Calf management
Lifetime productivity starts
when the calf is born
High lifetime productivity
of cows: the well deserved
result of first class calf
management
When a cow is culled dairy farmers the world over would ideally
aim to introduce a more profitable, newly calved primiparous cow
raised on the farm to replace her. As first lactation cows often make
up a substantial proportion of the herd (up to 40%) and as it may
take one to two lactations before the cow repays the cost of rearing
her, whatever helps the first calving cow remain healthy, fertile and
productive from the start of her first lactation is a good investment.
Ideally, heifers calve at 24 months, weigh something over 600 kg
(1,320 lbs)*, can live a healthy, fertile life and provide a high lifetime
milk yield. Generally, heavier, well developed heifers become pregnant
earlier, produce more milk during their first lactation, and live a longer
life and perform better.
Not only is this what calf rearing is all about, it is also an important
factor in determining the success of the dairy farm. However, as
anyone working with dairy cows also knows, this is easier said
than done.
All decisions and actions taken on a farm rely for their success on
farmer and staff skills and continuous training for their success. This
booklet is aimed at providing the current, well documented knowledge
and information to help dairy farmers achieve the best possible calf
rearing in the herd. It includes information on dairy calf needs and
recommends best management practices at different age periods
in terms of feeding, housing and health management. We hope this
booklet will be useful to you. Enjoy your reading and learning, and
good luck with your calves!
Following each important step of the calf’s life
Information is provided on management aspects for each of the
critical development periods of the calf up to six months of age,
when the calf turns into a heifer.
*400 kg (880 lbs) for smaller breeds
Conversion table
The following units and conversions are
used throughout the booklet
1 kg
=
2.2 lbs
1 litre =
1 quart
1 m
=
3.28 feet
1 m²
=
10.76 ft²
Contents
and short summaries
08
Before birth
Detailed attention to the nutrition and
management of the dry cow and close-up
period for both heifer and cow is needed if
the goal is to provide healthy, strong calves
at birth and an efficient start to early lactation.
19
Colostrum
11
At birth
16
First day
Good management at calving is the essential
first step to successful calf rearing. Adopting
a Standard Procedure (SOP) for calving
supervision and intervention will reduce
calving mortality and incidents of oxygen
deprivation and bruising. Calving pen design
and monitoring growth rate should also
be included.
The first day of life is critical for the new-born
calf’s survival. A good assessment routine and
caretaking procedures are as important as
having dry and clean bedding, which should
be maintained throughout the first 6 months
of life.
26
43
First weeks
First month
Colostrum is key to calf survival. Strict
colostrum management, based on the “five
golden rules of colostrum feeding”, will ensure
timely intake of a sufficient quantity of high
quality colostrum to maximize the vitality and
reduce disease risk and a poor start to life.
The primary objectives of this period are
to encourage the calf to drink milk or milk
replacer to its full potential, the introduction of
concentrate and water to the diet, and early
identification of disease or other problems to
ensure a strong start to rapid growth. A clean
soil-free environment is critical to avoiding
diarrhoea, and good ventilation and generous
bedding are necessary to reduce pneumonia.
As older animals are often the source of
infection younger calves should be handled
prior to older animals.
With a focus on high growth rates different
feeding systems and technologies are
described according to best practice.
Other areas addressed are the pros and
cons of housing systems and the effects
of low and high temperature on calves.
60
67
Second month
Third to sixth month
The big challenge during this period is to
maintain good growth and health during
weaning. To do this it is important to ensure
that the calf consumes a consistent amount
of concentrate and that the milk intake is
reduced gradually. Automatic calf feeders
are excellent tools for smooth weaning. It is
important to avoid movement and regrouping
of calves during this period as this stress
might increase the risk of pneumonia.
In order to achieve growth close to its
maximum potential it is important to provide
a well-balanced post-weaning ration with the
correct protein to energy ratio. To prevent
dips in growth rate regrouping calves, which
often promotes respiratory disease should
be minimized, and grazing without correct
supplementary feeding avoided.
4
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Performance indicators
in calf rearing
Three important targets to raise the desired number of healthy,
fertile, productive heifers:
1
2
3
Keeping calf mortality to a low level
Maintaining good calf growth
Maintaining good calf health
It is highly recommended that performance
indicators are used to monitor how well your
farm is meeting its targets in order to improve
performance. These indicators are called key
performance indicators (KPIs). KPIs serve as
excellent tools for benchmarking, decision
making and following up on the effect of changed
practices. Different but overlapping KPIs are used
for the three target areas.
Keeping calf mortality to a low level
The proportion of heifer calves lost during rearing
often reaches 20%. If calf deaths during calving
and the first 24 hours are included this figure is
even higher. After a difficult birth the most common
causes of death are diarrhoea in the first month of
life and pneumonia at a later stage. Disparities
between herds in terms of reproductive losses
are very large, but the good news is that some
producers have losses well below 10%.
The urgency of increasing cow longevity in dairy
production is often addressed but calf mortality
is rarely considered, however, it would be more
correct to include these losses in our calculations.
Cow longevity begins at birth!
In particular, poor reproductive performance
combined with poor calf survival could result in
a shortage of new heifers entering the milking
herd. Only in herds with very good health do we
recommend raising fewer than 35 heifers calving
per 100 cows on a yearly basis.
Using KPIs to keep track of calf losses and
calculate availability of heifers
• Number of calvings per year or month
• Number of pregnant heifers
• Stillbirth frequency (deaths within 24 hrs)
• Mortality: week 1
• Mortality: month 1
• Mortality: months 2–3
• Mortality: months 4–6
• Culling/Mortality: 6 months to calving
• Keeping a record of causes of death/reasons
for culling
Maintaining a good growth rate
throughout the rearing period
Growth rate and nutrient intake prior to weaning
have been shown to have a significant effect on
milk yield, superior to genetic selection for production. Genetic selection yields around 70–120
kg milk per lactation. Pre-weaning calf nutrition
and management can yield at least 4 times more
milk than genetic selection for the first and second lactation.
In reality, there is wide variation in growth rates
between herds and individual animals and there
is virtually no advantage in restricting weight gain
in any calf or heifer. The scientific evidence of
the benefits of maintaining high growth rates for
calves with good nutrition is overwhelming.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
5
Benefits of high growth rates
• Higher early (pre-weaning) growth rates have been associated with reduced
mortality
• Higher early growth rates have been associated with increased milk yields during
first and second lactation
• Higher growth rates (> 600 g/day) have been shown to increase fertility both in the
heifer and in first-lactating animals
• Higher growth rates enabling heifers to calve for the first time at a young age
(24–25 months) result in greater lifetime yields
•Higher growth rates and earlier first calving reduces feed and labour during rearing
• The recommendation for larger breeds is to reach a weight gain of at least 750 g
per day or higher over the rearing period. The recommended weight gain for
smaller breeds like Jersey is 500 g or higher
KPIs for tracking growth rate
It is recommended to measure weight gain during
the following periods:
• Birth to weaning
• Weaning to six months
• Weaning to breeding
• Breeding to calving
Here again, health status varies among herds,
with the proportion of calves treated with antibiotics ranging from 0 to 100%. In addition, KPIs for
calf mortality are also useful for monitoring calf
health. Calf mortality not only causes shortages in
the availability of new heifers but is also a strong
indication of a calf health problem.
KPIs for tracking calf health
• Antibiotic treatment of calves
• Mortality: month 1
• Mortality: months 2–3
• Mortality: months 4–6
• Growth rate from birth to weaning
• Growth rate from weaning to 6 months
Maintaining good health
throughout the rearing period
Health issues have a detrimental effect on calf
growth and later performance of the milking cow.
For example, calves treated with antibiotics have
been shown to produce around 500 Kg less milk
in first lactation compared to non-treated calves.
Examples of key performance indicators for calf rearing
Excellent
Acceptable
Action level
Stillborn calves %, dead within 24
hours included
4
6
10
Calf mortality 1–60 days %
2
4
8
Calf mortality 2 months – puberty
0
1–2
>2
- Large breeds
≥750 g
600–750
< 600
- Small breeds
≥500 g
400–500
<400
Daily weight gain g/day for the full
rearing period:
6
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Measuring weight gain and growth –
knowing and monitoring
Calves can be weighed using four different
methods:
After mortality rates, weight gain and growth
during the rearing period are the most important
KPIs to follow up when it comes to calf-rearing
performance. Body weight alone does not reflect
the complete nutritional status of a heifer. Heifer
development is more accurately evaluated when
weight measurements are accompanied by
measurements of skeletal growth such as withers
height. The height of a heifer reflects skeletal
growth while body weight reflects the growth of
organs, muscles and fat tissue.
•U
sing electronic scales: though time and labour
consuming, this method provides accurate
information on live weight and daily gains.
•M
easuring withers height (the height measured
at the shoulder or hip – the highest part of the
heifer's back measured from the should or hip;
"a" in picture). This measure is correlated with
calf size and weight.
•U
sing girth tapes to measure the size/
circumference of the chest to estimate
weight. The accuracy of this method is highly
dependent on correct use*.
•M
easuring rump height (‘b’ in picture). Rump
height for a Holstein heifer should be about 103
cm at four months, 105 cm at five months and
109 cm at 6 months.
There are several reasons to monitor
growth rate:
• To prevent delays in reaching sexual maturity
and first calving
• To determine whether calves are underfed
• To determine whether heifers are overfed or
underfed
• To establish correct body weight at first calving
• To minimise calving problems
Above all, to be sure you’re exploiting the full
potential of the heifer calf by achieving excellent
growth rates.
Regularly monitoring of heifer size provides an
indication of when heifers have reached their
target weight and whether there are seasonal
differences. It yields information about feed
quality and whether any supplements are
required. Growth rate assessment can be done
over the entire rearing period (birth–calving) or
during specific phases or rearing periods (birth–
weaning, weaning–breeding, breeding–calving,
grazing period, etc.)
a
b
Correct use of a girth tape
Small intestine
Note: The calf
should
be standing as shown. For reliable
Abomasum
results, ensure correct posture, tape position and tape
tension.
Where to measure
Withers height (line a) and rump height (b)
32
1 and withers height for Holstein-Friesian and Jersey calves
Target live weight
Age (months)
Holstein-Friesian
Rumen
0
2
Throat
Jersey
Live weight
kg/lb
Withers height
cm/inch
Live weight
kg/lb
Withers height
cm/inch
40/88
77/16
27/60
66/26
85/187
86/34
60/132
76/30
4
130/287
94/37
88/194
86/34
6
180/397
104/41
118/260
99/39
Small intestine
Abomasum
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
7
There are a number of different types of growth charts. These can differ depending on recommendations for different breeds and countries.
Examples of charts for withers heights by age and weight for growing
Holstein–Friesian and Jersey heifers are shown below:
Withers heights by age
Holstein–Friesian and Jersey heifers
160
Holstein–Friesian
140
Jersey
100
Insemination
Withers height (cm)
120
80
60
40
20
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Age of calf (months)
Weight by age
Holstein–Friesian and Jersey heifers
Holstein–Friesian
Insemination
700
600
Weight (kg)
500
Jersey
400
300
200
100
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Age of calf (months)
16
18
20
22
24
8
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Calf and heifer performance
begins before birth
Do
Avoid
• Allow a minimum dry period of 45 days
• Omitted or very short dry period
• Adjust dry cow ration to avoid overconditioning at calving
• High calcium and or potassium intake
• Ensure sufficient supplementation of
fat-soluble vitamins
• Provide tasty forage of high hygienic
quality, clean and fresh water
• Watch close-up cows carefully at least
twice a day
• Moving cows in the period 10 – 3 days
before calving
• Heat stress in late gestation
• Overstocking of close-up cows
• Sudden changes in ration ingredients
• Calving on slats or in the cubicles
• If needed vaccinate the dry cows to boost
antibody level in colostrum
Calf performance
starts with the dam
Dry cows and pregnant heifers often receive far
less attention than they deserve from a profitability
point of view. Most farmers would agree that
a hungry and healthy fresh cow is the best
predictor of successful and healthy lactation.
Such successful lactations are frequent in herds
with a clear strategy for dry cow feeding and
management.
A cow’s performance, as well as that of the calf
and heifer, is to a large extent affected by dry cow
feeding and management quality. Hence, it is fair
to say that future calf and heifer performance
begins before birth. Optimal management and
proper dry cow and pregnant heifer nutrition
ensure the birth of healthy, strong calves and
optimal start of lactation for the cow.
Dry cow management may affect calf performance
• Calving difficulties are associated with lower calf growth rates
• Over-conditioned cows have more calving difficulties
• Cows with health issues deliver weaker and more vulnerable calves
• Cows that are stressed show higher stillbirth frequencies; heat stress during late
pregnancy leads to growth retardation and affects the calf before weaning
• An omitted or very short dry period has a negative effect on colostrum quantity
and quality
• Inappropriate feeding of the dam can impair colostrum quality
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
9
The dry period from the
calf's perspective
The dry period is divided into two stages:
1
Far dry-off period (dry off until 3 weeks before calving)
2
Close-up period (3 weeks before calving): this latter period
is more important for both calving and calf performance and of
course includes pregnant heifers with no preceding dry period
Far dry-off period
The far dry-off period ( > 3 weeks before due
date) is the ideal time to attend to practical jobs
such as regrouping animals, hoof trimming, clipping
hair from the udder and vaccinating cows. Early
vaccination will boost antibody content of colostrum
against respiratory and gastro-intestinal pathogens.
To avoid stress close to calving, it is important to do
these tasks long before the predicted calving date.
Close-up period
Optimal management and proper nutrition for the
dry cow and pregnant heifer during the closeup period (3 weeks before calving) is critical for
the cow as well as the calf. Focus should be on
encouraging a good feed intake for the cow to
ensure a successful delivery. Providing a balanced,
tasty diet with enough structure and avoiding
sudden changes in diet increases the chances of
this occurring. Vitamin E and Selenium additives,
given to dry cows during this period can help
improve disease resistance in the cow, the quality
of colostrum and ultimately the calf's health.
Cow comfort is also essential at this critical time.
Providing a comfortable lying area as well as
generous bunk space for loosely housed cows
will minimise social stress and prevent lameness.
Changes in diet or the cow's environment, whether
a move to a new environment or introducing
new pen mates, is to be avoided. Moving the
cow to the calving pen during the 10 days before
calving should be avoided. Also, heat stress can
reduce placental development and, in turn, calf
development, and should be prevented.
Requirements for good close-up housing
• Clean, dry, soft, spacious, non-slippery lying area
or cubicle
• Feeding place with no or little competition for feed
• Avoid standing time on concrete
• Good ventilation with no draughts
• Enough light (also important during
night-time)
• Easy supervision
• Easy entry and exit of close-up pen for the cows and people
Far dry off period
Close-up period
10
Close-up pens
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
When close-up cows are housed in traditional
free stall or tie stall systems they can be moved
to a calving pen “a few hours” before calving. A
comfortable option is a straw-bedded yard provided
the straw is kept dry and plentiful and ventilation
ensures good air quality. Where possible, it is
recommended to isolate heifers and weak cows in
a smaller group to reduce stress and ensure closer
supervision of the cows. There should be enough
room for all the cows in the group to lie down and
move freely. In the close-up pen 11.2 m2 (120 sq
ft) of bedded area per cow should be provided.
A rule of thumb is to have space for 140% of
average expected number of calvings in order to
accommodate high calving periods.
Giving attention
to every cow
Giving attention to
every single cow
Frequent checking of close-up cows is crucial.
Post calving disorders can be avoided by
providing a good environment and appropriate
feeding, and by giving full attention to every
single cow during close-up and calving thus
ensuring early detection of problem cows.
Signs of a healthy cow
• Good appetite
• Filled rumen
• Breathing steadily at a frequency of
~ 30 breaths / minute, mouth closed)
• Watching you with clear eyes
• Clean and dry
• No signs of lameness, wounds or disease
Space requirement for the close-up pens in bedded areas:
at least 11.2 m2 (120 sq ft.) per cow. For cubicles, a width
of 127 cm (4.2 feet) and length 275 to 300 cm (9–10 feet) is
recommended. Feeding space per cow: 75 cm (2.5 feet)
(large breeds)
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
11
Birth
Do
• A comfortable and clean calving area is a
must in order to prevent problems during
and after calving
• Follow standard operating procedures for
supervision and intervention at calving
• Early removal of the calf from its mother
reduces the risk of disease transmission
• Before a new cow or group is moved to the
calving area it should be cleaned, and dry
• Regular supervision ensuring early
detection of abnormal calvings
Avoid
•More than 10 days between 1st and last
calving date in a multiple calving pen
•Stressing cows during calving as this may
delay delivery
12
Standard operating
procedures
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Successful calving is the first step towards
successful calf rearing. Many calves can die
during calving and many more may suffer
from oxygen deprivation and bruising, which
will adversely affect their start in life. Written
calving protocols should be in place for farm
staff to follow. Such a protocol is called a
standard operating procedure (SOP) and
calving management is one of the areas where
developing an SOP is recommended. Calving
staff should be trained to recognise signs of
calving progress, reference times for intervention,
good hygiene practices at calving, and strategies
to correct abnormal presentation, position, or
posture where necessary (e.g. in the event of
calving difficulties). During labour cows should be
monitored with as little disturbance as possible.
