2
Counter-assertions, counter arguments,
hypothetical reasoning and assumptions
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
In this chapter students will learn to identify the following argument components:
counter-assertions, counter-arguments and hypothetical reasoning. They will consider the
nature of different claims. They will begin to work on argument notation. Students will be
introduced to assumptions, which are the unstated parts of an argument.
Components and their nature
hypothetical claim, which takes the form ‘if this, then
that’ to make a prediction.
This chapter extends the skill of analysis to include
additional parts of an argument. These components
Assumptions
help to give colour and subtlety to an argument.
Because argument is persuasive, and because we are
dealing with everyday reasoning, it is likely that people
will come to different conclusions about matters of
interest or importance. This means that considering –
and rejecting – how people will support a different, or
opposing, conclusion is an important part of supporting
your own conclusion.
Assumptions are slightly different from any other
argument component that candidates are asked to
identify, because they exist only as logical gaps in the
reasoning. But it is their very absence from the written
part of the argument that makes identifying them so
important and difficult. It is often precisely the hidden
part of someone’s attempts to persuade us that we most
need to know about.
A counter-assertion is the inclusion of a part of the
opposing argument, without citing the supporting
grounds or logical consequences. A counter-argument
Argument notation
includes at least one reason and a conclusion that differ
Student Book Chapter 2 pages 16–37
from the author’s own. In both cases, the inclusion of a
Specification 3.1.1 bullet 7
counter-position allows the author to seem to have taken
opposing views into account. The author might
Argument notation is a useful tool for students to become
acknowledge part of the counter-position: ‘That may be
familiar with. Rather than giving students additional
true, but it doesn’t mean that …’; alternatively they may
exercises to practise notation, you might find it most
show that this position is misguided or wrong. At this
useful to expect them to get into the habit of using it.
stage, students only need to recognise counter-argument,
Answers to activities will normally use this notation.
but it will be useful later if you encourage them to start
thinking about how they might give reasons to show that
a counter-assertion or counter-argument is wrong, or
doesn’t undermine their own conclusions. (Just
dismissing a counter-argument, having mentioned it,
suggests that you can’t respond to it.)
Learning objectives
• Use common notation for the component parts of
an argument.
• Understand and use counter-assertions and
counter-arguments.
• Understand the nature of different claims.
Counter-arguments, like arguments, consist of reasons
• Recognise simple hypothetical reasoning.
and conclusions, or ‘claims’. There are different sorts
• Understand the meaning of the term ‘assumptions’.
of claim such as opinion, fact or principle. One
• Identify assumptions in arguments.
particular form of claim considered in this chapter is a
• Phrase assumptions with precision.
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OCR AS Critical Thinking
2 Counter-assertions, counter-arguments, hypothetical reasoning and assumptions
Common problems
bear can allow even very bright students to play and
When asked to identify hypothetical reasoning, students
engage the creative parts of their brains, and to laugh
tend to go blank, or pick any sentence with an ‘if’ in it.
(often an aid to learning).
When asked to identify assumptions, many students
find it difficult to let go of their prior understanding of
‘assumption’ as something that is stated but unfounded
and might not be true.
Class activities
The assumptions we look at in Critical Thinking are,
specifically, gaps in the logic of the argument. They
are often unstated reasons. Remind students to ask:
Students who do attempt to identify missing steps in
‘What else do I have to agree with if I am going to
the reasoning often miss the mark by making their
accept the conclusion?’ Use the worksheet activities
assumption too strong or too weak.
one by one as class activities until students become
confident.
Strategies
Again, repetition is the key to students understanding
the meaning of the terms ‘assumption’ and
‘hypothetical reasoning’. To reinforce this
understanding, especially for less able students, ask
students to define a key term at the beginning of every
lesson. Play key terms bingo. Use the key terms grid
(Worksheet 4.2). Show students the definitions, then
ask them to fill in the words in groups and award
points.
Guidance to worksheet activities
Although this unit is not, strictly speaking, about
identifying conclusions, all the exercises ask students
to identify the conclusion. This is such an important
skill that there cannot be too much practice. Also, if
students are looking for a counter-assertion, they need
to know ‘counter to what’. If they are looking for an
assumption – a missing reason that has to be accepted
if the conclusion is to be accepted – it helps if they
know what the conclusion is.
