Chapter 11 – Imperial Japan (1895 – 1931)
Key Dates
I.
1895 – 1912: late Meiji
1912-1926: Taisho
1926-1931: early Showa
Late Meiji, 1895-1912
Foreign Policy and Empire Building
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Aim of national security and equality of national status
Held Korea to be key to national security
o ‘line of sovereignty’ an ‘line of interest,’ which ran through Korea
Domination of surrounding seas by Japanese navy
Colonies were ‘ultimate status symbol’
Also key to security concerns
Sought end to Western extraterritoriality and return to tariff autonomy
o Revision of law codes to reflect Western practices
o In return for giving up extraterritoriality, Western merchants were no
longer limited to treaty ports
o Japan regains full control over custom duties in 1911
At the same time, Japan was enjoying extraterritorial rights in China, and
benefitting from China’s lack of tariff autonomy
Established coastal factories; spurred investment in China, but stunted
growth of domestic Chinese industry
Taiwan acquisition gratified navy
Public outrage when Japan forced to give up Liaodong Peninsula
Chief rival = Russia
o Railway network through northern Manchuria to Vladivostok
o Acquired Port Arthur in 1989
o Interfered in Korea, allying with conservative opponents of Japanesebacked reformers
o Use of Boxer Rebellion to entrench interests in Manchuria intensified
Japanese apprehensions
Britain also alarmed over Russia’s eastward expansion
Abandoned ‘splendid isolation’ in 1902; formed alliance with Japan
o Recognized Japan’s special interest in Korea
o Each recognized other’s interest in China
o Each would remain neutral in bilateral war; each would assist other if
attacked by two powers at once
 Japan would not face European coalition alone
Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
o Mostly fought on land in Manchuria and at sea
o Heavy costs; Japanese victory
o Destroyed virtually entire Russian navy
o Gained recognition of supremacy in Korea
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Transfer of Russian interests in Manchuria (railroads and leases in
Liaodong Peninsula)
Cession of southern half of Sakhalin Island
Japanese public still unsatisfied -> three days of rioting
Leads to economic expansion in Manchuria
Economic and Social Developments
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Both wars stimulated Japanese economy
Nationalism gave boost to heavy industry and to armaments, including
shipbuilding
Advances in new fields; light industry
Increasing emphasis on import of raw materials
Increases in labour productivity and urbanization
o Widened rural/urban gap
Those who worked in small, traditional establishments experienced little
change in living conditions
Harsh labour conditions in factories and shops
1900: strikes outlawed
Conservatives: wanted balance between capital and labour
1911: first factory laws
1916: legal protection for women and children
Small group of radicals composed of Christian socialists and anarchists
o Opposed war with Russia
o Barred from forming political party
o Faced political repression
o Executed
Zaibatsu remained close with government
Dominant political party also had stake in economic development
Politics
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After war, political struggles resumed
Elder statesmen (genro) advised emperor on all major matters
o Sees themselves as guardians of public good
o Stressed need for unity in face of a hostile world
o Enjoyed great prestige and support of protégés and associates
Party politicians resented genro power, which was a de facto aristocracy
Main weapon of parties: budgetary approval
Divisions between oligarchy and parties
Many parties lost enthusiasm for opposing government that could dissolve
Diet and subject parties to costly reelection campaigns
Oligarchs could trade offices for support
Military reported directly to emperor; bypasses Minister of War and cabinet
Gave military veto power over any cabinet in 1900
Control of military funds remained in hands of lower house
Dominant party (Seiyukai) strengthened by building support within
bureaucracy, thanks to Hara Kei
o Appointed party members as prefectural governors
Linked party to provinces
Used pork barrel to build up constituencies among local men who
formed the limited electorate
o Other important members of Seiyukai: Saionji Kimmochi and Ito
o Obtained support of business leaders, particular heads of zaibatsu
 trend of closer association between zaibatsu and politics
genro enjoyed great influence, but theirs was a personal, not institutional,
power
o diminished with time
new generation of bureaucrats did not owe positions to genro patronage, but
to examinations (post-1885)
o bureaucrats themselves enjoyed privilege and influence
political conflict eroded earlier idealism for people’s rights
dominant Seiyukai surrounded by small and shifting groups of independents
and parties
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“The arrangement functioned as long as funds were sufficient to finance both the
military’s and the Seiyukai’s highest priority projects and as long as none of the
participants felt their essential interests threatened. When that ceased to be the
case, it brought on the Taisho political crisis.”
II.