SOPs for the management and hygiene of
the calving area, moving cows, supervision and
intervention at calving should be developed.
Calving pen requirements
Calving pen
The newborn calf is almost unprotected against
infectious diseases. Hence, proper cleaning
and disinfection of the calving area between
deliveries is extremely important in order to
prevent the transfer of microbes that live in
the calving area surroundings. Calving boxes,
whether single or multiple, should be spacious
and kept clean and well-bedded with a daily
addition of 10 to 12 kg fresh bedding per cow.
The flooring should provide sufficient grip to
facilitate the calving process. Climate and
ventilation within the building must be adequate
to avoid high humidity and prevent the bedding
from becoming excessively wet. If your knees
are wet after kneeling it is not dry enough for
your calving cows. Other things to consider
are the importance of enabling the necessary
supervision, assistance and care of the cow
and calf after delivery. Cleaning and disinfection
should be carried out between each calving
or group, allowing the pen to dry properly
afterwards.
Close-up pen
Calving pen
Feeding space
2.49ft/0.76m of linear bunk space
per cow
Each individual pen has feed and water,
group pens have at least the same space as
close-up cows
Lying space
1 lying stall per cow in freestall or
120ft² (11m²) per cow in bedded
pack or compost barn
Clean and sanitary, 160ft² (15m²) of lying space
per cow
Flooring
Soft, non-slip flooring (e.g., straw
pack or soft rubber)
Soft, non-slip flooring (e.g., straw pack)
Disturbance/
seclusion
N/A
Quiet, secluded area with little disturbance
during labour
Training/
protocol
Identify signs of labour
Identify signs of labour, reference times for
intervention, good hygiene practices, strategies
for dystocia
Ref. Specific recommendations taken from the Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Dairy Cattle, National Farm Animal Care
Council, Canada.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Individual pen
Cows are preferably housed in an individual pen/
box that provides sufficient space. Pens may be
built entirely of gates to facilitate supervision and
good cleaning and disinfection between every
calving. The ease of moving cows or opening
a partition when assistance is needed during
calving are also important aspects. A square pen
is preferred since it allows freer movement of the
cow and people. The absolute minimum required
space for a calving pen is 11.2m2 (120 sq ft),
however, the more space the better the working
environment and increasing the calving pen area to
16m2 or 170 sq ft is recommended.
Group calving pen
If handled correctly, housing calving cows on straw
bedded yards can provide a comfortable and calm
environment for the cow. The recommendation
is at least 11 m2 (120 sq ft) straw area per cow
with 40% extra space to accommodate surges
of calving. If seasonal calving patterns or
seasonal fluctuations due to heat stress, etc. are
anticipated, a space planning calculation, taking
the seasonality into account, should be done. If
the same multiple boxes are used for both closeup and calving purposes it is important to keep
the group consistent, to avoid adding new cows
and to select cows close to calving dates. If this is
13
impossible, the space per cow should be enlarged
considerably to mitigate stress and the entrance of
new cows should be limited to once weekly.
Heifers and weak animals should preferably
be kept in smaller groups with less stress and
enhanced supervision. Immediate removal of the
calf is recommended to avoid transmission of
disease and to secure provision of colostrums
from the dam.
Individual pen
Pasture
A well kept grass pasture with minimal manure
contamination is a good area for cows to calve in.
Pasture calving forms part of an overall system
and a part of how to manage and graze cows.
Mud should be avoided and if water is visible
on the ground surface it is not dry enough for
calving cows. Supervision and accurate feeding
in this system is more difficult, and if cows need
assistance, proper restraint and availability of clean
water may be a problem.
Pasture
Group calving pen
14
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Calving
Calving targets
• A calm cow that feels comfortable in the calving area
• Maximum chance of normal unassisted calving
• Infections and injuries of the cow and calf prevented by the use of standard procedures
• Strangulation with the umbilical cord prevented for backward positioned calves
• Breathing of calf after birth facilitated
• Viable, strong newborn calves
Moving the cow
Moving the cow to the calving pen
Moving the cow from her group may cause
stress and, thereby, greater risk of a delayed and
subsequently prolonged calving process. Move
the cow to the calving pen 1 day before expected
calving at the earliest but before labour begins,
as this may disrupt normal calving behavior and
labour.
Signs of calving
• Decreased appetite
• Cow separating from the group
• Signs of discomfort
• Relaxed pelvic bands
Stages of calving
Stages of a normal calving
Monitoring ongoing calving is more important
than most other tasks in the operation and should
be prioritised. Everyone on the farm dealing with
calving should understand the basic terms used
in order to communicate with each other and with
the veterinarian in cases of difficult or abnormal
births. To limit the chance of transmitting
diseases from cow to calf, it is necessary that the
calving be performed under hygienic conditions.
The three stages of the calving process
SOP for calving
supervision and
intervention
1 Dilation of the Cervix
In general, this stage lasts from two to three
hours in mature cows and four to six hours in
heifers. It begins with initial labour and ends when
the cervix is fully open and the calf has entered
the birth canal. The cow may show kicking at her
belly and restlessness due to contractions. At the
end of stage 1 the water sac becomes visible.
The cow may separate from the group and urinate
frequently. This is often more evident in heifers.
2 Delivery of the Calf
The second stage is characterised by the
progression of the calf through the birth canal
and ends with delivery of the calf. After the head
has passed through, little extra effort is required
to expel the rest of the body. This stage may last
from two to 10 hours. A common mistake is to
pull on the forelegs of the calf unnecessarily or
too early. The calf must enter the birth canal in a
certain position. Both forward (coming forward
with both front legs and head extended into the
birth canal) and backward (coming backward with
soles of the hooves up and toes pointed down)
presentations are considered normal. The latter
is a high risk calving because the umbilical cord
is pinched off before the calf's head is delivered.
If the calf is presented in other positions this is
considered an abnormal calving.
3 Expulsion of the Placenta
During the third stage, the afterbirth is expelled
from the uterus. Normally, the afterbirth should be
expelled within 12 hours of birth.
Example of a standard procedure (SOP) for
calving supervision and intervention*
Calving management is one of the areas where
adoption of a protocol for hygiene management,
supervision and intervention is called for. An
example of such a protocol is shown below.
• Monitor an ongoing calving regularly and record
the time when the outer water sac bursts.
• Increase inspection frequency to at least once
an hour and note labour contractions and any
progress.
• Record time of bursting of the inner water sac
and which parts of the calf are visible.
• Increase inspection frequency to at least twice
an hour.
* Standard operating procedures Växa Sweden 2014
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
– Do not offer assistance too quickly as this could
lead to stress with some cows and delay the birthing
process.
– Never intervene in a calving if you are in doubt of
solving the situation or if you do not understand the
problem. Instead, immediately call a veterinarian.
• Intervention recommended when:
– The water sac has been visible for 2 hours the cow has
no or weak labour contractions without progress.
– The calf is still not visible 30 minutes after burst of inner
water sac.
– Intense labour contractions without progress for 30
minutes.
• Determine position of calf
– If head and two front legs present normally, no
assistance is needed.
– If in backward position, careful supervision and traction
to prevent strangulation of umbilical cord is often
needed.
– Stop in case of abnormal position.
15
•Intervention
– Clean the cow's hindquarters and udder with water,
soap and a disinfectant. Clean and disinfect your hands
and arms carefully and use obstetrical gloves.
– All delivery equipment used should be clean and
disinfected. Use lubricant if needed.
– Place one chain on each leg of the calf above the ankle
joint and dew claw.
– Pull the calf gently, one leg and then the other
alternately and follow the rhythm of the contractions.
– After exposing the head and shoulders, pull downward
at a 45-degree angle.
– If in backward position and the hocks are level with the
vulva, provide traction back and downwards following
contractions.
• When the calf is born remove mucus from nostrils
and mouth of calf and check for breathing. If the calf
is unresponsive, rub it briskly to stimulate it, or use a
piece of straw or hay to tickle its nostrils to stimulate its
breathing.
16
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
First day of life
Do
• Newborn calves must be taken care of
immediately after birth
– Make sure that the calf is dried to avoid
heat loss
– Ensure protection from cold climate by
providing adequate amounts of dry bedding
– Dip the navel with an approved iodine
solution
– Weigh the calf
• Give at least 4L (10% of body weight)
high-quality colostrum within 2 hours of birth
(See section on colostrum)
• Keep the environment draught-free
• Design and follow hygiene protocols to avoid
disease transmission
• After difficult birth, follow a special treatment
routine for those calves
– Have clear monitoring routines in place
– Check the status and temperature of the newborn calf every 2 hours
• Move the calf to an individual pen (according
to farm protocol no later than 24 hrs after birth)
• Identify problems in an early stage and take
immediate action
Avoid
• Wet calves
• Not immediately attending newborn calves
• Providing bad quality or insufficient
amounts of colostrum
• Leaving weak calves unattended
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
17
From uterus to pen
Facing a world full of infectious agents, climate and
nutritional challenges outside the uterus demands
fairly rapid adaptation by the calf, effective management and a good environment.
First hours of life – A calf adapting to the outer
world will:
• Alter its blood flow
• Start breathing
• Produce its own body heat
• Stand up
• Search for the udder to get fed
• Suckle for milk, nutrition no longer for free via
the navel
• Avoid infections from the dam and the environment
After normal delivery, the newborn calf will
automatically start breathing shortly after rupture of
the umbilical cord. At this time (immediately after
delivery) normal calves are very active and try to get
up immediately. This should result in standing up
within 1 or 2 hours after birth. The suckling reflex
is there from the start and is strongly expressed,
even before the calf can stand. The calf is normally
alert, responsive and active.
Factors delaying the process of getting up are
severe weather conditions, injuries, illnesses
and/or exhaustion and oxygen deprivation from
a difficult birth.
Wet hair cannot insulate the calf, and as the
water evaporates, it takes heat with it and is
extremely energy costly in young calves at
colder temperatures. By licking, the cow will, to
some extent, dry the newborn calf and stimulate
breathing, blood circulation, defecation and general
activity. However, at cold ambient temperatures
the calf should be dried directly after birth. This is
particularly urgent if wind speed is high. A newborn
calf is cold stressed when the temperature is below
13° C and a heat source (infrared lamp, or panel
heater, etc.) should be provided. Air speed at the
surface of the skin also considerably influences the
amount of heat loss. A rule of thumb is that it should
not be possible to feel air movement on the back of
one's hand at calf level, where air speed should be
less than 0.25m/s (50ft/min). When handling calves,
treat them carefully and make them associate
positive feelings with humans. A good way of doing
this is to stay with the calf when feeding it during
the first 3–5 days. If a calf associates pain and fear
with humans, the handling of the calf now and later
as heifer and cow will be more difficult.
Assessment of the newborn calf
• Time until the calf can stand: preferably within
an hour and always less than two
• Constant temperature (38.0 – 39.4° C)
• Shivering calf: take action: shelter, blanket
and/or heating lamp
• Calf is lethargic and has trouble maintaining
body temperature: check the reasons and add
shelter/heat
• Is the calf actively suckling?: place your finger
in the mouth to check if the calf is warm and
has the suckling reflex
Keep the calf dry
18
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Moving the calf
Moving the calf to
a pen
Separation from
the dam
Calves are very sensitive to pathogen exposure.
Once the calf is ready to stand and walk, the
chances of being exposed to more pathogens
increase. As soon as the calf is dry and has
been given the first colostrum, (see section on
colostrum) it can be moved to a single or
twin pen environment. A good management
practice is to separate the calf from the dam at
this point. However, depending on the disease
situation in the herd it could be an option to wait
with the moving up to 24 h, but no longer. In such
cases, it is crucial to understand that the feeding
of colostrum must be done manually to ensure
provision of enough volume and quality (see
section on colostrum).
It is recommended to house the calf in a clean,
dry single calf pen/box/hutch for the first one to
two weeks (depending on local regulations and/
or calf performance) to facilitate the build-up
of a strong immune system and prevention of
diarrhoea and respiratory disease. After a few
naps the calf will get up again and will already
have periods when it will stand and walk around.
In the first days calves lie down up to 75%
of the time. Welfare concerns about the early
separation of the calf from the cow have been
raised. However, a balance must be struck. The
longer you wait the bigger the risk of transmitting
diseases to the calf and of increasing stress
levels for both cow and calf when the separation
eventually occurs. On the other hand, you do get
a somewhat sturdier calf if everything works as it
should. But as mentioned earlier, manual feeding
of colostrum is essential.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
19
Colostrum is the key
to calf survival
Colostrum management plays a major role in keeping mortality
down on the farm. Calves underserved with colostrum run an
increased risk of disease and death.
Do
• Feed calves with high-quality colostrum
– Milk the cow as soon as possible after
calving (1–2 hours)
– Check quality before giving the colostrum
to the calf
– Give at least 4L (10% of body weight)
high-quality colostrum within 2 hours of
birth
– Maintain strict hygiene
– Store and freeze excess good-quality
colostrum
– Test lgG status of calves 2 to 7 days after
colostrum feeding on a regular basis to
ensure colostrum management is working
• In case of shortage of good-quality
colostrum, use a complementary colostrum
supplement
Avoid
• Letting the calf suckle the first meal of
colostrum from the dam
• Routine tube feeding
20
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
A calf is born unprotected
Colostrum =
protection
During pregnancy the calf only receives a small
amount of protective substances through the
placenta. Furthermore, a newborn calf’s immune
system is still developing and the calf has little
or no protection from germs (infective agents) in
their environment. Calves are extra vulnerable
immediately after birth.
The milk from the first milking following delivery
is called colostrum. Colostrum of the right quality
and quantity given to the newborn calf at the right
time it is the cornerstone of success for calf
survival in any herd. It contains important nutrients:
vitamins, minerals, energy and protein, besides
antibodies (immunoglobulins lgG) and many other
important substances. Calves that get sufficient
amounts of good-quality colostrum in their first few
hours gain passive immunity against germs, thus
protecting the calf through its first weeks until its
own immune system becomes fully active.
Risks associated with inadequate
provision of colostrum
Long term risks:
lower weight gain,
later first
insemination,
lower milk
production
The antibody level in blood 2–7 days after birth
indicates how successful colostrum provision has
been and can be measured. At this time, calves
should have at the very least 8g antibodies/litre
blood.
Calves with low levels of immunoglobulin absorption will experience the consequences for
the rest of their lives. Studies have shown that as
many as 35% of dairy calves will have low levels
of serum immunoglobulins. This number can go
up to 61% if calves are allowed to nurse with the
dam. Among the short term risks are increase in
neonatal mortality due to diarrhoea, respiratory
disease and an increase in veterinary costs and
use of antibiotics. Long term risks are not fully
understood and usually largely underestimated.
Heifers will have lower daily weight gain and thus
a higher age at first insemination. These heifers
will also have lower milk production and a higher
culling rate during first lactation. These facts,
once again, emphasise the crucial role of good
colostrum management.
Studies have
shown that as many
as 35% of dairy
calves will have
low levels of serum
immunoglobulins.
This number can go
up to 61% if calves
are allowd to nurse
with the dam.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
21
Colostrum quality varies considerably
The composition of colostrum is different from that
of normal milk and changes rapidly after calving.
The protective value decreases with each milking
and only the first milking is considered
true colostrum. The following milkings are often
high in antibodies and extra nutrients and are
referred to as transition milk. The quality of
colostrum may also vary considerably (from <10 to
235 g IgG/L) due to circumstances such as:
• Age of cow: colostrum from cows at lactation
one and two often has fewer antibodies
• Time of first milking since calving
• Leakage from the udder before calving
• Short dry period (<3 weeks)
• Breed and milk yield
• Dry cow ration: cows fed restricted amounts of
protein and energy have less antibodies
• High levels of bacteria in colostrum have been
shown to reduce the uptake of antibodies by the
calf and increase the risk of diarrhoea
Due to the wide variation in quality, suitable
colostrum is not always readily available. Goodquality colostrum may and should be frozen for
future use. As it is impossible to visually detect
whether colostrum contains sufficient antibodies, it
is recommended that it be tested.
Alternatively, use of a complementary colostrum
supplement may be considered. However, it
is important to ensure that the product has
been independently tested and is proven to
be successful. Note that this will not replace
colostrum, merely fortify its effect.
