguistic nationalism, 2, 6, 191
European Charter for Regional or
Minority Languages (ECRML), see
Council of Europe
European Court of Human Rights (ECHR),
437–8
European Union and nation-states, state
languages between, 2–3
Exarchate, legacy of, 431–4
Ezra, 480
Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), 206
Fermendžin, Iván, 407, 415
Fičiri, 30
First Congress of the Rusyn Language,
115–6, 133
First Vienna Arbitration, 149
Fontański, Henryk, 133, 135
Fraktur, 61, 64, 191
Framework Convention for the Protection
of National Minorities, 283, 286,
288, 293–4, 289, 360
Frankish, 9
Fused lects, 97n3
Futadžii, 30
Gaeltacht, 532
Galician Star, 84
Galut, 478, 480, 481, 483, 485, 487
Gandhi High School, 42
Gazeta Polska (Polish Newspaper), 541
Germanic continuum, 199n8
Geschichte der bulgarischen Sprache, 432
Geschichte der slawischen Sprache
und Literatur nach allen
Mundarten (History of the Slavic
Languages and Literature in All
Dialects), 158
Gesher (The Bridge), 486
Gimpeni, 45
Głos Polski (The Polish Voice), 68
Gorancçe, 364
Goranians, 363
actual identity problems of, 369–72
actual situation survey of, 363–5
ethnolinguistic vitality, evaluation of,
372–3
linguistic and sociolinguistic dialect
background, 365–8
sociolinguistic remarks, 368–9
553
Gorod N (The Town of N), 76n16
Gradeški Cigani, 30
see also Roma
Grammatica Slavico-Bohemica, 156
Grammatica Slavo-Ruthena, 84
Great Moravia, 143–4, 168n8, 170n23
and Czechoslovakia, between, 144–8
Great Russian (language), 89, 90–6, 125
Great Russians (velikorossy), 124, 129
Greece
Greek-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 35
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 41
Turkish-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 28–9
Grygashii, Mykhailo, 86, 89
Habsburg Empire, 245, 278
Habsburg monarchy, 145, 236
Haluzim, 477
Hamulják, Martin, 249
Hanaks, 129
Harfa (Harp), 68
HebRush, 488–489
Herder, J. G., 250
Hibbat Zion (Love of Zion), 478, 479
Hlas, 148
Hodža–Hattala reform, 157
Holas Belarusa (The Belarusian Voice), 69
Hramatyka bachvan’sko-ruskei beshedy
(Grammar of the Bačka-Ruthenian
(Bačka-Rusyn) Language), 127
Hrammatyka rus’koho iazŷka (Grammar of
the Rusyn Language), 130
Huculakika čhib, 46
Huculakira Roma, 46
Hungarian–Croatian relations, 253
Hungarian Rus’, 135n2
Hungarian Slovak (uherskoslovenské)
dialects, 155
Hungary, 349
Boundary Commission, 350
functioning local media in minority
language, 299–300
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 258
Hungarian-speaking Gypsy
communities in, 44
language of instruction in minority
schools, 297
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Hungary – continued
language policies towards ethnic
minorities, 295
patriotism, 245–59
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 42
Ruthenian/Rusyn national movement,
111, 126
Slovene minority in, 284–5, 288
Hyphen War, see Dash War
iazychie, 112
bookish, 83–7, 89
new, 84, 86, 87, 89
Ideas for the Philosophy of History of
Humanity, 250–2
Ignat’ev, Nikolai Pavlovich, 433
Illyrian literary language, 401–4
imagined communities, 116n1, 311
nations, as imagined territories, 230–1
Imperium der Zukunft: Warum Europa
Weltmacht werden muss, 497
Inflanty Voivodeship, 60
Institute for War and Peace Reporting,
343n2
Institutiones linguae Slavicae dialecti
veteris (Basics of the Old Slavonic
Language), 158
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), 38
International Helsinki Federation for
Human Rights, 360
Internetowa Telewizja Polonia (Internet
Television Polonia), 541
Intreni, 40
Ireland
Department of Education and Skills