The Taisho Period (1912-1926) and the Twenties
Taisho Political Crisis, 1912-1913
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Financial conditions forced cutback in government spending
o Impossible to fund both Seiyukai’s domestic program and army
demands
Seiyukai won support at polls; PM Saionji forced out due to army influence
Ensuing mass demonstrations; standoff between military (Katsura) and
parties on by latter
“for the first time a party majority in the Diet, backed by public opinion and a
vociferous press, had overthrown a cabinet”
“The power of a party leader depended on his strength within his party,
although this was influenced by the party’s showing at the polls”
Seiyukai now also faced rival for control of lower house
Both had necessary ingredients for success: politicians, former bureaucrats,
and businessmen
Japan during the First World War
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August 1914: declared war on Germany
Seized German holdings in Shandong and German islands in the Pacific
January 1915: Twenty-One Demands to China
More larger and costly effort was Japan’s attempt to prevent extension of
Bolshevik power
Though Russian Empire and Japan were wartime allies, March 1918
Bolsheviks signed separate peace treaty with Germany
Japanese intervene: mid-summer 1918 controlled Eastern Trans-Siberian and
Vladivostok
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Last Japanese troops did not withdraw from Siberia until 1922
Period coupled with economic boom; unprecedented demand for industrial
products and withdrawal of European competition
Economic expansion produced inflation, but wages and incomes in traditional
industries failed to keep pace
People could no longer even afford basic rise
August 1918: riots across cities, towns and villages
“Even as Japanese troops were setting off for Siberia, other soldiers were firing on
hungry people rioting at home.”
Politics and Policies, 1918-1924
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Democratic intellectuals, students, and leaders of labour and farmer unions
disillusioned by an ostensibly uncaring government
Instead of universal suffrage, new laws retained tax qualification for voting
o Local districts reconstructed to favour Seiyukai
Liberals who hoped for parliamentary reform became cynical or looked
elsewhere; public at large was apathetic
Versailles: failed to obtain universal racial equality, but gained acquiescence
to claims in China and Pacific
Policy of cooperation with US: needed capital for Japanese industry struggling
to transition to peacetime economy
Washington Conference of 1912-1922: Japanese alliance with Britain replaced
with Four Power Pact (France, Great Britain, Japan, United States)
Limited construction of capital ships to maintain existing balance of naval
power
October 1922: agreement with China, where nationalist sentiment was
bitterly anti-Japanese
o Agreed to Chinese sovereignty in Shandong in principle, provided
Japanese economic rights there were protected
o Supported local warlord in Manchuria, Zhang Zuolin
o General policy of getting along with US and conciliating China from
1924-27 and 29-31
 Wanted to avoid anti-Japanese outburst and costly boycotts of
Japanese goods
By 1931, 80 per cent of Japanese foreign investments were in China
In China, 35 per cent of foreign investments came from Japan
Most Japanese investments were in Manchuria (63 per cent), and Shanghai
(25 per cent)
Japanese owned 40 per cent of Chinese textile industry by 1930, and were a
major factor in China’s iron industry
September 1923: earthquake plus conflagration
o Police used emergency to round up socialists, anarchists, and
Communists
o Police torture and killing
Party Government, 1924-1931
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Increase in power of parties signified shift in balance of power
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Also confirmed willingness of parties to work within existing parameters
o Highlighted continued prestige and influence of army, even during
peacetime
1924-1926: when Kato was prime minister; passed ‘universal’ suffrage,
granting vote to all males twenty-five and older
1925: Peace Preservation Law: made crime to advocate change in national
political structure or abolition of private property
Only minor changes to House of Peers were successful
Moderate social reform: legalization of labour unions, standards for factory
conditions, procedures for mediating labour disputes, and provision of health
insurance for workers
No similar program to alleviate problems of rural poor
Kato died in 1926
Failure of Japan to develop strong party system reflective of weakness of
parties
Increased suffrage made campaigns costlier and politicians more open to
corruption
1927-29: Tanaka led government, sent army brigade to Shandong, clashed
with Chiang Kai-shek’s Northern Expedition
Assassination of Zhang Zuolin by group of Japanese army officers, who hoped
that their actions would pave way for seizure of Manchuria
Instead, Manchuria brought under new Chinese government by Zhang’s son;
Tanaka recognizes Guomindang regime in Nanjing as government
Failed to obtain suitable punishment for Zhang’s murderers; Tanaka
government collapsed
1929: Hamaguchi Osachi and Minseito secures power; returns to
reconciliation with China
1930: London Naval Treaty, enforced ratio for non-capital ships
o Ratified only after heated debate and forced resignation of naval chief
of staff
o Generated bitterness among military and ultranationalists
Government loses control of military in 1931
1920s characterized by persistent economic difficulties, slow job growth visà-vis population growth, and sharp decline of rice, which hurt farmers
Difficulties on small operators competing with zaibatsu
Union movement progressed only slowly
1925-30: real income of farmers declined by a third
Economic failure undermined credibility of political parties
No mass movements arose directed against them, but little in their record
inspired people to come to their defence
Their ‘enemies’ included those dissatisfied with just about every facet of
liberalism, internationalism, and ‘modernity’
Intellectual Trends
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Philosophers and political theorists challenged by Western claims to
universality
Revival of interest in anarchism and socialism
Marxism enjoyed new prestige after Russian Revolution
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Labour parties formed after universal suffrage act suffered from excess
factionalism and lack of mass participation
o True of Japanese Communist party, dominated by intellectuals
Fledgling feminist movement
After First World War, Japanese intellectuals were attracted to Hegel, Kant,
Nietzche, Husserl, Heidegger, and Bergson
Some used Western philosophy to differentiate an authentic Japan-ness, and
to criticize the hybrid or diluted culture
Some advocated for return to virtuous agrarianism