Composition of colostrum and whole milk from Holstein cows
Component
Dry matter %
Lactose %
Fat %
1st milking
Colostrum
2nd milking
3rd milking
Milk
24.0
2.7
18.0
14
13.0
3.9
4.4
5.0
4.0
6.7
5.4
3.9
Protein %
14.0
8.0
5.0
3.1
IgG (g/l)
32.0
25.0
15.0
0.06
Average composition of colostrum (1st, 2nd and 3rd milking) and normal milk from Holstein cows.
Ref. Van Saun RJ. Transition Cow Nutrition and Management: The Key to Herd Reproductive Performance. Pennsylvania State University.
Prevention and
handling of variation
in colostrum quality
22
Principles of
successful
colostrum feeding
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
To achieve successful passive transfer of IgG, the calf must first consume a
sufficient mass of antibodies in colostrum and then be able to successfully absorb
a sufficient quantity of these molecules into its circulation. Major factors affecting
the amount of IgG consumed by the calf include the quality and volume of
colostrum fed. The major factor affecting the absorption of IgG molecules into
circulation is how promptly first colostrum feeding is provided after birth, and the
cleanliness of the colostrum.
5 golden rules to colostrum feeding
1 Quick
The calf should get colostrum as quickly as
possible after birth. The ability of the intestine to
absorb antibodies from colostrum into the blood
is most efficient during the first four to six hours of
life. At about 12 hours after birth the absorption of
immunoglobulins is reduced by 50% and after 24
hours the calf can hardly absorb any antibodies at
all. Milk the cows as soon as possible after calving
to assure adequate delivery of antibodies to the
calf. If you wait to milk the cow for the first time,
antibody content of colostrum will decrease by
dilution.
2 Quantity
To provide the calf with enough energy, nutrients
and antibodies, calves should get as much
colostrum as possible as soon as possible.
Protein, fat and sugars from colostrum help
to increase the calf’s metabolism and heat
production. Moreover, colostrum intake facilitates
the first stool (meconium). Ideally calves should
receive 10% of their body weight, i.e. three to
four litres of colostrum within one to two hours
after birth and another two to three litres within
six hours after birth, depending on weight. The
antibodies absorbed in the first 12–16 hours
will help to protect the calf against infection for
three to four weeks. The calf´s own production
develops over the first four to six weeks. The
amount of colostrum intake is, therefore, crucial.
3 Quality
Always test the antibody content and use or freeze
the best quality. Colostrum should at least contain
50g/L of IgG. Colostrum with <50 g/L IgG will not
provide an adequate amount of protection to the
newborn calf, even if it is fed shortly after birth.
Collect and feed colostrum in clean, disinfected
buckets. Ideally, colostrum should be given to the
calf directly after milking the cow for the first time.
Fresh colostrum can be stored in the refrigerator
for up to 24 hours and in the freezer for 1 year if
refrigerated or frozen within 1 hour after collection.
Frozen colostrum should be thawed slowly in a hot
water bath at a temperature of 50° C.
• Avoid use of colostrum from cows that have
been on the farm for less than six weeks
as their colostrum may not contain sufficient
antibodies to farm-specific germs.
• Do not give calves colostrum from cows with
mastitis. Calves are extremely vulnerable to
disease during their first days of life. Before gut
closure, germs may be taken up from the gut
into the calf’s bloodstream.
• To increase the content of relevant antibodies
in colostrum, cows can be vaccinated against
relevant infective agents prior to calving. This
will reduce the risk of serious infections.
• If only low-quality or insufficient colostrum
is available, or if the dam is known as a high
shedder of Johne’s disease or other diseases, a
commercial colostrum supplement can be used.
4 Frequency
The calf should receive multiple colostrum
feedings by bottle during the first day of life.
Research has proven that calves that are stressed
when receiving colostrum will not absorb the
protective antibodies as efficiently as those that
are calm. Thus a stressed calf would require more
colostrum in order to achieve the same level of
immunity as a calf that was not stressed. This
is one of the reasons why routine use of an
oesophagal tube is not recommended, except
when, after several attempts, the calf refuses to
drink from the bottle.
5 Cleanliness
Strict hygiene standards for cleaning and
sanitation should be observed when milking a
fresh cow. The udder as well as the recipient
should be thoroughly cleaned. If this is not done
the colostrum can expose the gut of the newborn
calf to a high level of bacteria, thereby decreasing
the absorption of immunoglobulins.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
16
14
Max serum lgG (g/L)
12
10
08
06
04
02
00
00
04
08
12
16
20
24
Age at first feeding (hours)
The calf's ability to absorb antibodies declines rapidly in the first 24 hours.
Ref. Journal of Dairy Science 62:1766-1773 G.H Stott, D.B Marx, B.E Menefee, G.T Nightengale
lg
lg
lg
lg
lg
lg
If bacteria reach the intestine before colostrum does, they often enter the blood and may be fatal.
The bacteria also can prevent antibodies from reaching the calf’s blood.
23
24
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Testing of
colostrum quality
How to measure colostrum quality
Because of the large variation in colostrum
quality it is important to test it before feeding it to
the calf. Colostrum containing 50 mg/ml of antibodies (IgG) or more is considered to be of high
quality for newborn calves.
Refractometer
Refractometer
The Brix refractometer optical or digital is a
valuable tool that can easily be used on the farm
to measure the immunoglobulin content of
colostrum. The scale on these tools is designed
to measure the amount of sucrose in a solution,
but the Brix values can be related to the IgG
content in colostrum. A Brix value of 22% corresponds to 50 mg/ml IgG; this percentage can be
used as a cutoff point to decide whether colostrum quality is sufficient or not. The advantages
of using a refractometer over a colostro-meter
are that refractometers are less fragile than colostrometers and that refractometer readings are not
temperature dependent.
Colostrometer
Colostrometer
Colostrometers or densitometers measure
colostrum density, which indicates the
concentration of antibodies in the colostrum. The
colostrometer is placed in a cylinder containing
colostrum and is allowed to float freely.
Colostrum that tests green contains >50mg/
ml IgG and is safe to feed to newborn calves.
Yellow or light green contains 20 to 50 mg/ml
IgG. This colostrum can be fed to one or two
day old calves. If this is fed to younger calves,
a colostrum supplement should be used. If the
sample is in the red band, it contains <20 mg/ml
of IgG. This is poor quality colostrum and should
always be used with a colostrum supplement.
For greatest accuracy the colostrometer should
be used with colostrum at room temperature
(25–30 Co, 77–86oF) as the temperature affects
density. IgG content is overestimated at lower
temperatures and under-estimated at higher
temperatures.
Digital and optical Brix refractometer
Colostrometer floating in colostrum sample.
This sample tests green and contains
>50 mg/ml of IgG.
Store and freeze excess colostrum of good quality
• Good quality colostrum can be refrigerated for 1 day (24 h)
with acceptable hygienic quality
• Colostrum can be frozen at -20°C for up to 1 year without losing its protective
properties
• Always date label
• Store in bottles or zip-closure bags in 1,2 or 4 litre portions in flat packages
• When necessary, a portion can be thawed placing it in a warm (50° C) water bath
• Do NOT use a microwave since this can destroy the antibodies
• After thawing, gently mix the colostrum and immediately give it to the calf
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Pasteurisation of colostrum and raw or waste milk
Colostrum
Pasteurisation can be applied to reduce the number of bacteria in colostrum and
raw milk. This is important since colostrum can transmit many important diseasecausing pathogens like Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease),
Salmonella, Mycoplasma, Listeria, Escherichia coli. The most commonly used
technique is batch pasteurisation, heating the colostrum to 60° C for 30 minutes.
It is extremely important to carefully monitor time and temperature as antibodies
can be destroyed. Another advantage of pasteurisation is that it will improve the
efficiency of immunoglobulin absorption by about 10%. Observe that milk intended
to be pasteurised should be cooled after milking to avoid the growth of bacteria
and be used directly after pasteurisation for the same reason.
Raw or waste milk
Follow the same rules as for colostrum (above). It is important not to add new milk
to the pasteurised batch and to clean the equipment carefully between batches. Do
not use milk containing antibiotics.
25
Pasteurisation of
colostrum and raw
milk
26
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
First week(s):
getting the calf ready for life
Do
• Choose a calf rearing system that suits your
farm and ensures the following:
– Good ventilation: clean air and a draughtfree environment
– Good bedding management and cleaning
routines
– A stable temperature: avoiding cold and heat
stress at the calf level
• Develop standard routines for feeding that
includes:
– Cleaning and disinfection routines to ensure
best hygiene at all times
– Feed colostrum or transition milk for at least
4 days
– A milk feeding set-up that allows the calf to
suck easily in the natural posture
– Access to clean water and feeding highquality starter and hay from the first week
• Start feeding and handling the youngest calves
and end with the oldest to avoid spread of
infections
• Check calf health at least twice daily and record, inform and act immediately on issues
• House sick or weak calves separately until they
have recovered and are vigorous
Avoid
• Wet calves and wet bedding
• Feeding unpasteurised milk and waste milk
containing antibiotics
• Allowing calves to drink milk in incorrect
position
• Rapid change of milk type and concentration
of milk replacer
• Fecal or other contamination of milk, feed
or water
• Using milk replacer not adapted for young
calves
• Feeding or handling young calves after
older animals
• Exposing sick or weak calves to
temperature stress (warm or cold)
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
27
The first weeks shape the calf´s future
life as a dairy cow
The goal of the first one to two weeks of calf rearing is to have a healthy, strong calf that is drinking
its milk on its own. The calf needs to be healthy
and vigorous in order to be ready to go into a
group of calves. As calves are often prone to
diarrhoea and navel infection during this period,
they should receive every possible attention
during first days of life. The daily work routine for
the care of newborn calves should be planned
and a specific farm routine is a great way to
ensure these vulnerable calves are taken care of.
If showing any sign of disease the calf should be
handled with care and isolated to avoid spreading
the disease. The main goals for care in the first
weeks are:
• Training the calf to drink milk or milk replacer and
satisfy the calf’s appetite
• Encouraging the calf to taste the concentrate and
drink water
• Keeping the calf healthy
• Early detection and treatment of disease
• Ensuring a positive relationship with people
Caring for calves in first days of life
Newborn calves differ a lot in fitness during the
first days of life. Difficult calving, developmental
age (early parturition) and malformations can all
affect how fit a calf is at birth and it’s vigor during
the following days.
Healthy calves have very good appetites at
this early age and when fed milk ad libitum their
intake averages 5l on day 2, 8l on day 4. Some
calves can drink 10l or more. Satisfying this appetite maintains the calf’s vigour and ensures good
growth, taking advantage of the calf’s growth
potential.
1 Calves drink best by sucking from a teat as
most of them have a very strong sucking reflex.
The milk should be placed higher than the teat
so the calf does not have to suck hard to get the
milk (as occurs on the dam during the first days).
2 Some calves learn rapidly to come to the
milk bottle or the teat feeder, others require more
training. Gentle handling of hungry calves helps
speed up independent feeding.
3 Providing a source of heat during cold
weather has been shown to increase the intake
of calves in the first 2 days after birth.
4 Providing dry, clean deep bedding is
essential to maintain calf health and comfort.
Anne Marie de Passillé, University of British Columbia
First weeks of life
28
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Feeding more milk for high growth rate
is recommended
Liquid feeding
From colostrum
to milk
The liquid feeding phase is a very important period
for calves’ health and growth. An accelerated
growth programme with a high pre-weaning nutrient
intake can generate high daily weight gains during
the first few weeks of life and is recommended
for the majority of farms. Accelerated growth
programmes have positive effects on development
of the calf since it can help increase first lactation
and long-term milk yield. It also allows the calf to
withstand environmental stress without resulting in
weight loss. This feeding system has been proven
to result in cows that are more energetic, more
fertile and healthier compared to lower growth rates.
Learning to drink milk
The abomasum (where the milk is digested) is
the only one of the calf’s four stomachs that is
functionally developed at birth.
When calves are drinking or sucking milk, milk
will bypass
the rumen and flow directly into the
Small intestine
abomasum Abomasum
through the esophageal groove (the
channel between esophagus and abomasum).
The calf should preferably be given milk from a
bottle or teat bucket or other teat feeder, in order to
slow down3 2the ingestion of milk.
1
Sucking from
a teat allows the calves to perform
natural sucking behaviour compared to drinking
from a bucket without a teat, which could lead to
digestive problems. The calf should keep her neck
Rumen
and head up during drinking and the height of the
teat should be equal to the normal nose height of
the calf. The calf should not drink too fast. A teat is,
therefore, preferable to an open bucket.
Throat
Do
From colostrum to milk or milk replacer
Milk from the cows´ first milkings after calving is
often called transition milk and contains more
antibodies and nutrients than in later lactation and
thus is better at protecting the calf from scours.
Hence, a combination of a generous provision of
colostrum during the first day of life and pasteurized
transition milk during the next 3-5 days is strongly
recommended.
Feeding pasteurized high quality cows´ milk is
recommended following the transition milk. If this
is not possible, the switch from transition milk to
milk replacer must be done gradually. The goal is
to have the calf consuming a minimum of 15% of
live weight per day. During the first week, Holstein
calves will drink 2-12l /day if milk is available free
of choice, depending on the health, appetite and
size of the calf. Since the abomasum has only a
certain capacity, it is better to split the daily ration
into several smaller portions. If too much milk is
consumed at once, the abomasum can overflow
and the milk can flow into the rumen where it can
Avoid
Small intestine
Abomasum
Small intestine
Abomasum
32
Training calves to suck milk from a teat requires
some skills. The calf should be held and gently
guided to the teat (without causing unnecessary
stress to the calf). This can be done by allowing
the calf to suck the trainer’s fingers and gradually
moving the calf’s mouth onto the teat. Ensuring
that the calf drinks according to her appetite from a
teat greatly reduces cross-sucking between calves.
However, ensuring good hygiene of the teats is an
important part of the cleaning routine.
1
Throat
32
1
Rumen
Rumen
Throat
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
result in digestive problems. In most cases 2.5l
per meal will not cause problems.
Milk or milk replacer?
Raw milk works well and can be a good option
from a labour point of view. It is an excellent feed
but a complete feeding programme should include also starter and forage.
Any leftover milk should be stored below 5ºC.
Milk not fed within 24 hours has to be repasteurized before feeding. To reduce the amount of
bacteria following pasteurization, milk can be
acidified. The safest way to do this is with the
help of lactic acid bacteria to reduce the pH of
the milk. The low pH limits the growth of harmful
bacteria and other harmful organisms.
Feeding waste milk containing antibiotics
should be avoided. Not only does it increase the
risk for microbes in the gut flora developing resistance to antibiotics but also it disturbs the gut
environment and presumably as a consequence
health and growth of calf.
Remember that sudden changes in the quality
of raw milk can cause digestive problems and
decrease solid feed consumption and prolong
rearing time. If whole milk is used, pasteurization is strongly recommended. Pasteurization
of the milk kills most harmful bacteria making it
more suitable for calves. However, it still needs
to be handled in a hygienic manner to reduce the
chances of contamination after pasteurization.
Feeding with raw milk
29
Feeding whole milk
• Offer milk at a temperature of 37–39° C to
ensure coagulation in the abomasums. To
achieve this, heat the milk to 40° C (the same
applies to colostrum and transition milk).
• Offer only pasteurised milk with no antibiotic
residues.
• Acidified cold milk feeding is currently
practiced in some systems and appears to
work well.
Feeding with milk replacer
• Milk replacer should contain at least 20 to
22% crude protein and 15 to 20% fat and the
protein should be provided from milk sources.
• Shift gradually from raw milk to milk replacer
over two to three days.
• Follow the manufacturer's recommendations.
• Apply precise and stable standardised mixing
routines.
• Use clean water.
• The milk must be free from lumps and always
freshly prepared. Use a stainless steel whisk.
• Store open bags with milk powder in a
dry, rodent-free environment to avoid
contamination or spoiling.
• Drinking temperature should be kept constant.
• For bucket feeding, the replacer temperature
should be at least 38–39º C.
• For powders with higher fat melting point, the
temperature should be between 42–43º C.
Milk replacer
30
Feeding with milk
replacer
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
To avoid changes in the quality of raw milk, this
could be exchanged with a good quality milk
replacer to keep protein and fat contents stable.
High quality milk replacer will also cover the
nutritional needs of the calf. It has correct and
consistent composition which decreases the risk
of digestive problems. It also contains the dietary
minerals and vitamins the calf needs. Moreover,
with milk replacer, the transfer of contagious
diseases might be reduced.
The preparation of the milk replacer must be done
with care, respecting concentration, water quality,
hygiene of mixing and serving equipment and
mixing temperature. The feeding schedule provided
by the manufacturer should be followed and a high
quality milk replacer made with protein of dairy milk
origin should be chosen. Milk replacer should have
a minimum amount of dry matter content per litre.