(DES), 452, 455–7, 471
emigrants, 539–43
immigrants, 539–43
language needs, 463–70
language use, 458–63
migrants, 539–43
New Irish, 539–43
plurilingualism, 458–63
respondents feel about, 463
poles and tongues, 530–5
Polish-speaking community in, 529–39
Russian speakers in, 451–75
transformation into multicultural and
multilinguistic space, 455–8
Iron Curtain, 130–1, 282, 284, 483, 526
irredentism, 67, 430
Islam, 15, 16, 27–8, 30–4, 309, 341, 533
Islamic communities, 335
Islamic literature, 318
Islamic terms, 11–12
Islamic tradition, 439
Islamic Community of Serbia, 336, 337
Israel
Eretz Israel, 478–80
modern Hebrew, ascendancy of, 480–3
multicultural, 489–90
peering into future, 490–1
Russian language in, 477–92
Russophone Olim, 483–5
Russophone sphere in, 485–9
Israel Ba Aliyah, 486
Israel Beteinu, 486
Isusvata svetlus (Jesus’s Light), 420n8, 414
Italy
functioning local media in minority
language, 298–9
language of instruction in minority
schools, 295–6
language policies towards ethnic
minorities, 289–93
minority languages, public use of,
290–2
bilingual identity cards, 292
bilingual signs and topographical
indications 292–3
slovene minority in, 279, 281–3, 287
Ivanovački dobošar (Ivanovo Town Crier),
417
Jakovsky, Jakov, 402
Jarmark Europa, 499, 501, 519n24
Jazyk československý (The Czechoslovak
language), 155
Jesuit University of Trnava, 147
Jewish Ashkenazim, 9, 14–20, 21, 22,
482–3
Język Polski (The Polish Language), 200n18
Judaism, 8, 10, 16, 20, 534
Jugoslovenska Roma, 48
Juhuri, 18, 20
Kahanci, 45
Kajkavian (Kajkavski), 253, 304n2, 314–7,
326n11, 348, 353
Kamčieni, 40
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Kanaloš, 42
Karadžić, Vuk, 215, 250, 319, 321,
326n16, 349, 403
Karaites, 8, 9, 10–12, 20–1
karakachani, 378, 442n2
Karavlasi, 41
Katančić, Matija Petar, 249
Katuličánsku mulitvenu knigče (The
Catholic Prayer book), 413
Kercha, Ihor, 133
Kettler, Gotthard, 59
kibbuz galuiot (Assembly of the
Diasporas), 481
Kisfaludy Society, 258
Kjuldži, 30
Kochysh, Mykola, 131
Kollár, Ján, 156, 158, 170n24, 235–6, 249,
250, 252
Kopaničáři dialects, 152, 160, 169n19
Korytári, 42
Kosovo
Albanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 38–9
Goranians, identity problems of,
360–73
Serbian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 36–7
Kostel’nyk, Havrylo, 126–7, 136n5
Kovači, 37
Krajňak, František, 131
Kralice Bible, 147, 156
Krasko, Ivan, 257
Kulturkampf, 209, 222n16
Kurier Polski (Polish Courier), 541
Kwěty, 236
Laeši, 40
Lâieši, 40
language(s)
classification of, 20–3
destruction, 5–7
group and border, relationship between,
347–8
linguistic minorities, 74, 206, 219,
283, 289–90, 296, 299, 301,
362, 436
microlanguages, 4, 354, 397
mixing, 4, 6, 72, 82, 90, 95, 96n3
planning, 111, 113, 115, 133, 234, 312,
317, 325n5
555
policy/policies, 64, 196, 289, 295,
311–14, 323, 325n5, 326n6, 331–3
politics, 126, 394–420
state, 1–3
sub-state, 3–5
transnational, 3–5
see also individual entries
language-making, 5–7
Language War, 480
Latgalia, 57–76
Polish and Belarusian languages, in
Latvia, 66–70
Polish- and Belarusian-speakers (today),
71–3
Russian, spread of, 63–6
Slavic- and Baltic-speakers linguistic
contacts, changing political borders
impact on, 59–63
Latgalian, 4, 57–9, 61–7, 69, 70, 73, 74n3,
75n7, 75n8
Latvia
Belarusian language in, 66–70
Latvian Citizenship Law, 71
Latvian War of Independence, 76n18
Polish language in, 66–70
Polish Teachers Association, 67–8
Russian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 46
Lebanov, Anton, 407, 408
Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache
(Comprehensive Grammar of the
Czech Language), 158
Lemkivs’ka Vatra (Lemko Bonfire)
folklore, 131
Lemko republics of 1918–20, 136n6
Levski, Vasil, 408
Lilienblum, Moshe Leib, 479
lingua slavico-bohemica, 156
linguistic minorities, 3–5, 74, 206, 219,
283, 289–90, 296, 301, 362, 436
Lingurari, 40, 43, 44, 49
Literaturna miselj (The Literary Thought),
414, 416
Little Russian (language), 87, 91, 92, 95,
96, 108
Little Russians (malorossy), 124, 128
Livonian Order, 59
Livonian War, 59–60
Ljuli, 45
Loterā’i, 24n10
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Lotfika Roma, 46
Luchkai, Mykhailo, 84, 85, 89, 95, 111
Ludari, 40, 42, 43
Lul, 481
Macaronic, 86, 112
Macedonia
Albanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 38
Turkish-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 29
Maćica Serbska, 216
Madjari, 45
Madzhari, 36
Makedonska Roma, 29
Malcinstvoto, 30
Manachija kathekismus za katholicsanske
paulichane (A Short Catechism for
the Catholic Pavlikians), 402
Manichaeism, 16
Manteuffel, Gustaw, 58, 61, 66
Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue, 148
Matica srpska, 258
Matsyns’kyi, Ivan, 131
Melting Pot, 481, 485, 491n6
Mercator European Research Centre on
Multilingualism and Language
Learning, 287
Methodius, Saint, 84, 144, 435
Mexteri, 30
Michener, James, 354
Mickiewicz, Adam, 71
microlanguages, 4, 354, 397
Millet, 30, 31, 32, 432
Minoritetet: e tashmja dhe e ardhmja
(‘Minorities: the present and the
future’), 361
Minority Rights Group International,
287
Model of Adaptation and Nativisation
and Variation (MANAV), 274n13
modern Hebrew, ascendancy of, 480–3
Mofet, 486
Moje serbske wuznaće (‘My Sorbian
confession’), 207
Moldova
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 39–40, 43–4
Molotov–Rippentrop pact (1939), 70
Montenegro
Albanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 38
Bosnian language in, 339–42
Serbian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 37
Monteni, 40
Moravian–Slovak border, 143, 149, 151, 164
Moravian Slovak dialects
(moravskoslovenská nářećí ), 155,
159–60, 167, 171n32
Moravian-Slovak variety (mährischslowakische Varietät), 158, 159,
171n26
Moravism (moravizmus), 169n13
Moscow ethnolinguistic school, 376–8
Movement for Rights and Freedoms, 32,
442n7
Muhamedan National Cultural and
Educational Organization, 31
multiculturalism, 6
in Austria-Hungary, 247, 249
in Balkans, 360
in Ireland, 451,455–6, 458, 472, 530, 543
in Israel, 489–90
multiple identities, 108
Munich agreement, 149
Muntyan, 42
Muscovites, 91, 124
Muslim National Council (Sandžak), 334
mutually exclusive identities, 108
Muzikanti, 30
Myśl Pracy (The Thought of Labour), 68
Nákov, Gjusi, 397, 416, 420n9
Narkamauka, 72, 76n24
Národnie Zpiewanky (Folk Songs), 250
Náša glás (Our Voice), 414, 415, 416,
423n47
Naše Slovensko (Our Slovakia), 147
Náš jazyk mateřský: Dějiny jazyka českého a
vývoj spisovné slovenštiny (Our mother
tongue: The history of the Czech
language and the development of
literary Slovak), 170n25
Nášta istorija (Our History), 408, 422n33
Nášte nedele (Our Weeks), 407
Nasze życie (Our Life), 68
Nasz Głos (Our Voice), 68
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National Peasants’ Party, 407
National self-consciousness, 246
nation-states and European Union, state
languages between, 2–3
Nauka kristianska za kristianete od
filibeliskata darxiava (The Christian
Doctrine for the Christians of the
Plovdiv Country), 402
Nauk karstianski kratak (The Short
Christian Doctrine), 399
Nedîlia, 112
Nestorian Christianity, 16