Suggested activities
2.1 Foundation
Try the following technique with the key terms
1.
introduced in this chapter and to revise those from
Chapter 1. It can be effective as a filler or 5-minute fun
i)
b) CA: I have been advised to apply to L.S.E.
revision slot (with points or other suitable bribery
available) later in the course too.
a) C: I think I would like to study in Manchester.
ii) a) C: It did make sense to just buy a cheap desk.
b) CA: I thought we should buy some funky
Games for memory
Cover words or definitions on an OHP with a
cardboard cut-out of an animal – perhaps a fierce bear
bedroom furniture.
iii) a) C: I should look for an apprenticeship.
b) CA: (My friends tell me) I would be better off
(these can be traced from children’s books). Ask
going to uni.
students which critical thinking key term(s) the bear
has (or has not) eaten today. As more terms are
learned, you might show students up to ten terms for a
few seconds, then allow the bear to ‘eat’ them. Give
students a minute to write down as many of the ten as
they can remember. This trains their memories too,
2.
i)
a) C: I had better stay at home.
b) HR: If I do go out, I will spend lots of money.
ii) a) C: I’d better buy some King of the Jungle
which is useful. To extend this activity, ask students to
aftershave.
give you the definitions of the words rather than the
b) HR: If I get it wrong, she will think I’m a
words themselves. Of course, this can be done as a
hopeless geek.
‘straight’ activity without the bear, especially if your
students are on their dignity in a new college. But the
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iii) a) C: I’ll try to talk to him about it.
b) HR: If I tell him so, I might hurt his feelings.
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2 Counter-assertions, counter-arguments, hypothetical reasoning and assumptions
2.2 Core
the test – the teaching can place different and
interesting demands on students as well.
1.
i)
a) C: I’d better get the bus.
b) CAss: I don’t really want to spend £2.30 on the
bus fare.
2.4 Foundation
1.
i)
ii) a) C: We should just be sensible about being in the
sun.
b) and c) CArg: R – Strong sun can give you skin
ii) a) C: Laura killed Dave.
b) A: Dave was knifed. A: Laura used the knife.
A: Laura did not come in and pick up the knife
in afternoon sun.
2.
a) C: I should buy them for myself.
b) A: I can afford them.
cancer; C – You should never sunbathe or go out
i)
OCR AS Critical Thinking
after Dave was killed.
iii) a) C: Women will find you attractive.
a) C: It is a stupid idea to actually do this (take
b) A: You are not repulsive in every other way.
CDs from the shop without paying for them).
A: A statement that is generally true is true of a
b) CAss: Although it is very tempting to take CDs
specific individual.
from the shop without paying for them
c) N/A.
iv) a) C: I’ll see you then.
b) A: Your train will run on time.
d) If you take CDs from the shop without paying
for them you could get a criminal record.
ii) a) It was the right decision (to buy a clarinet).
2.
a) Because. b) Although, because. c) Although,
b) Although I really wanted to learn to play the
therefore. d) Some may argue that, therefore.
oboe.
e) Although, therefore.
c) N/A.
d) If I had bought an oboe I might have given up
quite quickly.
2.3 Extension
1. C: Astrology should be accorded its place as a
science.
2. CAss: There are those who accuse astrologers of
fraudulence and mystification.
3. HR: If you have your horoscope drawn properly
using your precise place and time of birth, you will
find that there are much closer links.
4. No, it does not support the conclusion well. It
assumes its conclusion to be true in order for the
2.5 Core
i)
a) C: Carlo Adducci should encourage young
singers.
b) A: He is at the top of his profession.
ii) a) C: We should encourage projects like this in
deprived areas of the UK.
b) A: The project is achieving its (social) aims.
iii) a) C: You should go.
b) A: You have never heard a boy band play live.
iv) a) C: You should become a veggie.
b) A: It is morally wrong to eat/kill sweet, furry
animals.
v) a) C: So I’ll carry on enjoying my rare steak.
reasoning to make sense (see Unit 2 Chapter 11),
b) A: If something is natural that makes it morally
redefines ‘evidence’, misunderstands scientific
acceptable/something natural cannot be morally
evidence, ignores coincidence … .
4. goes beyond the demands of Unit 1. In the exam
wrong. Something being natural is a good enough
reason to keep doing it.
students will only be asked whether the reasons and
evidence support the conclusion. But the exam is only
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OCR AS Critical Thinking
2 Counter-assertions, counter-arguments, hypothetical reasoning and assumptions
vi) a) C: So I should get the clothes.
b) A: I don’t want to stand out/there’s something
wrong with standing out.
vii) a) C: The government should stop spending our
money on this ‘art’.
b) A: The government should only spend ‘our’
money on things we like/don’t moan about.
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