To get the right level of energy the concentration of
milk should normally be 150 grams per litre (1.25 lb
per gal).
It is important that the energy density or the total
amount of feed is increased during periods of cold
stress. For example calves up to three weeks of
age housed at -25°C, (-13°F) require double the
amount of energy compared to calves at 20°C,
(68°F). To ensure the right level of energy intake at
cold temperatures, it is often necessary to increase
the number of feedings/day and to use a milk
replacer with a higher fat content and/or transition
milk during the whole first week. Increasing the
fat level of replacer (about 20%) or increasing the
concentration of milk replacer per day by 30 to
50%, are two methods that are practised.
Feeding solids and water to calves from the first week
• Provide potable water from the first week
• Give small portions (handfuls) of fresh, tasty high-quality concentrate
• Exchange concentrate regularly to ensure that the calf is continuously offered
tasty feed of high hygienic quality
• Offer fresh forage of high hygienic quality from first day in life
• If feeding a mix, change it on a daily basis to avoid fermentation or deterioration
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Time for solid feed and water
The calf requires both liquid and solid feed, easy
access to fresh water, and calf starter from the
beginning of the rearing period. This will aid earlier rumen development and growth, hence, starter
feed should be offered during the first week of
life. Calves eat very little but a small amount of
starter should be available for tasting and rumen
development.
Provide a small quantity of high-quality long
straw hay from day one. Hay cannot be digested
in the first days of life but feeding hay to the unweaned calf leads to good rumen development
(mostly the muscular layer) and better growth.
This also reduces the risk that calves will eat contaminated straw from the floor, which can lead
to diarrhoea. There is also a need for the scratch
factor from forage (hay 150–200 g per day), which
facilitates nutrient absorption.
Daily gains g/lb
Total calf starter intake kg/lb
Scour days per calf
Calves receiving free choice water from birth enjoy higher daily weight gain and consume more
calf starter than calves without free choice water.
Feeding milk or milk replacer is not a substitute
for water. Calves have a requirement for fresh,
clean, good quality water above what is obtained
from milk or milk replacer. It is preferable to give
young calves water in a bucket as the water is
meant to end up in the rumen. Rumen microbes
digest and utilise the feed and water ingested by
the calf. On warm days, more water is needed.
Free choice water
Limited water
308/0.68
180/0.40
11.8/26
8.1/18
4.5
5.4
Ref. Source: A F Kertz, L F Reutzel, J H Mahoney, Ad libitum water intake by neonatal calves and
its relationship to calf starter intake, weight gain, feeces score, and season., Journal of Dairy Science (1985; 67(12):2964-9
31
Solid feed and
water
32
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Housing requirements
Housing systems
As mentioned previously, during its first days
of life, the calf should be moved and housed
individually or in pairs to minimise the spread
of infection and to facilitate the build-up of an
active immune system. One way to minimise
transmission while still enabling calves to
socialise is to house 2 calves from birth in a
bigger single hutch or pen. This has been shown
to increase feed intake and growth and decrease
social stress when grouping calves later on in
life. Different housing systems are available such
as indoor boxes or hutches placed outside,
depending on the capacity of the farm and the
milking system that will be used. Housing calves
individually during their first days of life will
also make it easier to monitor which calves are
performing well, and which are not.
A variety of facilities can be used to raise dairy
calves. However, no matter what system is used
it has to meet a number of basic requirements in
order to consistently produce healthy and well
grown calves on a year-round basis.
Basics of lying area
• No draught (below 0.25 m or 0.65 ft per sec)
• Dry and clean
• Good drainage
• Properly insulated from the ground
Indoor vs outdoor housing: pros and cons
Indoor vs outdoor
housing
Outdoor housing
Pros
Cons
Indoor housing
Simple and cheap investment
Labour efficient
Lower risk of respiratory disease
Better working conditions in inclement weather
Limits transfer of diseases between
calves
Stable temperature for the calves
Hutches can be moved to less
contaminated areas
Monitoring of calves facilitated
Not suitable for weak calves
Higher risk of respiratory disease
Labour intensive
Cost of ventilation
More bedding required
Higher nutritional needs in cold weather
Calves subject to heat and cold stress
Frost protection for liquids and machines
needed
Whether housing is indoors in boxes/pen or
outside in hutches it is important to ensure good,
draught-free ventilation at calf level with no rapid
temperature fluctuation, thick and dry bedding
and effective routines for feeding, cleaning and
supervision. The minimum space requirement
during the calf’s first weeks of life is 80 x120 cm
or 2.6 x 3.9 feet (1 m2 or 10 ft2) but can this vary
depending on local regulations.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
33
Provide generous bedding at temperatures
below 50° F (10° C)!
Deeply bedded resting surfaces are critical for
very young calves in cold weather. The thermoneutral zone of newborn calves is 50–78° F
(10–23° C) and drops to 32–73° F and 0–23° C
by one month of age. A newborn calf lying on
top of a bare floor at 45° F (7° C) will lose core
body temperature without some thermal
support. Deep bedding allows the calf to build
up a layer of heat within the bed and minimise
heat loss. A scoring system to evaluate the
sufficiency of bedding, called “Nesting score”
(NS), has been developed. It is a simple visual
evaluation of the visibility of the rear leg of a calf
lying down in the bedding.
Nesting score 3
NS1 – Entire rear leg is visible.
NS2 – Rear leg partially visible.
NS3 – Rear leg completely obscured by bedding
Provision of deep bedding, or moderate bedding
plus calf blankets are important factors in preventing disease in cold weather. We believe calf
blankets are equivalent to approximately one
unit of Nesting Score. In other words, provision
of NS2 plus calf blankets is approximately equal
to NS3 without blankets, while the addition of
calf blankets to a NS1 surface does not appear
to achieve the desired thermal support.
Ken Nordlund, Dairy Land Initiative, University of Madison
Wisconsin US
Hutches for single housing of calves Configuration and space
Hutches for single housing of calves Configuration and space
Note! Always adapt and follow local regulations.
The most common way to place hutches is
outside in rows but other variants exist and it is
also possible to place hutches under roof or other
types of un-insulated buildings. An area for the
calf hutches has to be prepared. The ground can
be concrete, hard core or sand. Note! Never place
the calf hutch on clay ground. Always place the
back of the hutches towards the most common
wind and rain direction on a forward sloped area
forward to provide the best conditions.
Urine will be drained out from the hutch and the
bedding will not be exposed to rain. For easy
hutch management it is necessary to plan for a
good logistic flow when feeding, bedding and
cleaning out the hutches before moving in
new calves.
The hutches should be placed in rows sideways
with a minimum distance of 50 cm (1.6 ft). Create
enough space between the rows of hutches
so they can be moved forwards or backwards,
creating a new row. Used hutches in the first
row are moved to the second (empty) row. They
need to be cleaned, sanitised and filled with new
bedding material for the new calves. The first
row can now be easily scraped by a tractor or
other equipment. Rotate back to original location
for subsequent calf and cleaning procedure. If
the hutches are placed under roof or in other
buildings, it is important to allow and plan for two
locations for each row of hutches. This is to reduce
transmission of diseases and allow the area to
dry between each new calf. In some countries,
regulations require social contact between calves
which can, as said, be successfully handled by
keeping calves in pairs.
Hutches for single
or paired housing
34
Drainage under
the hutch
Hutch ventilation
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Drainage under the hutch
Good hutch drainage is critical to maintaining a dry bedded
surface. Urine, spilt milk and water should be able to move
out of the hutches rather than soak the bedding.
Excellent drainage has been achieved using an approximately
0.45cm (1.5ft) deep gravel bed below the bedded area. The
area should be fitted with drainage tiles leading to a collection
area. If the surface below the bedding is concrete, it needs
to have a 2% sloped collection point for drainage in order to
move liquids out of the hutches as efficiently as possible.
To protect calves as much as possible from the cold it is
essential to provide clean, dry, thick bedding. The bedding
should be at least 30cm (12inch) thick in order to completely
cover the calf’s legs and reduce heat loss. Bedding should be
checked daily and replaced if damp or wet.
Ventilation
The front opening should never be blocked or covered by
blankets or plastic sheets. Free access of fresh air and good
ventilation through the top and back minimises the pathogen
load and ammonia build-up.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
35
Housing indoors
Boxes/pen
Different variants of boxes for indoor housing are
available and depending on the arrangement of
the barn the boxes can be installed as a single
box in a single row or in double rows. Here also
housing pairs of calves has been shown to be
beneficial. Some variants of boxes are placed
on the ground without flooring. With this type
of solution it is very important to apply a thick
layer of straw inside the box to create a soft, dry
surface for the calf. Other types of boxes are
elevated and have a slatted floor. The partition
walls are closed at the bottom creating a draught
free environment.
All types of boxes must be deployed in a
draught free area and ensured proper ventilation.
A sufficient volume of air must move in and out
of the building. It is essential to place the boxes
centrally in the stable to avoid draughts. A rule
of thumb is that it should not be possible to feel
air movement on the back of one’s hand in the
area surrounding the calf. Air speed here should
be less than 0.25m or 0.65 ft per sec. Lay a thick
layer of straw inside the box to create a soft, dry
surface for the calf.
Drainage below box/pen
To maintain an excellent environment for the
calves it is in the same way as for hutches used
outdoors important with good box/pen drainage and should follow the same criteria, see side
34. Calves should not be kept in an old barn
not adapted for calves as this may cause health
problems. Calves should be kept in a well-designed barn with sufficient ventilation. In order to
prevent transfer of diseases young calves should
be separated from the herd, particularly older
calves, until they reach the age of four, and preferably six months. When this is impossible, the
calf area should be totally separated. This means
that walls that separate cows from calves should
be roof high. The manure system, including
scrapers, should also be separated. Diseases will
be prevented by keeping manure and ventilation
systems separate. If boxes or pens are placed on
a slatted floor the ventilation and manure system
should be designed in such a way that air from
the manure channel cannot reach the calves. This
can be achieved by adding mechanical ventilation in the manure channel. Young cattle should,
therefore, be placed facing the most common
wind direction.
Ventilation
You should not be able to smell ammonia in a calf
barn. Adequate ventilation is pivotal to reducing
the amount of germs and improving air quality,
thereby minimising respiratory diseases. But there
should not be draughts either. Draughts can be
avoided in two ways:
Drainage below
box/pen
1 Reducing air movement
Air speed should not be faster than 0.25 m or
0.65 ft per sec. To check this, a smoke test can
be performed.
2 No temperature difference
Draughts can only arise where there is a temperature difference. In most situations an open-plan
barn is a good way of preventing temperature
differences from occurring.
Pen ventilation
36
Ammonia gas
Reduce ammonia
exposure
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Why is ammonia bad for calves?
Ammonia gas is especially harmful to a calf’s
defences. Tiny hair-like fingers, cilia, line the windpipe. Their job is to push foreign materials inhaled
by the calf back up and out of the trachea. This way,
‘junk’ containing germs does not end up causing
infections in the lungs. If the cilia work as they should
they lift both solids and liquids up and out of the
trachea and can be an effective defence against
respiratory infections.
Persistent exposure to even quite low levels of
ammonia weakens this defence system. This allows
viruses and bacteria to enter the lower respiratory
tissues. Both the beat pattern of individual cilia and
their coordinated wave activity are disrupted. In this
weakened state, the cilliary transport system can no
longer “sweep” infective agents up and out of the
trachea.
a favourable pH environment. How, then, can we
slow down this manure decomposition? First, the
dryer the conditions, the lower the rate of bacterial
growth and ammonia release. Second, the lower the
oxygen supply for the bacteria, the lower the ammonia release rate. Third, since the mixture of faeces
and urine on the coat of a warm animal generates
ammonia rapidly, the cleaner the calves, the lower
the ammonia release.
Light
Plentiful light doesn’t just make things easier for the
stockholder, it also has significant effects on the
calf. As the hours of daylight decrease the deposition of body fat increases. Insufficient light is interpreted by the calf as winter conditions. In response
the animals start to lay down body fat. It is a good
idea to increase the hours of daylight to 16 using
artificial light, as this promotes efficient use of nutrition. Less fat will be laid down in favour of building
more muscle protein, so that the calf grows more
rapidly.
How can ammonia exposure be reduced?
The most effective way to reduce ammonia exposure is not to generate the gas. Urine provides bacteria with both liquid and nutrients. Calves warm the
soiled bedding and bedding materials often provide
Focus on prevention and treatment
of diarrhoea
Mortality and
disease pattern
During the first month of life diarrhoea is the main
cause of death. The economic impact of diarrhoea
is significant because of losses due to calf death
and reduced growth and longer rearing periods
for the survivors. The impact is long-lasting since
these calves have been shown to have later
calving dates and be in poorer condition at calving.
Other costs include extra labour and veterinary
expenses. Highest death rate among
calves occur during the first 2 weeks of life. Later,
the percentages fall rapidly only to rise again at
around the age of 9 weeks at weaning. According
to a NAHMS (National Animal Health Monitoring
System in the US) report, about 56% of preweaned mortality can be attributed to scours.
Moreover, diarrhoea is associated with a more than
20-fold increase in the likelihood of a subsequent
respiratory disease.
30.0%
80
Diarrhoea
70
25.0%
60
Number of cases
12.9%
3.7%
4.2%
3.0%
6.8%
5.0%
6.8%
10.0%
14.4%
15.0%
21.3%
20.0%
26.9%
% Deaths by week
of life
Respiratory disease
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Weeks after birth
Ref. Source NAHMS and Broadwater N., 2009. Almost 50 % of all
deaths occur during first weeks of life. Explanation: If in a farm 100
calves die during the first 9 weeks, almost 27 calves will die during
the first week, 21 during the second week etc.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Age at disease (weeks)
Ref. : Svensson, C., Lundborg, K., Emanuelson, U. & Olsson, S.-O.
Morbidity in Swedish dairy calves from birth to 90 days of age and
individual calf-level risk factors for infectious diseases. Prev. Vet.
Med., 2003, 58, 179-197.
30
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Causes of diarrhoea
The causes of diarrhoea are twofold: noninfectious (feed-induced) and infectious.
Feed induced diarrhoea
Feeding routines and feed formulation can play a
key role in the onset of diarrhoea. Uncomplicated
feed-induced diarrhoea is usually self-curing and
does not cause mortality. However, the disturbance of normal digestion can create favourable
conditions for the development of pathogens.
Infectious diarrhoea
In most cases, infectious diarrhoea in very young
calves (one to seven days old) is caused by
bacteria like harmful Escherichia coli strains. In
older calves, viruses (e.g. Rota and Coronavirus),
bacteria (Salmonella) or parasites (Cryptosporidium
parvum and Eimeria) are important germs.
37
Feeding factors increasing risk of diarrhoea
•Large quantities of cow’s milk or milk replacer
at a single feeding
•Incorrectly prepared milk replacer (ratio water/
powder or badly mixed)
•Improperly cleaned buckets or teats (milk
or milk replacer residues provide ideal
environments for bacterial growth)
•Sudden change of milk powder source
•Irregular feeding intervals
•Bad hygiene of roughage or concentrate
•Feeding milk from a cow with mastitis
•Use of non-milk proteins for calves less than
3 weeks old
Agent
Infection route
Stage in life
E. coli
Cows and other calves can shed pathogenic strains, infection is
transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf.
Mainly first week of life.
Rota and
Corona virus
Virus is shed in faeces, transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf.
Adult cows and environment are major source of infection.
Mainly day 2 to 14 days.
C. parvum
Contaminated environment or water are sources of infection. Infection
is transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf. The germ can survive
in water for several weeks and is resistant to chlorination and most
disinfectants.
Most common between 10
and 30 days.
Eimeria
Oocysts can survive in the environment for years. Drinking water and
straw are important sources of contamination.
Transmission via faeces ingested by the calf.
Will mainly occur from week
3 until month 6
Salmonella
Dublin and
Typhymurium
most common
Adult cows can serve as carriers. Infection is transmitted from faeces
ingested by the calf.Transmission in calving area is common as is also
contamination via colostrum, feeding utensils and personnel.
Can occur from 1 to 4
weeks of age but also later
Note that lab tests (blood test, faecal analysis,
etc.) and calf autopsies are valuable tools for
identifying the causative agent(s) of disease.
Knowing which pathogen is making calves sick is
not only crucial to determining correct treatment,
but also enables appropriate preventive measures
to be taken aginst disease in the herd. Not every
calf that carries the germs will fall sick. There is a
delicate balance between infection pressure and
a calf’s immunity.
Infectious diarrhoea
Most important
germs causing
diarrhoea in calves
and stage in life
when calves are most
susceptible.
Infection pressure
The goal should
be to enhance calf
immunity and keep
infection pressure as
low as possible.