Nevyts’ka, Iryna, 128
North Hungarian slavism, 237–40
North Slavic continuum, 199n8
Novák, Stefan, 126
Novel of the Coming Century, A, 252
Nove zhyttia, 131
Nuvalata na madzsarstyite balgare (The
News of Hungarian Bulgarians), 405
Obedinena makedonska organizatsiia (OMO,
United Macedonian Organization),
442n6
Obradović, Dositej, 402
Ohrid Literary School, 441
Operation Vistula, 131
Orientalism, 19
Osimo Treaty, 282, 283, 289, 300
Ostsiedlung, 208
Oświata (Education), 68
Ottmayer, Anton, 249
Padiak, Valerii, 134
Palatinate see Polish Livonia
Palćensći puket (Pavlikian Bouquet), 416
Pale of Settlement, 65, 477, 478
Pan-Slavism, 233–5, 237, 251, 252, 256
para-Romani, 14
Persian, 9, 12, 13, 16, 18
phonetic orthography, 126, 129
pidginization, potentials for, 511–12
Pittsburgh Agreement of 1918, 168n12
Plater, Celina, 66
Player Who Wins, A, 252
Polak-Katolik (Pole-Catholic), 68
Poland
after 2004,528–9
Belarusian minority in, 531, 533
557
Congress Poland, 63
language acquisition, 524–7
Lemko identity, 125, 127–8, 131
Poland’s Linguistic Heritage, 59
Russian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 46
Polenmärkte, 497
Polish
identification, 73
border with Austria, 126
border with Czech Republic, 164–6
border with Latvia, 72
border with Lithuania, 60
border with Ukraine, 91
with German, 196
minority in Latvia, 72
national movement, 67
Polish language
dialects, 72, 73, 125, 152, 158
publications, 46, 68, 541
schools in Latvia, 67–8
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 60
Polish Livonia
origin of, 60–3
spread of Russian in, 63–6
Polish Municipal Gymnasium, 68
Polish-Swedish War, 60
Polish Teachers Association, 67–8
Polonia Extra, 541
Polska Roma, 46
Polski Express (Polish Express), 541
Pomaks, 29, 438
Pope Pius II, 185
Popovych, Stepan, 133
Prague Linguistic Circle, 319
Pramen (Beam), 72
print capitalism, 5
printing, 64, 66, 147, 213, 223n26, 248,
411
printing press, 68, 248, 249, 337, 497
professional talk, 512–15
Promień (Ray), 68
prostaia mova, 83–6, 89 91–2, 95, 97nn4,5
vs. Church Slavonic, 97n4
Prosvita Society, 128
Pučélnica za bâlgarsc´ite nárudni škuli u
madžárskata daržavina (A Primer
for Bulgarian Public Schools in the
Hungarian Kingdom), 404
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Index
Qipčak (Kipchak) Turkic, 10
Radhanites, 9
relexification, 9, 23–4n3
Reverse interference, 268, 270
Rēzekne, 60, 62, 65, 67, 68
Riga Polytechnic, 66
Roma (Gypsies), 12–14, 20, 21
Albanian-speaking communities, 37–9
Bulgarian-speaking communities, 35–6
in Central and Eastern Europe, 26–51
ethnolect-speaking communities, 47
Greek-speaking communities, 35
Hungarian-speaking communities, 44–5
Romanian-speaking communities, 39–44
Russian-speaking communities, 46
Ruthenian-speaking communities, 46
Serbian-speaking communities, 36–7
Tatar-speaking communities, 33–5
Turkish-speaking communities, 27–33
Ukrainian-speaking communities, 45–6
Romani language, 4, 12–14, 22
Romania
Hungarian-speaking Gypsy
communities in, 45
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 40
sociolinguistic changes around Banat
Bulgarians in, 410–12
Tatar-speaking Gypsy communities in,
34–5
Turkish-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 28, 31–3
Romanian Banat
identity change, 406–7
literary language, first renaissance of,
406–7
present-day Banat Bulgarian codified in,
413–15
Romansch model, 115, 133
Roma tari Jugoslavia, 48
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 249–250
Rudari, 40, 41, 43, 44, 49
Rūm (Greek), 9
Rumungri, 44, 45
Rumuni, 40
Rus’ian, 75n5
Rus’ka Pravda, 136n7
Ruska Roma, 46