Immunity
Infection
pressure
38
Calf immunity
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Enhance calf immunity
To keep natural resistance at a high level, stress
factors should be minimised. Appropriate
amounts of good quality feed and an adjusted
stable climate with correct ambient temperatures
can help to achieve this. However, the most
important action in preventing calf diarrhoea is
taken immediately after birth through providing
the calf with enough high-quality colostrum.
Calves should receive 10% of their body weight
of good quality colostrum within one to two
hours after birth and another 5% within six hours
after birth (see section: Feeding colostrum: the
5 golden rules). Providing transition milk until
day four or longer is also protective and local
immunity at intestinal level can be additionally
boosted by the addition of 150–250 ml of
colostrum twice daily to the milk during the
following seven to ten days of life.
Remember that good hygiene, biosecurity
through accurate provision of colostrum
and feeding are all prerequisites of good
calf health. If only low-quality or insufficient
colostrum is available, or the dam is known
as a high shedder of Johne’s disease or other
diseases, a commercial colostrum supplement
and other immune enhancing measures can
be used.
Facts about vaccination, colostrum supplements and health supporting products
• Colostrum supplements
Can be based on concentrated colostrum or contain antibodies from cow’s blood or
egg powder from hyper-immunised chickens. These ‘egg antibodies’ will bind to the
pathogens and prevent them from attaching to the intestine, thus decreasing the risk
of diarrhoea. Colostrum supplements should be obtained from a manufacturer certified
by a competent authority as complying with feed hygiene rules in order to ensure
safety with regard to disease transmission.
• Milk acidifiers
Calves will be fed milk or calf starter enriched with acidifiers like organic acids. These
will hamper the growth of bacteria when used in appropriate dosages. Acidification of
milk fed to calves will lower the pH of the milk to 5.0–6.0 (not lower as this may lower
appetite), a level which is unfavourable to bacterial growth. In addition, acidifiers will
also lower the pH in the calf’s gut, improving digestion and nutrient availability and
thus promoting weight gain.
• Probiotics
Probiotics are live micro-organisms which confers a health benefit to the host.
Research has shown that administration of probiotics to young calves can improve
weight gain and feed conversion, and can reduce the frequency of diarrhoea.
• Prebiotics
Prebiotics are food for probiotics. They make sure that probiotics can grow and work
efficiently. Commonly used prebiotics for calves are inulin and oligosaccharides.
• Vitamin provision
Provision of vitamins and (trace) minerals are important for calves since these elements
are necessary for growth and development of the immune system. When the dam is
given a balanced ration in terms of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals, milk can
provide the necessary building blocks for the calf. In many cases, however, colostrum
and milk are deficient in mainly fat-soluble vitamins and minerals. It is, therefore,
important to add a vitamin, mineral and trace element mix to whole cow’s milk or use
a fortified milk replacer.
• Vaccination
Vaccination of cows can partially control for diarrhoea. For example, vaccinating cows
against harmful E. coli and Rota and Corona viruses can reduce the severity and the
numbers of calves contracting diarrhoea.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Keeping infection pressure low
Rigorous action must be taken if infection
pressure is to be kept at a low level. Very often,
in the case of diarrhoea, the source of infection
is manure infecting the calf via the mouth (faecaloral transmission), whilst older calves are the
main source in the case of pneumonia. The dam
can also be a source of infection particularly with
regard to Salmonella. People can also spread
disease among calves. It is, therefore, important
to attend to young calves first during the stable
round. Similarly, sick animals should be isolated
and taken care of last. Afterwards, hands and
clothes should be washed and disinfected. All
pens, boxes and hutches should be cleaned,
disinfected and allowed to dry properly (for a
week or longer) before moving new animals into
them. Buckets and bottles used to feed each calf
should carry the same number as the calf’s box
and be cleaned thoroughly with hot water and
detergent after each use.
39
Low infection
pressure
Cleaning and disinfection
There are several factors that must be considered before selecting a
disinfectant to use:
• Some products are effective for routine disinfection protocols at the farm level
• Others are necessary for outbreak situations
• To ensure an effective disinfection protocol, consideration should be given to
the micro-organism being targeted, the characteristics of a specific disinfectant
and environmental issues
Additionally, the health and safety of personnel and animals are always an
important consideration. The use of a broad-spectrum disinfectant active against
viruses, bacteria, yeasts, moulds and other pathogenic organisms is essential
to complete an effective disease control programme. It is of prime importance to
ensure that all surfaces are thoroughly wetted with disinfectant in order to break
the chain of infection. Thoroughly clean all objects to remove any visible debris
(manure, dirt, and bedding) before applying a disinfectant. Most disinfectants
are ineffective when dirt, manure and other debris are present. These materials
prevent the chemicals in the disinfectant from contacting the surface being
cleaned and killing the disease-causing agents.
For more extensive information consult the DeLaval biosecurity guide.
Broad-spectrum
disinfectant
40
Early detection
of sick calves is
paramount
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Early detection of sick calves Successful management of calves and treatment
of disease depends strongly on early detection of
sick calves.
A healthy calf will be alert, stay upright, has a
straight back line and a good appetite. When
a healthy lying calf is approached, it gets up
immediately. A sick calf will not rise as fast.
Other hints are an arched back, lifted belly,
hanging head, hanging ears, dull eyes and a
wide-legged stance.
Treatment of diarrhoea
The most important objectives when treating calf
diarrhoea are fluid replacement and correction
of salt balance. These imbalances are in fact
the cause of death in calves with diarrhoea (a
sick calf can lose up to 8 litres of water per day
causing severe dehydration = water deficiency).
The degree of dehydration can be estimated from
a number of signs (see table).
Check for the following signs at least twice daily
•Slower and reduced intake of milk/milk replacer (keep records!)
•Badly smelling, pasty, whitish or light greying faeces
•Watery or bloody diarrhoea
•Sunken eyeballs or hanging ears
•General weakness
•Increased breathing frequency
•Swelling of navel or joints
•Cough, nasal discharge
Take action if the rectal temperature is above 39.4° C or 103° F for two consecutive
days or on one occasion below 38° C.
Dehydration
Estimating degree
of dehydration by
checking clinical
signs in calf. 8–10%
degree of dehydration
corresponds to a loss
of 4–5 litres in a
50 kg calf.
Degree of
dehydration
Normal
Mild
Moderate
Severe
2.5–3
6–8
8–10
10–14
Skin fold
Normal
3–5 sec
5–10 sec
>10 sec
Eyeball
Normal
Lightly sunken
Sunken
Deep
Wet and warm
Wet and warm
Sticky
Dry and cold
Good
Good
Reduced
Absent
Normal
Normal
Cold
Ice cold
Standing
Standing
Lying
Comatose
>38.0°C
>38.0°C
>38.0°C
<38°C
Fluid loss
(% of body weight)
Mouth
Sucking reflex/
Appetite
Temperature
Limbs/ears
Attitude
Temperature
Ref. Adapted from Meganck V., Vloeistoftherapie bij kalverdiarree
For the skin fold test, a skin fold should be pinched between 2 fingers
and released. In a normal calf the skin fold will return back to normal in
less than half a second.
Ref. Catarina Svensson (Standard operating procedures, Växa Sweden)
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Water and electrolyte balance are restored by
providing an oral rehydratation solution (ORS).
Small amounts of ORS should be provided as often as possible, preferably 4 times/day. The ORS
should be administered at body temperature (to
avoid extra energy loss) via a bucket with a teat
to avoid overflow of the fluid in the rumen where
it can cause ruminal acidosis. The ORS solutions
contain very little energy compared to cow’s milk.
This can lead to malnourishment and weight loss.
Continuous feeding of small but frequent portions of milk will provide the energy and nutrients
necessary for recovery of the gut. If the appetite
is reduced, feeding with an oesophageal tube will
be necessary.
Electrolytes should not be fed to calves whose
digestive tracts are fully compromised. If calves
are not suckling or swallowing, intestinal motility is likely to be reduced as well. As a result,
the electrolyte solution will just stay in the stomach and can cause bloat and rumen acidosis.
“Drenching” electrolytes via a stomach tube
into sick calves that are not suckling is not
recommended. Calves that are too sick to drink
need intravenous fluid therapy instead.
How to use an oesophageal feeder
Oesophageal feeding should be used if, after
several attempts, calves do not want to take colostrum from a bottle, or refuse oral rehydration
solution in the case of dehydration.
The oesophageal feeder consists of a plastic
or metal tube attached to a reusable plastic container or bottle which holds the fluid. It is important to use the probe correctly, in order to prevent
damage e.g. to the calf’s oesophagus. Be aware
of that oesophageal feeding may also transmit
infections. It has also been shown that it may
decrease milk consumption at the following meal.
Example of a SOP for correct use of the
oesophageal feeder
Never perform oesophageal feeding on a lying calf
41
Oesphageal feeder
• Measure how far the tube should be inserted into
the calf. This can be done by comparing the tube
to the distance between the mouth of the calf and
the point of the shoulder. Mark this point on the
tube.
• Fill the container with colostrum or ORS heated to
40° C.
• Attach the container to the tube.
• The calf should be fixed with its rear end in a
corner and its head taken between the legs.
Always keep the calf's head up.
• Avoid leakage from the tube by bending the tube
or by an alternative course of action.
• Open the calf´s mouth with your fingers by
applying pressure onto the gums.
• The end of the tube should be moistened with
colostrum or liquid and gently put into the calf's
mouth.
• After the calf has swallowed the tube, it can be
pushed down into the oesophagus.
• Always check that the tube is in the oesophagus
and not in the windpipe! When correctly placed,
the tube can be felt at the left side of the calf’s
neck and can be moved back and forth.
• When you are certain that you have felt the tip,
straighten the tube up and let the liquid poor out.
• Ensure that any leakage from the tube is
prevented before pulling it out of the calf. This
will prevent leftover liquid from flowing into the
windpipe and the lungs. • Clean and disinfect the bottle and the tube
thoroughly after each use.
Correct use of the
oesophageal feeder
Ref. Catarina Svensson (Standard operating procedures, Växa Sweden)
42
Navel infection
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Navel infection
Infection of the navel stump is one of the most
common sources of infection in newborn calves.
At birth, the calf’s navel string breaks off. The
stump should be around 15 cm (6 inches)
long and take about seven to ten days to dry.
During this period, the young calf is particularly
vulnerable as the stump is an easy entry for
bacteria. The first symptom of navel infection is
a painful swollen area around the remains of the
umbilical cord. At a later stage, calves become
generally depressed, lose appetite and show
signs of forced breathing.
If left untreated, the bacteria can enter the
bloodstream and cause arthritis and lifethreatening infections. It is, therefore, important
to prevent the condition. Navel dipping
immediately after birth can play an important
part in preventing disease in newborn calves.
As for respiratory diseases, properly disinfecting
the navel can substantially lower the number of
calves treated for respiratory diseases.
Preventing navel infection
• As a first step, a calf should be born into a clean environment to
minimize pathogen exposure.
• Navel dipping with iodine tincture should be done immediately after
birth. A strong tincture (at least 7% of iodine) and undiluted solutions
such as teat dips should be used.
• Dipping the navel into the iodine solution is preferred over spraying,
since spraying will not properly disinfect the interior portion of the
umbilical cord.
• Last but not least, good colostrum management is paramount to
prevent navel infection.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
43
First month of life:
gearing up growth rate
Do
Avoid
• Monitor average daily gains
• Wet calves and wet bedding
• Feed for growth rates above 750 g /1.65lb
per day (> 2 times above maintenance
requirement)
• Delayed follow up of calves showing signs of
decreased appetite or suspected disease
• Adjust quantity of milk or milk replacer to
ambient temperature
• Offer free choice of good quality calf starter
– Discard unconsumed calf starter between
feedings
• Provide free choice of fresh water
• Give enough room for moving around,
playing and running
• Make the calves get up once a day and
check health and alertness of calves: if signs
of disease, the calf should be checked
• When dehorning calves, use a local
anaesthetic or pain killer
• Mixing groups of calves in which the age
difference is greater than three weeks
• Introducing a weak calf to group housing
• Bad air quality
44
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Decide on rearing system
Rearing system
Decide on rearing system
In front of you is a 1–2-week-old healthy calf born
without complications of a healthy mother in a
clean environment and loaded with antibodies and
nutrients from its dam. It happily drinks 5 to 8 litres
of milk replacer or milk per day from a nipple and
moreover she has already tasted some concentrate and a few straws of hay. She is comfortable
with you and with life, is full of energy and ready
to learn more about life as a calf. What then is the
next step?
Choices to make
1 From a profitability point of view the most
important decision to make is about feeding. Will
you choose intensive rearing or a more conventional
feeding approach with lower growth rates?
2 Long term decisions regarding housing and
feeding systems. Will you choose a single, pair or
group housing system? Inside or outdoors?
It is all about feed… and water!
Intensive rearing
recommended
Intensive versus conventional rearing
Traditionally growth rates during the calf’s first two
months reached levels between 350 to 600 g (0.8
to 1.3 lbs ) per day. Gradually the recommended
target for average weight gain has changed to 750
to 850 g (1.5 to 1.8 lbs) or more per day in order to
maximise milk production at first lactation. In recent
decades, free choice feeding of dairy calves has
been introduced.
Producers who have adopted this feeding strategy are often pleased with the outcome. High levels
of milk feeding (12 l/d) allow calves to reach their full
growth potential (> 1 kg/2.2 lb per day) and feeding
large amounts of milk does not increase illness if
done correctly.
Acidification of milk and free choice milk replacer
has also been practiced and is often associated
with very high consumption of milk (12–15 litres/
quarts) at 5–6 weeks of age as well as good
growth rates.
As already described, an intensive rearing programme with a higher pre-weaning nutrient intake
of milk or milk replacer and higher growth rates is
nowadays recommended for the great majority of
farms. Achieving these growth rates means providing calves with two to three times the maintenance
requirement. If the calf consumes only the energy
required for maintenance, there is no energy available for growth. The conclusion is that at an ambient temperature of 20° C, (68° F) the amount of milk
or milk replacer during first month of age should
never be lower than six to seven litres (18–21 MJ)
per day. Keeping calves at lower temperatures
greatly increases energy demand.
Energy and crude protein requirements of calves from birth to weaning
Rate of gain
(g/day) / (lb/day)
Dry matter intake
(g/day) / (lb/day)
Metabolisable
energy(ME) MJ/day
Crude protein
(CP) %DM
200/0.44
545/1.2
10.0
18.0
410/0.9
635/1.4
12.1
23.4
600/1.32
770/1.7
14.6
26.6
800/1.76
910/2.0
17.2
27.5
1000/2.2
1090/2.4
20.1
28.7
Ref. Adapted from:
M.E.Van Amburgh,
F.Soberton, J.Karzses,
and R.W. Everett,
Department of Animal
Science, Cornell
University, Ithaca, NY,
2011.
First month of life — liquid feeding
Calf growth
dependent on
amount of milk or
milk replacer
The first month of life is crucial when it comes to
rumen development and preparation for weaning.
The calf is dependent on whole milk or milk replacer
diet and the abomasum is the main compartment of
the stomach involved in digestion. The milk feeding
level and programme should be adjusted to calf
weight, health and climatic conditions.
Faster growth rates can be achieved with larger
portions as long as the amount fed is built up
gradually to avoid diarrhoea. Remember that
bigger calves need more milk.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
45
Energy (MJ) needed to meet the maintenance requirements of calves at varying temperature and different weight.
Please observe that 2-3 times more has to be fed to achieve good growth!
Temperature degrees
(C°) / (F°)
Bodyweight
(kg) / (lb)
20/68
10/50
0/32
-9,5/15
-15/5
-20/-5
-29/-20
27/60
6.2
8.2
9.2
10.3
11.3
12.3
14.4
36/80
8.2
9.2
11.3
13.3
14.4
15.4
17.4
45/100
10.3
11.3
13.3
16.4
17.4
18.5
20.5
54/120
11.3
13.3
15.4
17.4
19.5
20.5
23.6
Ref. Modified from VanAmburgh & Soberon Minnesota dairy health conference, 2011
Feeding less milk than recommended results in
poor growth. In addition, sudden changes in the
amount of milk offered should be avoided as this
increases the risk of digestive upsets and diarrhoea.
Read the label on the milk replacer bag carefully.
For instance, milk replacer designed for calves
more than four weeks old should not be used for
younger calves. The composition and quality of a
milk replacer influences the growth and health of
the calf. Ingredients and nutrient levels vary greatly
between products. During the first month of life,
the calf digests milk proteins well but is not able
to digest plant proteins. Selecting the correct milk
replacer according to age, growth rate and weaning
age goals is crucial to improve digestibility and feed
efficiency. Follow standard routines when preparing
milk or milk replacer.
What is important when choosing milk replacer?
Ingredients in milk replacer
Provides essential amino acids for tissue synthesis in animals.
Crude protein (CP)
Levels of crude protein can vary from 16–30% (Please see different protein sources below)
Provide a concentrate energy source
Crude Fat
Levels of fat can vary from 10–28%
Crude Fiber
Can be used as a measure of product quality and protein sources
Vitamins A,D,E
and minerals
Are necessary for normal growth and health
Medication
Medicated replacer should be used only to deal with a specific health status issue and
must not be a substitute for good management and sanitisation
Various protein sources
Dried skim milk
Casein
Dried whey
Wheat gluten
Animal plasma
Soy flour
Meat soluble
Fish protein
concentrate
Wheat flour
Quality factors
Acceptable source (from milk or specially manufactured and processed for use in calf
milk replacers)
M
arginal (the quality may vary and is not suitable for calves less than 3 weeks old)
N
ot acceptable source (can produce deleterious results when fed to young calves)
Color
C
ream to light tan
If it’s orange/orange-brown it could be a reason of heat during storage
B
rowned – it means product loss of nutrient quality and palatability
Odor
B
land to pleasant odour
If
smelling like paint, grass or gasoline, the fat portion of the product may be rancid
Mixing
T
he product should dissolve completely, rapidly and easily
F
ree of lumps
Volume of milk per meal depends on the feeding
programme and should be about 1.5 to 3 litres/
quarts. If the amount of milk given is too low the
calf will remain hungry triggering cross suckling of
other calves. By giving at least 1.5 litres/quarts the
abomasum is filled and the hunger sensation disappears.
During this first month major sources of energy
easily digested by the young calves include lactose
(milk sugar) and highly digestible fat. It is very important to provide adequate energy for the young
calf since their maintenance energy demand
/kg live weight is greatest during the first 2–3 weeks
of life.
Milk replacer
Ref. Adapted from:
A guide to calf milk
replacers, Types, Use
and Quality, A BAMN
Publication, 2008.
46
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Feeding plans differ
Feeding plans
Calf starter
Forage
The total daily amount of milk offered to calves will
differ depending on the number of meals given.
With two meals per day, it will be difficult to give
much more than 6 litres/quarts.
Once–a-day limit feeding is practiced in some
places; this will of course have a sizeable negative
impact on calf growth rates and subsequent cow
performance. This system requires earlier and larger
concentrate consumption to meet the calf’s nutritional requirements (from about 150–200 g/0.33–
0.44 lb concentrate in first days up to 300g/0.66lb).
This is rarely recommended as it does not exploit
the tremendous appetite and growth potential of the
heifer calf.
Calf starter composition matters!
There are different types of calf starter and they
are available in different physical forms: muesli or
pellets. The grains included in the calf starter
should be coarsely ground, pre heated, cracked or
rolled to increase palatability and stimulate rumen
development. Calf starter freshness is important;
it must smell and taste good. Unconsumed calf
starter should be discarded between feedings. This
helps maintain starter freshness. High-moisture
grains should not be offered to young calves as
these quickly ferment and mould. If the grains are
served in buckets they should be emptied and
refilled once or twice daily, especially during hot
weather.
In the beginning, calves just nibble the starter. The
intake will almost double at weaning and continue
to increase rapidly afterwards.
Typically, a good starter contains about 16–22%
crude protein and about 80% total digestible
nutrients. It should also contain minerals (calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, sulphur, potassium,
manganese, iron, copper, cobalt, iodine, selenium)
and vitamins (A, D, E). Calves also require vitamin
K and the water-soluble B vitamins (thiamine,
riboflavin, niacin, choline, biotin, pyriodoxine, folic
acid, B12, and pantothenic acid). Rumen microorganisms can produce these vitamins once the
calf’s rumen begins to function. Vitamin K and
water-soluble B vitamins can be found in whole milk
and good milk replacers.
Forage
Forage is important to promote growth of the
muscular layer of the rumen and to maintain the
health of the rumen epithelium. Calves should have
access to high quality coarse long hay from the
beginning. This should not be provided on demand
as calves will consume too much, which will reduce
their concentrate intake. The best practice is to
provide best quality feed at all times and limit fibre
intake to 5% of total dry matter intake (about 150–
200 grams per day).
Typical nutrient composition for calf starter
Crude protein
16–22%
Fat
3%
ADF
9–11%
NDF
12–14%
Minerals
Calcium
0.70 %
Phosphorus
0.45 %
Magnesium
0.1 %
Sulfur
0.2 %
Potassium
0.65%
Copper
10 ppm
Zinc
40 ppm
Manganese
40 ppm
Cobalt
0.10 ppm
Selenium
0.30 ppm
Iron
50 ppm
Iodine
0.25 ppm
Vitamins
A
1818 IU / lb dry matter (453 g)
D
270 IU / lb dry matter (453 g)
E
12 IU / lb dry matter (453 g)
Ref. Adapted fromAmaral Phillips, Scharko Feeding and Managing
Baby Calves from Birth to 3 Months of Age and Heinrichs_Feeding
the newborn dairy calf
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
47
Feeding with an automatic calf feeder
When an automatic calf feeder is used the feeding plan can be adapted to the needs of each
calf. The recommended amount of milk per day
is at least 14–16% of the calf’s birth weight, or
a daily ration of 6–8 litres/quarts at an ambient
temperature of 20° C, (68° F). If free access milk
feeding is provided, there is no limitation in terms
of total daily intake. In the calf feeder, however,
there is a limitation in meal size which should be
set according to age (1.5–3 litres). The minimum
(1.5 litres/quarts) and maximum portions has to
be set up in the software of the automatic calf
feeder. The portion size can be set for a group or
for each calf (depending on the machine). As the
abomasum and calf grow, maximum portion size
can be increased. When offered free of choice in
the calf feeder, calves will drink on average 10 l
a day, reaching 12 l on some days. Calves can
show weight gains of over 1kg /day (2,2 lb/day)
at this early age. This growth rate takes advantage of their genetic potential. Vigorous calves
drinking a lot of milk are usually motivated to
jump and run if they are stimulated. In fact, you
can stimulate a running festival in the pen by
dropping in some fresh bedding or coming into
the pen and stirring the calves. This is a sign that
calves are doing well. The calves that stay quiet
may be sick.
Automatic calf
feeder
Example of feeding program when using an automated calf feeder
9
Milk quantity (liters/day)
8
7
Anne Marie de Passillé,
University of British
Columbia
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
7
14
21
28
35
42
49
56
63
Age of the calves (days)
Introduction to the automated milk feeder
and calf group
If you are using automated calf feeders, calves
can be introduced at around six days of age.
Some calves will learn to drink on their own on
the first day. However, some calves will take more
than three days to drink milk on their own from
the feeder. A long delay in drinking independently
from the feeder can result in lower weight gains
in the first week. It is important to monitor calves’
milk intake at all times during the first week. It
has been suggested that calves should not be
introduced to the feeder before they are 14 days
old. However, many calves manage well at 6 days
and only about 20–30% of calves may need some
assistance.
Calves are not all the same!
1 Weak calves should not be introduced to the
feeder and group until they are strong enough to
drink on their own. Healthy, vigorous calves can
be brought in at five to seven days of age, but
should be monitored closely. Bring the calf to the
feeder and ensure it has drunk at least two litres
of milk. During the first few days the feeder must,
therefore, be set to allow the calf to be fed each
time it tries to drink.
2 To ensure it is hungry see that the calf has
not been fed in the last six to twelve hours. This
will help the calf associate the feeder with milk
intake and improves its chances of learning to use
the feeder more rapidly.
3 Check intakes daily. If a calf has not drunk
on its own in the past 24 hours lead it to the
feeder and ensure that it drinks. Calves should be
drinking six to ten litres a day.
4 The pen should have ample dry bedding.
When calves are fed ad libitum, there is very little
competition for the feeder. Calves visit the feeder
less than 8 times a day with an average of 5 meal
visits and 3 visits where they don’t drink milk.
48
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
What it takes to make the intensive milk feeding programme
as compared to the conventional programme
Parameter
Intensive
Conventional
Very good to excellent
Very good to excellent
750–850 g (1.6–1.8 lbs)
350–600 g (0,8–1,3 lbs )
5–6 litres/quarts
4 litres/quarts
11–20 days
6–10 litres /quarts
4 litres/quarts
21–35 days
7–10 litres/quarts
4 litres/quarts
36–56 days
Decline to 4 litres/quarts
4 litres/quarts
Essential
Preferred
Essential for small calves
Desirable for all calves
Preferred
Preferred, not common
20 %
Often lower
Essential
Preferred
By concentrate/grain intake
By age
Colostrum management
Average daily weight gain
2–10 days
Free of choice water
Starter grain/concentrate, fresh daily
Starter grain/concentrate, protein level
Starter grain, free of choice
Weaning method
Ref. Modified from Comparison and conventional and intensive calf feeding programs (adapted from Sam Leadley, Calf & Heifer
Management Specialist [email protected] www.atticacows.com)
Management of calf feeders
Management of
calf feeder
Rearing calves manually can be difficult and timeconsuming. Some of the time gained here can be
used for health monitoring instead. Thanks to the
introduction of individual animal identification in
most modern feeding systems, automated calf
feeders, where feed is freshly prepared with accurate temperature and concentration for each
animal according to its specific needs, are available.
Automated calf feeders imitate natural rearing and
provide stress-free feeding. When a calf entitled to
feed enters the feeding station, the feeder calculates the portion allowed for this particular calf. In a
matter of seconds, the milk is prepared and served
warm to the calf. Calves suckle from a nipple which
offers many advantages compared with feeding
from an open bucket. These feeders are controlled
by a management software application that allows the farmer to register all animals and create
feeding schedules according to age. Examples of
parameters that can be set up include daily portion, minimum and maximum amount offered at a
single visit, and additive inclusion where needed. If
something goes wrong (calf drinks less milk or the
sucking speed is too slow) the farmer will see an
alarm on the machine. Calf feeders can connect
the concentrate to the milk station. Weaning can be
done gradually by monitoring concentrate intake
and reducing the milk ration accordingly, which is a
very interesting option.
Supervision of calf health with the milk feeders
• In herds where calves have free access to milk,
lists of calves with reduced milk consumption
can be valuable as an additional tool for
identifying diseased calves.
• Calves fed restricted volumes of milk are unlikely
to reduce their milk intake in the early stages of
the disease or when they are mildly ill.
• In herds using restricted milk feeding, alarm lists
based on milk consumption will thus mainly
identify calves that have not learned the system
or are severely ill.
• To ensure successful rearing of calves in
computer-controlled milk feeding systems it is
crucial to closely watch the calves at least twice
a day to detect health problems early.
Catarina Svensson, Professor, Swedish University
of Agriculture
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Milk is not water
The free-choice water and quality grain/calf
starter offered in the first days of life should be
continued. The rumen of three to four-week-old
calves can be well developed and ready for the
change to a diet of solid feeds. Depriving calves
of drinking water may, as mentioned, decrease
starter intake by 31% and decrease weight gain
by 38%.
Voluntary water intake by season
7
Summer
6
Water intake (kg/day)
Autumn
5
Winter
4
Spring
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Age of the calf (weeks)
Ref. M
cKnight, Sharpe and Rana (http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS536w/09%20Nutrition%20and%20
Metabolism/voluntary_water_intake_calves.pdf)
49
Water intake
50
Rumen
development
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Rumen development
As the calf grows and begins to consume solid
feed, its stomach compartments grow and mature
accordingly. At birth, the abomasum makes up
60% of stomach capacity, the reticulum and
rumen about 30%, and the omasum approximately
10%. By four weeks of age, however, their relative
sizes have reversed. The abomasums continues to
function as it did at birth and grows in proportion
to the calf’s body size. However, the reticulum and
rumen greatly increase in size and in function to
become the most important part of the stomach
system. The newborn calf is a poor digester of
carbohydrates (with the exception of lactose or
milk sugar). When the calf begins to eat solid feed,
particularly grains containing readily fermentable
starch, the rumen supplies nutrients to the bacteria
which in their turn start to grow and populate the
rumen. The starch produces volatile fatty acids
(VFA), which stimulate growth of rumen papillae
and metabolic activity in the rumen. It takes
about 3 weeks to develop the rumen papillae
from the start of feeding starch. Hence, providing
free-choice grain starting at an early stage and
assisting the calf in eating those first bites can
have positive effects on rumen development.
If the calf is fed only milk or milk replacer,
development and differentiation of the rumen will
be negatively affected. Lack of rumen
development may cause decreased growth rates
after weaning. A calf fed grain in addition to milk
shows better rumen development.
Development of bovine stomach compartments from birth to maturity
First week
Three to four months
Oesophageal
groove
Pylorus
Oesophageal
groove
Oesophagus
Rumen
Maturity
Oesophagus
Oesophagus
Oesophageal
groove
Pylorus
Omasum
Rumen
Rumen
Omasum
Omasum
Reticulum
Abomasum
(True stomach)
Four weeks old – Diet: milk, hay
Four weeks old – Diet: milk, grain, hay
Reticulum
Abomasum
(True stomach)
Reticulum
Pylorus
Abomasum
(True stomach)
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
51
Good growth in all weathers
Cold stress
The temperatures at which calves, heifers and cows
use no energy either to warm or to cool themselves
is called the “thermoneutral zone”. For newborns
the lower threshold temperature is about 16° C (60°
F). At one month of age this thermoneutral value
drops to around the freezing point. Thus, as they
mature in the weeks up to weaning they become
more comfortable with freezing weather. The limiting
conditions for wintertime growth are adequate
water and energy supply, and a dry lying area
without draft. As the calf begins to eat starter grain
in addition to milk or milk replacer, providing ad lib
warm water that goes into the rumen is essential to
efficient growth. Energy is the other major limiting
factor. As mentioned above, make sure that the
energy from milk or milk replacer during first month
is appropriate to the calf’s needs. For example,
calves of up to 3 weeks of age require twice as
much energy at -25° C, (-13° F) as calves in
thermoneutral conditions. To achieve the intake
needed it may well be necessary to increase the
number of feedings and use milk replacer with
higher concentrate of powder with higher fat
content and/or transition to whole milk, due to its
higher fat content, during the full first week.
Handling low
temperatures
52
Handling high
temperatures
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Heat stress
Calves may have a hard time coping with hot
weather. With indoor housing, the answer is forced
ventilation. Fans, open curtain walls, and natural
convection are all ways to move air indoors.
Where calves are housed in hutches, ensure
that top and back ventilation apertures are open
to create air movement and ventilation. There
are several types in the market but hutches that
are opaque and made of UV-resistant material
are strongly recommended. The temperature in
these types of hutches will not increase rapidly,
giving the calf a chance to adapt. Hutches should
always be equipped with adjustable top and
back openings to facilitate good draught-free air
movement to ensure proper ventilation. Raising
the hutches off the ground to ensure ventilation at
bedding level is another option.
For all calves provision of free access to clean
water is a must. If not, growth rates will decrease.
It is also a good idea to take advantage of the
cooler morning and evening temperatures when
the calves are more energetic and have better
appetite and accommodate feeding times accordingly.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
53
Housing systems
Your first decision will involve choosing
between indoor and outdoor housing. Indoor
systems consist of a building where the climate
(temperature, humidity, ventilation) can be
controlled. After the first week, when the calf has
begun to build up its immune system – provided
it is sturdy and readily consumes milk from a
nipple – it can be housed individually or moved
to group housing. In many countries there are
national regulations on how many weeks a calf
can be housed individually and at what age
group housing becomes compulsory. Whether
you choose individual, pair or group housing,
sanitation, adequate nutrition and ventilation
remain important factors. Like older animals,
calves perform best in clean, dry, comfortable
and well-ventilated housing with free access to
palatable feed and water.
Housing systems
Individual versus group housing
Pros
Individual
Group
Facilitates supervision of
individual calves
Less labour intensive
Reduced risk of transmission of infections
Less space requirement
Easier to clean and left empty before the
next calf enters
Calves have more opportunity to socialise
Lower risk for cross-suckling
Facilitates automated feeding on a
free-choice basis compared to a few
daily meals
Can exercise and play freely
Group learning, especially for early-starter
consumption
Cons
Labour intensive regarding feeding, cleaning
and bedding management
Higher risk of transmission of infections if the
group is large
Requires large area for small numbers of
calves
Harder to check individual calves, which is made
possible if transponder feeding is used
Social interaction very limited
Weak calves need support
No possibility for playing and very limited for
exercise
If automated feeding is used, routine cleaning and
supervision must be done
Higher bedding consumption
Risk of cross-suckling if not handled correctly
Individual vs. group
housing
54
Individual or pair
housing
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
One option –
Continue with individual housing
One way to minimise disease transmission
is to keep calves housed individually or even
better in pairs until they are eight weeks old.