Rus’ko-Kraïns’ka pravda, 136n7
Russia
Ukrainian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 45–6
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 43
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist
Republic (RSFSR), 76n20
Russophone
Olim, 483–5
sphere, in Israel, 485–9
Russo-Turkish War, 433
Rusyns, 113, 124–36
after fall of Iron Curtain, 131–5
behind Iron Curtain, 130–1
constructing identities across historical
borders, 124–7
linguistic battlefields, 127–30
slavism, 237–40
standards of, 134–5
Šafařík, Pavol Jozef (Pavel Josef ), 158,
170n24, 171n26, 235–6, 252n4
Sándor II Bonnaz, 403
‘San Stefano Bulgaria’ (sanstefanska
Bŭlgariia), 433
Sasitka Roma, 46
Săvremenen bălgarski ezik i bălgarski
palkenski ezik: bukvar i čitanka
(Contemporary Bulgarian and
Bulgarian Pavlikian: Primer and
Reader), 418
Sbornik na balgare-palćene ud Ivánovo
(Collected Essays of BulgariansPavlikians of Ivanovo), 417
Schengen Agreement, 354, 540
Slovene language after, 276–305
demography, 286–8
functioning local media in minority
language, 298–300
language of instruction in minority
schools, 295–7
language policies towards ethnic
minorities, 289–96
Scythians see Jewish Ashkenazim
Sea Gypsies, 50n1
Serbia
Albanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 38
Bosnian language, as minority
language, 334–9
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Hungarian-speaking Gypsy
communities in, 45
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 41–2
Serbian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 36–7
Servi, 45–7
Severní pomezí moravskoslovenských nářečí
(The Northern Border of the Moravian
Slovak Dialects), 160
Shkola i zhytstsë (School and Life), 69
Shoah, 481
Shop Talk, 509–11
Sigismund II Augustus, 60
Silesia, 185–201
borders of, 185–6
creole and totalitarianisms, 195–7
East Austrian Silesia, 186, 187
languages, 186–98
nationalization of, 192–5
politics and perception of, 197–8
Prussian Upper Silesia, 186, 187, 191
territories of, 185–6
Year of Revolution, 1848, 191
Silesian Moravian, 152, 169n18
Slavic ethnolects, in Baltic-Slavic
borderland, 57–76
Slavic Linguistic Atlas, 430
Slavism
north Hungarian, 237–40
pan-Slavism, 233–5, 237
Slovak, 233–5
Slavonic renascence, 222n17
Slavophones, 29, 362–3, 368, 372
slezskopolské, 170n20
Slovakia, 140–73
contested borders, 240–2
ethno-linguistic borders, shifting,
230–42
Hungarian-speaking Gypsy
communities in, 45
independence of, 150–1
Moravian Slovakia, 149
Partes superiores (Upper Hungary),
145
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 42
Ruthenian-speaking Gypsy
communities in, 46
Ukrainian movement in, 128
559
Slovaks
Czechoslovakism, 235–7
dialect continuum, 151–2, 153, 154
classification of, 152–61
innovations in, 161–4
relations in trans-border
communication, 164–6
imagine the nation, 231–3
slavism, 233–5
Slovanský národopis (Slavonic
Ethnography), 158
Slovene language
historical development, overview of,
276–8
in neighbouring countries, 278–9, 281
after Schengen Agreement, 276–305
demography, 286–8
functioning local media in minority
language, 298–300
language of instruction in minority
schools, 295–7
language policies towards ethnic
minorities, 289–96
Slovenia
March Revolution of 1848, 277
Slovníček slowenský (A Short Slovak
Dictionary), 171n28
Slovo (Word), 84
Slovo naroda (The People’s Voice), 128
Slownjk česko-ncěmecký (Czech-German
Dictionary), 171n28
Social Contract, The, 249
Sorbian language community, 206–26
attempts at unification, 213–19
internal divisions of, 211–13
development of, 213–19
non-linguistic borders and political
history of, 207–11
spisovný jazyk, 172n35
Sprachbund, 265, 268, 273n6, 442n1
Stalin, 129, 282, 434
Stár Bišnov, settlers of, 399–400
state languages, 1–2, 4, 5, 27, 47, 50, 61,
64, 67, 70, 73, 114, 128, 133, 157,
189, 190, 192, 208, 223n25, 256,
278, 281, 321–3, 332, 339, 409,
525, 526
between nation-states and European
Union, 2–3
see also individual languages
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Index
Stojkov, Stojko, 434
Štokavian (štokavski), 253, 314–20, 325,
353, 354, 327n17, 342, 344n8,
345n20 348, 349
Stryps’kyi, Hiiador, 126
Štúr, udovít
codification of Slovak, 156, 157, 159
Subcarpathian Rus’ (Podkarpatská Rus)
linguistic battlefields, 128–30
sub-state languages, 3–5
surzhyk, 51n3
categories of, 88–9
crystallization of, 93
emotionally-charged, 88
incipient, 92–3
‘Little Russian’, 88
profiling, 87–94
prostaia mova, 91–2
structural regularities, 93–4
Sveta ženitva (Saint Marriage), 412
Sydor, Dmytro, 133
Tajfa/Dajfa communities, 34
Tatar Gypsies, 33–5
Tavričane, 45
těšínské, 170n20
Ţigani turci, 33
Tracieni, 40
Transcarpathia Oblast, 124, 128, 130,
132, 133
transnational languages, 3–5
Treaty of Brest–Litovsk, 66
Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, 434
Treaty of San Stefano, 433
Treaty of Trianon, 231, 284, 303n2, 406
Trokhanovs’kyi, Meletii, 128
Trubar, Primož, 277
Tserkovny̆ey̆ besěd y̆ na vsě neděli roka na
pouchenie narodnoe (‘Sermons for
Each Week of the Year for Popular
Instruction’), 84–5
Tsygane, 26, 46
see also Roma
20-year Strategy for the Irish Language
2010–30, 457
TygodnikPL (WeeklyPL), 541
Tygodnik Polski (The Polish Weekly), 68
Tygodnik Polski Ilustrowany (The Illustrated
Polish Weekly), 68
Uhro-Rusyn, 110, 117n10
Ukraine
Carpathian Ukraine, 130
Hungarian-speaking Gypsy
communities in, 45
Romanian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 43
Ruthenian-speaking Gypsy
communities in, 46
Tatar-speaking Gypsy communities in,
34
Ukrainian-speaking Gypsy communities
in, 45–6
Ulanowska, Stefania, 66
Ulmanis, Kārlis, 70
University of Dorpat (Tartu), 66
University of Ljubljana, 278
University of Prešov
Institute for Rusyn Language and
Culture, 133
University of Vilna, 63
Upuznavanj sas stvárnust (Cognition of
Reality), 417
Ursari, 40
Usta-Millet, 30, 33
Uzun, Peter, 402
Vasilčin-Mare, Josif, 397, 416–7
Vatraši, 40
Vienna Literary Agreement of 1850, 320,
321, 322, 326–7n16
Vinga, settlers of, 398–9
Vingánska nárudna nuvála (The Vinga
Public News), 404
Vîstnyk (Messenger), 84
Vlasi, 40
Vlaxija, 40
Voivodeship of Katowice, 201n22
Voivodeship of Silesia, 194, 197, 201n22
Vojvodina Rusinski, 347
Voloshyn, Avgustyn, 112, 130
Voronežskie Servi, 45
Vrabel, Mykhaïl, 112
Vremmenyk, 84
Vretsłav, 74n4
Wakhi, 18
Warsaw Pact, 353
Wasserpolnisch, 196
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Wendenparagraphen, 208
Western Silk Road, 16
Wrocław, 74n4, 186
Wrotizla, 74n4
Yugoslavia
sociolinguistic changes around
Banat Bulgarians in, 412–13
Yugoslavian Banat, 408–10
Xaladitka Roma, 46
Xandžari Servi, 45
Xoraxane Roma, 28, 30, 33, 48
Zabaikal’sk-Manzhouli, 501–4
Zmaj, Jovan Jovanović, 257, 258
Z mojoho valala (From My Village),
126–7
Zohar, Uri, 481
Zora (Dawn), 249
Zoria Halytskaia, 84, 96
Zoroastrianism, 16
Związek Obrony Górnoślązaków
(Association for the Defence
of the Upper Silesians [or
Szlonzoks]), 194
Yiddish, 4, 8, 9, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22,
23n3, 24n10, 57, 65, 76n22, 107,
423n39, 477, 479, 481, 524, 526,
532
Eastern, 22, 24n6
German, 23n1
Western, 24n6
Yishuv, 479, 480
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