They should be separated from older animals
in a dry, draught-free environment designed to
facilitate easy feeding and bedding and regular
observation. Several types of housing
meet these requirements. These include individual
calf hutches and boxes/pens outdoors (other
solutions are also available), in non-insulated
buildings or in well-ventilated insulated buildings.
The issue of closed walls around calf boxes
versus disease control needs to be considered
when choosing a system, and the rules for social
contact between calves differ depending on
local market regulations. Experience indicates
that proper ventilation is much more important
to calf health than temperature. Therefore, select
a housing system that provides good ventilation
year-round. Outdoor calf hutches or boxes/pens
can be used in non-insulated barns that are
properly ventilated. If natural ventilation cannot
be provided, exhaust fans may be necessary. As
mentioned earlier, the challenges are cold and
heat stress, and supervision if calves are kept
outdoors in hutches and air quality if they are
housed indoors.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
55
Natural ventilation with supplemental
positive-pressure ventilation for buildings
Air quality and respiratory disease in naturally
ventilated housing — a challenge
Natural ventilation has some advantages in that
natural forces are used to ventilate buildings, thus
reducing fan and electrical power costs.
However, natural ventilation has a number of
shortcomings, especially in calf housing. In the
cold calves, unlike adult cows, do not generate
sufficient heat to effectively warm the air that
surrounds them and extra bedding is required
for the calf to maintain its body temperature.
Calves that get cold are more vulnerable. Further
limitations of natural ventilation occur when the
outside air is warmer than the air inside the barn
which often occurs during daytime as the sun
warms the air outside the barn more quickly than
the air inside. When this happens air entering
the cooler interior of the barn will rise, leaving
the barn without good mixing near the floor.
An effect of limited exchange and mixing of air
around the calf is an increase in the number of
airborne bacteria per m2 and higher incidence of
respiratory diseases.
Because of these limitations, the use of
positive pressure tube ventilation systems to
supplement natural ventilation of calf barns has
been successfully introduced in many barns. This
system has been associated with a 50 to 75%
reduction in the number of calves with respiratory
disease. In addition, calf barn workers report
that floors dry out more quickly and that odour is
reduced inside the barn.
Recommended air exchange rates per animal in cubic feet per minute
Minimum Rate
Transition Rate
Transition Rate
High Rate
Weight
Cold Weather
Mild Weather
Warm Weather
Summer
Calves 0–8
weeks
40–80 kg /
90–180 lbs
15
30
65
100
Calves 2–6
months
0–165 kg /
180–400 lbs
20
40
85
130
Ref. Gooch, Curt A., P.E. “Existing Facilities for Replacement Housing – 4th in a Series: Providing a conducive environment for housing
heifers may be possible in older facilities” and “Cow Comfort: An Overview of All Components.” Pro-Dairy Program of Cornell University
Cooperative Extension Service, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Cornell University
Natural ventilation
56
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Another option: moving the calf
to group housing
Group housing
Straw bedding
Group housing of calves does require excellent
management and supervision; existing limitations
to cleanliness or good ventilation will need to
be addressed before nutritional benefits can be
fully realised.
The timing of the calf’s introduction to the group
will depend on the farm’s colostrum management,
the available facilities and the age range of the
group. While it is not recommended that the calf
be moved before it is one week old, it should in
any case be drinking milk independently, be vigorous and healthy before joining a group. It is also
important to restrict the age difference and number
of calves (max. 15–20 individuals) within a group;
the fewer animals in a group the fewer there are to
transmit diseases. An age difference of one week
works well, while more than 3 weeks increases the
group feeding cost as weaning is based on the
youngest calf in the group in all-in, all-out systems.
An all-in, all-out management
approach to groups of calves is a strategy which
reduces the risk of disease.
Group hutches
The sudden transition from an individual hutch to a
large group can cause calves unnecessary stress.
However, if calves are moved into a ‘halfway house
group hutch, they can adapt to being with others,
Recommendations for straw bedding
• Straw should be dry and mould free
• It should be >12 inch (30 cm) deep
• Do the prayer test: If you can kneel down in the
calf pen for 60 seconds and your knees are not
wet when you stand up, you’re doing a great job
• Change bedding if you smell any trace of
ammonia in the air
and learn to access feed and water. The group
hutches can be combined with several types of
fences to create an area allowing calves to spend
time outdoors. This pen makes it easier for the
farmer to supervise and observe the calves. Group
hutches, which can normally house four to five
calves can be sited on their own outdoors. They
can also be placed in non-insulated buildings. The
buildings may vary in design from three to four walls
with a roof, or just a roof.
Bedded areas or partially bedded areas
Many types of bedding may be used. Farmers find
that clean, dry, long straw works best in colder temperatures as it allows the calf to make a nest and
thereby control its heat loss.
In straw-bedded areas the calves must always
have a dry area to lie down in. The bedding must be
properly managed and dry. Before a new group of
calves is placed in the area, it needs to be cleaned
and sanitised to avoid transmission of diseases to
the new group. Always plan for over-capacity in calf
areas and allow time for the area to dry before any
new animals enter. High pressure cleaners should
be avoided if other calves are in the vicinity. The
high humidity created is not good for the calves and
can increase the risk of disease transmission.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
57
Example of partially straw-bedded area with
milk feeding stations
Recommendations for partially straw-bedded
area according to Housing design for cattle
5th rev, Danish Agriculture Advisory Centre. Note
that these are minimum dimensions and it is
always recommended to plan for at least 10%
extra space due to surges in the number
of calvings.
Dimensions of joint pens with short, non-littered feeding area
Body weight from, kg
Under 60
60
100
150
200
300
400
500
Pen area, min., m2/animal
1.7
1.9
2.3
2.7
3.4
4.2
4.8
5.4
Littered area, min., m2/animal
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.7
3.3
3.8
4.3
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.55
1.65
1.75
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
Short feeding area, length, min., m
Pen side height, min., m*
Step width, m
0.40–0.50
Step height, m
0.15–0.20
Bottom step height, m**
0.30–0.60
* Height is measured from the upper edge of the litter mat.
** These measurements are at the same time the maximum difference in level between resting and feeding area in pens with a layer of litter.
58
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Health management
during first month
Diarrhoea
Dehorning
Diarrhoea accounts for most fatalities in young
calves. However, respiratory disease is still the
major cause of death in older calves and heifers,
causing substantial economic loss. Costs
associated with respiratory disease include
prevention, treatment and lost productivity.
Apart from increased mortality, there are several
negative long-term consequences associated
with respiratory disease in young calves: poor
growth, reproductive performance, milk production
and longevity. Hence it is extremely important
to prevent respiratory disease. Read about
prevention and treatment of pneumonia in
the next section: second month.
Dehorning
For safety reasons it is recommended that calves
be dehorned (to avoid injury to humans and herd
mates). Dehorning can be done when calves are
one to three weeks old, when the horn button
can be felt. If an electric dehorner is used, calves.
should be properly restrained, given a local
anaesthetic and a pain killer after the procedure.
The dehorner should be heated to cherry red
before touching the horn button and constant
pressure should be applied for 10 to 15 seconds
until a copper-coloured ring can be seen around
the base of the horn. Dehorning is painful to
calves. Signs of pain include ear and tail flicking,
head shaking and head rubbing. The pain of
dehorning causes a calf drop in feed intake and
slow growth. The pain can be (partly) relieved by
administering a painkiller after the procedure.
Calf diarrhoea
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
59
Normal calf behaviour
During its first days, a calf will be lying down up
to 75% of the time. After the first week, it will start
increasing standing and playing time. The more
calves can control their bodies the more they
jump, play and run around. These movements are
voluntary; they use their whole body and perform
the movements spontaneously, strengthening
muscles, joints, cords and ligaments as well as
training the cardiovascular system and the lungs.
The calf explores its surroundings and the facility
by licking and smelling. Sick calves will not
play or explore. Conversely, exercise is a good
indicator of a healthy calf. To feel comfortable
calves use barn fittings and equipment to
scratch, lick and socialise. Cattle are prey animals
and, therefore, try not to show signs of illness.
However, though difficult to read, the signs are
there to see and understand.
Cross-suckling can be prevented
Calves suckling on other calves (cross-suckling)
may occur quite frequently in some herds.
Following the two first weeks of life, when
suckling frequency is higher, calves normally
settle down to three to five milk feeds per day
for the rest of the suckling period. Calves have
a natural desire to suck, an instinct vital to their
ability to take milk from their dams.
However, suckling from an udder is exhausting:
more than three times as many swallows/sucking
acts are needed than when drinking from buckets
or calf feeders. Calves drinking from a bucket or
fed only once or twice a day will suffer from an
unsatisfied suckling desire and will start to suckle
and lick other calves or barn equipment.
The suckling desire declines during the meal and
normally returns to a low level 10–15 minutes
after the last intake.
Feeding calves in automated milk stations with
large meal sizes (no less than 1.5 litters/quarts)
helps avoid cross-suckling. The calves can feed
several times a day and thus satisfy their desire
to suckle. Calves on a restricted diet, can be
restrained for 15 minutes after milk feeding and
given concentrate to help prevent cross-suckling.
Normal behaviour
of calves
60
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Second month: maintaining
healthy growth with stress-free
weaning
Do
Avoid
• Monitor average daily gains
• Wet calves and wet bedding
• Feed for growth rates above 750 g /1.65 lb
(500 g / 1.1 lb) per day
• Reducing milk before the calf reaches an
intake of 200g/d of starter for three days in
a row
• Monitor concentrate consumption
• Use a respiratory score card to identify and
treat sick calves promptly
• Design a hygiene programme for group
housed calves to limit disease transmission
• Isolate sick animals
• Wean gradually based on solid feed intake
• Sudden changes in feed volume and type
• Changing housing and group composition
close to weaning
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
61
Stress free and healthy weaning
At the start of the second month of life the
calf is still taking both milk and solid feed, and
management should focus on maintaining healthy
growth through stable feeding routines and daily
supervision of health.
The most important event from the calf’s
perspective during second and third month is
the complete shift to solid feed. Its daily milk
intake will depend on the feeding system. The
total amount of milk fed during rearing period can
vary from more than 550 litres of milk with ad lib
feeding to as little as 150 litres with only single
daily feeding. But, as discussed earlier, intensive
rearing involving large amounts of milk is highly
recommended.
Calves are sensitive to stress and disease
during weaning, with subsequent reduction in
growth. The best way to keep stress to a low level
is to wean calves off milk gradually and to base
milk reduction on consumption of concentrate.
This will prevent weight loss and can easily
be done by using automated milk and grain/
concentrate feeders in combination.
Switching calves to a new pen or barn or to a
new group can create a lot of stress and should
be avoided. Leave the calves where they are until
they fully recover from weaning and are adapted
to the new feeding regime. To avoid stress the
same starter should also be fed for at least two
weeks after weaning and should then be mixed
with the special starter for weaned calves. We
must remember that respiratory disease, the
biggest health challenge in young calves, is highly
prevalent during the second month of life and
particularly so around weaning, so everything that
can be done to avoid stress will be beneficial to
the calf’s health and growth rate.
Shift to only solid
feed
Feeding at weaning
When the calf begins eating dry feed (starter and
hay) the rumen bacteria start to grow and volatile
acids (VFA) are produced. After about 3–4 weeks
of stable consumption, the calf and rumen start
preparing for the change to a pure solid feed diet.
Calves can be weaned from milk either abruptly,
in steps or gradually. We strongly recommend
that milk feeding be reduced in steps or better
still gradually. Gradual weaning improves starter
intake and daily weight gains and is, therefore,
recommended. This also minimises stress and
daily gains can continue at high levels.
Weaning should take at least 10 days and calves
should be weaned on the basis of their intake of
solid feed, not age. In a few cases, calves can
be weaned as early as five weeks of age (with
adequate rumen development), while others will be
up to 10 weeks old before weaning is appropriate.
If the rumen is not prepared to handle dry feed the
calf will suffer from growth depression for up to
three weeks after weaning. Thus it is important to
follow the calf’s grain/concentrate consumption.
Feeding at weaning
62
A stepwise reduction in milk intake over three or four
steps is recommended. Grain. Step1: 200 g; Step 2:
400–600 g; Step 3: 800–1 kg; Step 4: 1–1.5 kg/day
for three days. Reduce milk correspondingly to nine
litres in the first step, to six litres, then three litres,
finally dropping to 0 in Step 4, to reach 1–1.5 kg/day.
By 10 weeks the few calves that have not already
started should be weaned gradually. This can easily
be done by using the automated milk and grain
feeders in combination.
Example of a feeding plan for milk and
concentrate
The graph below shows a milk and concentrate
feeding pattern for intensive calf rearing
during the milk feeding period, through gradual
weaning with milk feeding ending at 63 days. This
feeding scheme has the advantage of sustaining a
higher milk intake for longer while encouraging a
gradual increase in concentrate intake than
the traditional restricted milk feeding pattern. The
scheme is based on many recent studies that have
shown good growth and development of calves fed
along these general lines.
3000
Concentrate (g/dl)
Feeding plans
If bucket grain feeding is used, it is advisable to
weigh 1 kg (2.2 lbs) of grain and mark the amount
on the container used to improve the accuracy of
the estimate.
Automatic concentrate feeding machines can,
display individual calf feed intake data (depending on
the machine). The advantage of using automated
milk and grain calf feeders is that it allows weaning
to be adjusted to an individual calf’s intake of solid
feed. It is never advisable to begin reducing milk
before the calf has maintained an intake of 200 g/day
of starter for three days. Calves can be completely
weaned off milk when they are eating about 1.0 kg/
day (2.2 lbs) for three consecutive days. Using this
method calves will on average be weaned at around
60 days.
It is of course better to use integrated calf
feeder systems that provide milk and concentrate.
The machine will show milk and concentrate
intake and concentrate provision can be adjusted
based on milk intake information. If the weaning
is done manually, it must be done stepwise with
decreases of 0.5 kg (1.1 lbs) of milk in each step.
The best way to wean high milk fed calves (10–
12 l/day) is to not reduce milk until the calf reaches
the above intake of starter. Calves will eat 200 g
per day from as early as 3–4 weeks. More slowly
developing calves willl do so only much later.
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
7
14
21
0
7
14
21
28
35
42
49
56
63
28
35
42
49
56
63
9
8
7
6
Milk l/day
Weaning
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
5
4
3
2
1
0
Age (days)
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
63
Housing: wait before
moving and regrouping
Once calves have recovered from weaning, a minimum of two weeks is recommended before moving individually housed calves to group housing.
One way of reducing stress when moving the calf
is to provide generous space to walk around, play
and lie down. If calves are frequently disturbed
while lying down their stress levels rise. In particular, calves that have never experienced group
housing need visible, easily accessible water and
feed. Ensure that all calves have space to eat at
the same time. More space means less variation
in growth rates. To facilitate supervision the number of calves per pen should be limited. Bigger
groups require greater skills on the part of
those responsible for supervising the calves.
Important factors to remember in the postweaning period are the ability to identify calves
that are adapting poorly to group life or are sick,
and to have housing facilities where heifers can be
handled during for routine tasks with a minimum
of stress (sorting, vaccination, etc).
Respiratory disease
and other health disturbances
Up to 20–30% or more of calves aged one to
seven months experience respiratory disease.
Germs associated with respiratory disease
Respiratory disease often begins with a virus
infection which may be followed by a secondary bacterial pneumonia after a couple of days.
Germs associated with respiratory disease in
calves are (bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1), bovine
viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), bovine respiratory
syncytial virus (BRSV), bovine respiratory corona
virus (BRCV), parainfluenza virus 3 (PIV3), or
bacteria (Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia histolytica, Mycoplasma bovis and other bacteria).
These germs are spread by air and direct contact
between animals.
Detection of respiratory disease
As the effects of a respiratory disease can be deleterious it is vital to detect sick calves at an early
stage. This can be done by using a respiratory
score card to identify sick calves and scoring the
severity. The respiratory score should be based
on rectal temperature, nasal discharge, eye and
ear appearance and the presence of cough (see
figure).
Risk factors for respiratory disease
• Inadequate provision of colostrum
• Other diseases such as diarrhoea, navel
infection etc.
• Underfeeding
• Bad climate (Ammonia > 10 ppm/m2,
Humidity > 80 % and draughts)
• Mixing of age groups (Maximum 3 weeks
age difference)
• Large groups
Group housing
64
Respiratory
diseases
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Treatment of respiratory disease
When respiratory disease is evident, a veterinarian
should be consulted and the calf treated with appropriate antibiotics where necessary. Antibiotics
act against bacterial infections, not against viruses.
Treatment will be most effective when begun soon
after the onset of symptoms and anti-inflammatory
drugs can support treatment.
What to do with chronically ill calves/laggards
Every herd includes calves that do not thrive as
well as their herd mates. Intake and growth rates
are too low and coats are rough; simple visual
An example of Calf
Health Scoring
Criteria
Ref. Modified from Poulsen
K.P. and McGuirk S.M.
inspection will often confirm that they are not
performing as they should. These calves require
substantial investment in terms of labour. They can
be disease spreaders and moreover are likely to
remain problem animals for the rest of their lives.
With two or more of these chronically ill “problem“
calves in the herd, management (especially colostrum feeding routines) and hygiene procedures on
the farm should be evaluated. At an individual animal level, culling of these calves should be considered since they will never become high-producing
cows.
Calf health scoring criteria
Rectal
temperature
100–100.9°F
37,8-38,4°C
101–101.9°F
38,5-38,8°C
102–102.9°F
38,9-39,4°C
≥103°F
≥39,5°C
Cough
None
Induce single cough
Induced repeated
coughs or ocassional
spontaneous cough
Copious bilateral
muco-purulent discharge
Eye scores
Normal
Small amount of ocular
discharge
Moderate amount of
bilateral discharge
Heavy ocular discharge
Ear scores
Normal
Ear flick or head shake
Slight unilateral droop
Head tilt or bilateral
droop
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Ruminal bloat
Ruminal bloat is a condition in which the rumen
fills with gas or fermented feed. It rarely occurs in
calves younger than 5 weeks because of the undeveloped state of the rumen before this age. The
cause of bloat in young calves is often milk entering
the undeveloped rumen or high intake of grain and
concentrate among older calves. As a result, an
excessive amount of gas is produced. Under normal circumstances, this gas can be evacuated by
belching, but in the case of bloat gas accumulates
in the upper part of the rumen, rumen contractions
decrease and belching is hampered.
Treating bloat can be done by lowering a flexible
stomach tube coated with mineral oil into the
oesophagus and down into the rumen to release
the trapped gas. In severe cases, when the rumen
becomes greatly extended, it may be necessary to
insert a large needle or trocar through the calf’s left
flank. The trocar will create an opening allowing gas
to escape.
Diarrhoea in older calves
When we think of diarrhoea in calves, this is usually
associated with neonatal diarrhoea. However,
diarrhoea in older calves can also have economic
impacts due to death of the calf, treatment costs
and growth retardation. Most important germs
associated with diarrhoea in older calves are
Coccidiosis, BVD, Salmonella and worm infections
from pasture.
Symptoms of ruminal bloat
• Abdominal swelling behind the rib cage on
the left flank sometimes accompanied by
– Diarrhoea
– Colic: kicking belly, frequently lying
down and standing up, stretching and
vocalising
• Poor hair coat
• Reduced growth
• Severe cases: the enlarged rumen will
press onto the diaphragm causing heavy
breathing. If left untreated, this can lead to
death by asphyxia
Prevention of ruminal bloat in older calves
Calves that suffered from bloat once run
a higher risk of developing subsequent
bouts of bloat
• Provide calf starter from first week: this
will promote rumen development
• Avoid sudden changes in feed volume
and feed type (e.g. transition from milk
to concentrate at weaning)
65
66
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Symptoms of coccidiosis
• Decreased feed intake
• Weight loss
• Growth retardation
• Profuse diarrhoea, sometimes containing
mucus and blood
• Fever
• Rough hair coat
• Spasms of the anal sphincter
• Severe cases: anaemia
Controlling coccidiosis
• Reducing stocking density and stress
• Regular removal of manure from pens and/
or use of slatted floors
• Disinfection
• Chlorine based products are not sufficient
(oocysts have a resistant shell). Use of
disinfectants with documented effect on
coccidia such as quaternary ammonium
salts is therefore recommended
• Thorough cleaning
• Allowing boxes or hutches to dry and
leaving them empty for at least 3 weeks
• Isolating sick animals and attending to
them last
• Cleaning and disinfecting buckets and
drinking nipples
• Ensuring farm workers use clean clothing
Symptoms of Salmonellosis
• Watery diarrhoea, sometimes with blood
or fibrin
• Faeces with putrid, foul odour
• Dehydration
• Fever
• Anorexia
• Severe cases: septicaemia with organ
failure, shock, death
Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis is caused by intracellular parasites
belonging to the group Eimeria. Although most
calves are exposed to these parasites in their lives,
the infection is usually without symptoms and selflimiting. Coccidiosis becomes a problem when
management factors like poor hygienic conditions
allow a build-up of parasites in the environment
or when the animals’ immunity is compromised.
Equally common, however, is badly planned animal
flow. Always use boxes in the same order and keep
young animals in deep-bedded areas. Calves are
infected by ingestion of microscopic eggs (oocysts)
excreted in the faeces from infected herd mates.
This may be via direct contact with infected animals, or ingestion of contaminated feed or water. As
a result, the intestine is damaged and nutrient uptake will be compromised). Since houses and pens
used for subsequent groups of young animals can
become highly contaminated, control programmes
for Coccidiosis should focus on hygiene measures
to reduce exposure to pathogens in animal flows
Preventive use of coccidiostats may be considered
for high-risk animals (e.g. calves which are already
sick) or for herd mates of infected animals. Always
contact your veterinarian for advice.
Salmonellosis
In cattle, Salmonella dublin and Salmonella typhimurium are the most common Salmonella
types in calves. Affected calves are usually under
two months of age with a range from one week to
six months.
The course of disease (asymptomatic, mild or
severe) may differ between animals, depending
on infection dose, immunity and virulence of the
infection. Since Salmonella is contagious for humans, strict hygiene measures should be set and
respected when managing calves with Salmonella. Consult your veterinarian for advice.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
67
From weaning to 6 months
Do
Avoid
• Monitor body weight, withers height and
average daily gains
• Regrouping or moving earlier than 2 weeks
after weaning
• Feed for growth rates above 750 g /1,65 lb
(500 g / 1.1 lb) per day
• Large groups
• Provide a well-balanced post-weaning ration,
with a good proportion of protein and energy
• Low protein content in feed
– Analyse protein and energy of the forage
given
– Feed minerals if needed
• Use a respiratory score card to identify and
treat sick calves promptly
• Several regroupings
• Low energy content in feed
• Grazing without supplementary feeding
68
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Feeding requirements to
maintain healthy growth
Feeding
requirements
During this period easy access to well composed
feed goes hand in hand with a high growth rate.
If growth is lost the calf will always lag behind,
possibly resulting in a later calving and lower
yielding cow. Up to six months of age the ration
fed to replacement heifers should be energy
and protein rich. Diets offered at this time are
often insufficient in protein. Extra protein is
needed in the first year as the calf builds up
its musculoskeletal structure and rumen size.
Growth rate can be very high, reaching up to 1
kg (2.2 lbs) per day, which is good. However, if
the percentage of protein is low relative to energy
the heifer calf may become small, fat and podgy.
Such a heifer is unlikely to achieve high milk
production.
That said, the energy content of the diet fed
to young heifers should be kept at a high level.
Underfeeding should be avoided as this can
cause stunted growth and delayed breeding.
Further development of the rumen is dependent
on the amount and quality of microbial protein
along with the volatile fatty acids (VFA) produced
by rumen bacteria.
VFAs from a high starch diet are also efficient
forms of energy for the young heifer as they are
needed for rapid rumen growth and development.
During the first two-three weeks after weaning,
the ration and housing should be similar to that
before weaning to avoid stress. Changes in the
grain mix should be made gradually to avoid
nutritional scours. Calves should continue to be
kept in small groups for the first two months after
weaning so that they can adjust to group feeding
and in order to minimise competition for feed.
To balance the transition from the milk to the
solid rearing period, weaning animals should
have an intake of 1.5 to 2.0 kg (2.6–4.4 lbs) of
concentrate in the week following weaning, and
roughage with high-energy and protein density.
If you use low quality roughage you will need to
add concentrate to meet nutritional requirements.
At two months of age the calf should weigh at
least 85 kg.
The post weaning ration must be balanced
Balancing the rations
• To ensure adequate growth rates, 750–1.000
g/day
To maintain average daily weight gains of over
0.7 kg/1.5lb per day, the weaned dairy calf
needs a diet supplying:
• To maintain proper body condition
• To achieve desired height and weight
•1
6–18% crude protein with sufficient amounts
of by-pass protein not degraded in rumen
•3
5% ADF acid detergent fiber
•1
1 MJ ME/kg DM
Mineral supplementation to be provided in concentrates.
The rates are as follows:
Supplement
Grams/day
Grams/1kg DM
Calcium (Ca)
22
5.6
Phosphorus (P)
13
3.4
Magnesium (Mg)
6.7
1.7
Sodium (Na)
2.3
0.6
Potassium (K)
17
4.3
At 5 months of age calves should weigh about 150 kg.
The calf should be offered forage, but 2/3 of total dry
matter feed intake should come from concentrate, which
must, therefore, be monitored. Forage quality should be
carefully selected. Fine-stemmed, mould-free hay or hay
silage are preferred, but high-quality corn silage can also
be fed. Free access to fresh water is a given.
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69
Housing weaned calves:
2–6 months old
Calves should stay in the same housing and
groups until 2 weeks after weaning in order to
avoid stress. At this time calves that have been
kept in single housing may be grouped initially
in small groups, preferably according to their
nutritional requirements. Grouping by body size
and age is also important. The size and number
of groups will obviously depend on herd size and
available housing.
Housing should, as always, be clean with dry
bedding, good ventilation, easy access to water
and feed, etc. Opportunities for competition
between young calves should be avoided.
Sufficient feeder space for all calves to eat at
the same time especially when a concentrate is
fed in restricted amounts is essential. As heifers
grow, there are considerable changes in their
need for space to rest and feed. In addition, many
management practices require animal restraint
(vaccination, parasite treatment, measuring
height, taping for weight, etc.) Facilities for older
heifers must be designed to meet an animal’s
size and ensure safety and ease of work for the
operator. Calves housed in groups from earlier
age can continue to be housed in these same
groups.
From around 5 month of age it is also possible
to house them in a free stall barn with cubicles.
The cubicles need to be adapted to the size
of the animals and have adequate bedding
or other soft surface to provide good comfort
and insulation for lying down. When the size is
correct, the calves easily learn how to lie down
in the cubicle. This is beneficial if the animals will
later be housed in free stall barns.
Dimension of calves and young stock cubicles for heifers from 100–500 kg.
Body weight from, kg
100
150
200
300
400
500
Width, minimum, m
0.55
0.60
0.70
0.85
0.95
1.10
Length (row agains wall), min., m
1.50
1.60
1.70
1.95
2.15
2.40
Length (double rows) **, min., m
Bottom front rail, height above bedding:
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.25
– Either min., m
0.55
0.58
0.62
0.69
0.73
0.76
– Or max., m
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.10
Brisket board from rear kerb ***,
+/- 0.05 m
1.25
1.30
1.40
1.55
1.60
1.65
Neck rail from rear kerb, +/- 0.05 m
1.20
1.25
1.35
1.50
1.55
1.60
Neck rail height, +/- 0.05 m
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.05
Cubicle bedding downard slope, %, +/- 11%
Cubicle bedding height above alley floor ****, m
5
0.15–0.25
* The width must be increased by 10% in cubicles with walled side partitions.
** T
hese measurements presuppose double rows without walled frontal partitions which inconvenience young animals when getting up and
lying down naturally.
*** May be necessary if the flooring slopes down below 4% and/or to prevent young animals from lying down too close to the cubicle front.
**** These measurements state the bedding height above floor, inclusive mat or mattress, if any
Dimensions of cubicles according to housing design for cattle, 5th rev, Danish Agriculture Advisory centre. Observe that
these are minimum dimensions. It is always recommended to plan for at least 10% extra space.
Housing weaned
calves
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DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Throughout the period it is important to avoid
competition at feeding. One feeding place per
animal is recommended and the feeding rack
should facilitate access of young stock to the
feed, while separating animal and feed enough
to prevent faecal contamination of feed and feed
spills.
Feeding area dimensions for heifers from 100–500 kg
Body weight from, kg
Under 60
60
100
150
200
300
400
500
Trough rear edge, height above
feeding area level, m
0.4
0.4
0.45
0.45
0.5
0.5
0.55
0.55
Feeding area width, +/- 0,05 m
0.3
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
Height above feeding level of
trough bottom, min., m
0.15
Trough width, max., m
0.4
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.55
0.6
0.6
Width of acid-proof trough
surface, min., m
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
Feeding rack upper rail above
feeding area, min. m
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.4
Trough cubic content, min., l
15
15
20
25
30
35
40
40
Feeding landing height, max., m
0.10
Feeding landing width, min., m
0.40
Ref. Dimensions of feeding area according to housing design for cattle, 5th rev, Danish Agriculture Advisory centre.
Observe that this is minimum dimensions and it is always recommended to plan for at least 10% extra space.
Health management from
weaning to 6 months
Health management
As already mentioned in the previous section,
surges of respiratory disease and scours may
occur during the weaning period and can in a
worst case scenario continue to be a problem
particularly in calves that have been previously
ill. These cases should of course be managed as
described above.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Ringworm
Ringworm is a fungal infection of the skin, hair,
hoofs and horns. The great majority of lesions
commonly found in young cattle are caused by
Trichophyton verrucosum. The fungus can infect
people so take care to avoid touching the lesions.
The environment stays infectious for a long time
(years). Young animals are more susceptible due
to lack of prior exposure and immunity.
71
Ringworm
Calf with typical ringworm lesions around the eyes
Ref. Image from blog.mycology.cornell.edu
Risk factors for ringworm
Symptoms
• High stocking density
• Hair loss
• Poor nutrition (low protein level or generally
under-nourished calves)
• Scaling and crusting
• Calf already has another disease
• Multiple lesions usually on the head, neck,
shoulders and sides of the thorax
• Environmental factors: such as hot and
humid climate
• Pruritus (itching) is variable but usually mild
Ringworm treatment
Since ringworm usually is a self-limiting and
spontaneously regressing disease, treatment
is generally not necessary except for severely
affected animals. A veterinarian should be
consulted to advise on a recommended
treatment protocol. To prevent spreading
within the herd, topical therapy with fungicidal
products can be applied. In some countries calf
vaccination at dehorning has been successful in
controlling and eradicating infection in the herd.
with good management practices (colostrum,
optimal ration, hygiene and housing conditions
as described in this booklet) since these factors,
if badly managed, can limit heifers’ ability to
adequately respond to the vaccine.
Before designing a vaccination programme, the
following factors should be considered:
Vaccination programmes for youngstock
Infectious disease continues to be the most
common cause of losses and lower growth rates in
dairy calves. Vaccination against certain diseases
can be an important management tool to prevent
heifers from getting sick by preparing their immune
system to fight future infections. It must be stressed
though that no vaccine programme will protect all
animals when the challenge is overwhelming.
Vaccination must therefore be combined
• Presence and degree of challenge posed by the
disease on the farm
• Management practices on the farm that support
or hinder vaccination programmes
• Time or age at which the disease occurs
• Presence of stressors that can be linked to
disease outbreak
• Documented effect of vaccine
Since there are regional differences in available
and recommended vaccines and local legislation
varies, a veterinarian should be consulted for the
design of a farm-specific vaccination programme.
References
A list of references can be found on:
http://www.delaval.com/en/-/Dairy-knowledge-and-advice/Calf-management/
Vaccination
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DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
Concluding remarks
and acknowledgements
The aim of this booklet is to give you, the reader, a high degree of
understanding of where to focus your main efforts in order to be
successful with your calves, and of where it would be senseless and
counter-productive to cut corners, expressed by the ‘Do’s’ and ‘Avoids’
at the start of each section. Another aim is to provide you with a
detailed understanding of how to achieve high-quality calf management
and growth.
We have made this effort because we strongly believe basic
knowledge is the starting point and a perquisite of improvement.
As stated in the introduction to this booklet we are fully aware that
conditions differ around the globe and that everything cannot be
practiced everywhere, but all big changes begin with a first step.
We are proud to say that we have benefited from the invaluable,
unselfish support, input and expertise of some of the world’s leading
experts in this field. We wish to convey a special thanks to Catarina
Svensson of the Swedish University of Agriculture, and Anne Marie de
Passillé of the University of British Columbia, for their willingness to
share their wide knowledge and expertise in the field of calf feeding,
management and health.
Among those who have inspired us to write this booklet we would
particularly like to mention Ken Nordlund, of Madison Wisconsin
University, Mike van Amburgh of Cornell University and Jeffrey Rushen
of the University of British Columbia, who with their work on the
importance of nutrition and accelerated growth, management and
environmental impacts on calves gave us the initial impetus to embark
on this work.
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
73
74
Notes
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born
75
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Calf management
Lifetime productivity starts
when the calf is born
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